Variants of language norms of the Russian language. Norm types

The existence of literary and non-literary (colloquial, colloquial) forms, their relationship and mutual influence determine the emergence and existence of the problem of language uniformity, its normativity. The problem of language normativity is one of the long-standing problems of linguistics. Despite the fact that the norm is the central concept of the theory of speech culture, there is still no generally accepted definition of it. The following definitions of a language norm are distinguished: a) a language norm is an exemplary rule, fixed by literary and scientific works, protected by science and the state, regulating the formation of words, their stress, pronunciation, etc.; b) a language norm is the use of language units recommended by dictionary and reference publications and supported by the authority of well-known figures in literature, art, science, education; c) a language norm is a model of word formation, inflection, word usage, and the formation of syntactic units (phrases and sentences) generally accepted in a given language community. Thus, a language norm should be understood as a rule, a model of word formation, inflection, word usage. A norm is a uniform, generally accepted use of elements of a language, the rules for their use in a certain period. The main sources of the norm include the works of classical writers; works by contemporary writers who continue the classical traditions; media publications; common modern usage; linguistic research data. However, we note here that compliance with authoritative sources (the works of famous writers or the works of famous scientists) is often considered almost the most important feature of a literary norm. However, it should be remembered that, for example, a work of art can reflect not only the literary language, but also dialects and vernacular, therefore, when highlighting norms based on observations of texts of fiction, it is necessary to distinguish, on the one hand, the actual author's speech, on the other hand , - the language of the characters. Some researchers believe that the most important feature of the literary norm is a purely quantitative factor - the degree of use of a linguistic phenomenon. However, it should be borne in mind that a high degree of use of a language variant, being important in determining the language norm, can also characterize speech errors. The norms are not invented by linguists, but reflect the natural processes and phenomena occurring in the language, supported by speech practice. The norms of the language cannot be introduced or canceled by decree, they cannot be reformed by administrative means. The activity of linguists studying language norms is different - they identify, describe and codify language norms, as well as explain and promote them. It can be argued that a linguistic phenomenon should be considered normative if it is characterized by the following features: compliance with the structure of the language; mass and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speakers; public approval and recognition.

1. Features of the language norm and its types.

2. Norms of Russian stress. orthoepic norms.

3. Grammatical correctness of speech.

4. Syntactic norms.

1. Features of the language norm and its types.

The most important feature of the culture of speech is its correctness, which is determined by the observance of literary norms.

The norm is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language, that is, the rules for pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means adopted in public language practice. A norm is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences). It is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language.

The norms of the literary language reflect the originality of the Russian national language, contribute to the preservation of the linguistic tradition, the cultural heritage of the past. Norms help to maintain their integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargons, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

Signs of the norm of the literary language: relative stability, common use, general obligatoriness, compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

There are norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), accentological (stress), spelling, word-formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic, punctuation.

The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Language means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be ridiculous in another (business communication). The norm does not divide funds into good and bad, but points to their communicative expediency.

Language norms are a historically changeable phenomenon. The sources of changing norms are different: colloquial speech, local dialects, professional jargons, works of modern writers, media language. The change of norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants, which really exist at a certain stage of its development, are actively used by its carriers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern Russian literary language. For example, in the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, the accented variants of the words “normirovat and normalize”, “thinking and thinking” are fixed as equal. Some variants of words are given with appropriate marks: cottage cheese and cottage cheese (colloquial), “agreement and agreement” (simple). If we turn to the "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language", then we can follow the fate of these options. So, the words “normalize” and “thinking” become more preferable, and their variants are marked “additional.” (permissible). With regard to “cottage cheese and cottage cheese” (colloquial), the norm has not changed, but the variant “agreement” has moved from the colloquial form to the colloquial one and has the mark “additional”.

Language norms are not invented by scientists, they reflect the natural processes and phenomena occurring in the language, and are supported by language practice. The main sources of the language norm include the works of writers - classics and modern writers, analysis of the language of the media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by scientists - linguists. As a result of the analysis of the above sources, the most common options are identified that are used equally; rarely seen or completely disappeared. This approach allows scientists to determine what is considered the norm, how it has changed. The indicators of various normative dictionaries give grounds to speak of three degrees of normativity:

Norm I degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;

Norm II degree - neutral, allowing equal options;

The norm of the III degree is more mobile, allows the use of colloquial, as well as obsolete forms.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature and art lead to the constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

According to the norms adopted and in force at any stage of the existence of the literary language, it is possible to determine what changes in relation to normalization have occurred and what are the trends in the further development of the norms of the literary language.

2.Norms of Russian stress. orthoepic norms.

The features and functions of stress are studied by the section of linguistics called accentology ( from lat. accentus - stress). Stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from other languages in which stress is assigned to some particular syllable. For example, in English, the stress falls on the first syllable, in Polish - on the penultimate one, in Armenian and French - on the last one. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable, which is why it is called heterogeneous.

In addition, stress can be mobile (when the word changes, the stress changes its place) and fixed (in all forms of the word, it falls on the same syllable). Most of the words in Russian have a fixed stress.

Stress is of great importance in Russian and performs different functions:

It affects the semantics of the word (cotton and cotton, carnations and carnations);

It indicates the grammatical form (hands - N. p. plural and hands - Gen. p. unit of number);

It helps to distinguish between the meaning of words and their forms (protein - Gen. P. pl. of the word "squirrel") and protein - Im. n. unit of the word, which means "an integral part of the egg").

The variability and mobility of stress often leads to errors (instead of beginning, understood, they pronounce beginning, understood).

The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases, since for some words there are variants of stress. At the same time, there are options that do not violate the norm (cottage cheese, normalize, thinking). In other cases, one of the accents is considered incorrect (kitchen, petition). In addition, a number of stress variants are associated with the professional sphere of use. There are words in which a specific stress is traditionally accepted only in a narrowly professional environment, in any other setting it is perceived as a mistake:

Spark - in professional speech "spark";

epilepsy - in professional speech "epilepsy";

compass - in professional speech "compass", etc.

In order to avoid mistakes in setting the stress, one should know not only the norm, but also the types of options, as well as the conditions under which one or another option can be used. To do this, refer to special dictionaries and reference books. It is best to use the “Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language” or the “Stress Dictionary for Radio and Television Workers” (compiled by F.A. Ageenko, M.V. Zarva, edited by D.E. Rozental). The peculiarity of this dictionary is that it captures only the preferred option. The correct stress is also given in spelling and explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language.

Orthoepic norms- these are pronunciation norms of oral speech, they are studied by orthoepy (from the Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech) - a special section of linguistics. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words.

Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is of great importance. Orthoepic errors always interfere with perceiving the content of speech: the listener's attention is distracted by various pronunciation irregularities and the statement is not fully perceived. Pronunciation, corresponding to orthoepic norms, facilitates and speeds up the process of communication. Therefore, the social role of correct pronunciation is very great, especially at the present time, when oral speech has entered such areas as the scientific world, business communication, and the media.

Basic rules for pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, only stressed vowels are in a strong position, and therefore are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose their clarity and clarity of sound, they are pronounced with weakened articulation. This is called the reduction process.

1. The vowels "A" and "O" at the beginning of the word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: [a] enemy, [a] vt [a] nomia, they say [a] ko. In other positions, i.e. in all unstressed syllables, except for the first pre-stressed one, in place of the letters O and A after solid consonants, a very short (highly reduced) obscure sound is pronounced, which is indicated by [b]: g [b] lova, st [b] rona, d [b] horny, city [b] d, etc.

2. The letters "E" and "I" in the pre-stressed syllable denote a sound that is intermediate between [e] and [i]. Conventionally, this sound is designated [ie]: p[ie] so, p[ie] ro.

3. The vowel “I” after a solid consonant, preposition or with a continuous pronunciation of the word with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: honey [s] institute, from [s] hiding, laughter [s] grief.

The absence of vowel reduction interferes with the normal perception of speech, as it reflects not the literary norm, but dialectal features. So, for example, the letter-by-letter, unreduced pronunciation of the word [milk] is perceived by us as a rounding dialect, and the replacement of unstressed vowels with [a] without reduction [malako] is perceived as a strong akanye.

Pronunciation of consonants. The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation.

1. In Russian speech, voiced consonants are obligatory stunned at the end of a word: bread [p], sa [t], lyubo [f]. This stunning is one of the characteristic features of literary speech. It should be noted that the sound [g] at the end of the word always goes into its pair [k]: le [k], vice [k]. Pronunciation in such cases [x] is unacceptable as a dialect, the only exception is the word "god" - bo[x].

2. In a position before vowels, sonorant consonants and [v] the sound [g] is pronounced as a voiced explosive consonant. Only in a few words, Old Church Slavonic in origin - bo[y]a, [y] Lord, bla[y]o, bo[y]aty and derivatives from them, does the fricative back-lingual consonant [y] sound. Moreover, at the present stage of development of the Russian language, the pronunciation of these words also occurs with [g]. It is the most stable in the word [y] Lord.

[G] is pronounced like [x] in combinations of GC and HF: le [hk] y, le [hk] o.

3. In combinations of voiced and deaf consonants (as well as deaf and voiced), the first of them is likened to the second, that is, the process of stunning (lo [sh] ka, pro [n] ka) or voicing ([z] destroy, [ h] beat).

4. Assimilation occurs in consonant combinations. The combination of SS and ZSH is pronounced like a long hard consonant: ni [w] Iy, you [w] y, ra [w] were able, etc.

5. Combinations ZZh and ZhZh inside the root are pronounced as a long soft sound [g]. Currently, instead of a long soft [g], a long hard [g] is pronounced. Both norms are normative: according to [g]e and according to [g]e.

6. The combination of midrange is pronounced as a long soft sound [w], just as it is transmitted in writing by the letter Sh: [sh] astier - happiness, [sh] et - account.

7. You should pay attention to the combination of CHN, since mistakes are often made in its pronunciation. In the pronunciation of words with this combination, there is hesitation, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow dialect. According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination CHN is pronounced [ch], this especially applies to words of book origin (greedy, careless), as well as to words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing).

The pronunciation [shn] instead of the orthographic CHN is currently required in female patronymics on - ICHNA: Ilyini [shn] a, Lukini [shn] a, and is also preserved in separate words: kone [shn] o, pere[shn] ica, prache [shn] aya, empty [shn] yy, square [shn] ik, eggs [shn] ica, etc.

Some words with a combination of CHN are pronounced in two ways: order [ch] o and order [sh] but, bulo [ch] aya and bulo [shn] aya. In some cases, a different pronunciation serves to semantic differentiation of the words: heart disease and heart [shn] friend.

Pronunciation of loanwords, as a rule, obeys orthoepic norms and only in rare cases differs in features in pronunciation. For example, sometimes the pronunciation of the sound [o] is preserved in unstressed syllables: [o] tel, m [o] del, [o] asis; and hard consonants before the front vowel [e]: st [e] nd, code [e] ks, kashn [e]. In most borrowed words, the consonants soften before [e]: ka[te] t, faculty [e] t, mu[ze] y, [re] ctor, etc. Always before [e] back-lingual consonants are softened: pa [ke] t, [ke] gli, s [he] ma.

2.grammatical correctness of speech.

2.1. The use of noun forms.

The noun rightfully occupies the most important place in the composition of the morphological resources of the Russian language. Their use in comparison with other parts of speech varies depending on the content of the text, its stylistic affiliation, the functional-semantic type of speech, and the writer's intention. Most often, nouns are used in official - business, scientific, journalistic styles. Morphological norms determine the correct use of variable endings and suffixes of nouns, as well as the use of the correct gender and number.

Hesitation in the genus observed in inflected nouns.

Indeclinable foreign words denoting inanimate objects belong to the middle gender: straight highway, lush frill, fixed-route taxi, healing aloe, etc. Exceptions: take - take(generic term "disease"), avenue("the street"), salami("sausage"), kohlrabi("cabbage") - to the feminine gender;

sirocco("wind" ), penalty("hit"), Hindi, Bengali("language") - to the masculine gender. The name of drinks can be used in the masculine and neuter gender, and in modern use the first option is preferable: Scotch whisky, excellent mocha, delicious bibabo.

Indeclinable foreign words denoting animals, birds, insects are masculine: green cockatoo, small grizzly, gray kangaroo. Exceptions: iwashi("fish, herring ”), tsetse("fly"), hummingbird("bird") . Foreign names of animals are masculine regardless of the sex of the animal. However, if the context indicates a female, then the corresponding words are preferably used in the feminine: chimpanzee feeding her baby.

Indeclinable nouns denoting persons are masculine or feminine, depending on the correlation with a real person: old lady, gorgeous miss, London dandy, tired coolie("laborer" ). The words are bigeneric: incognito, vis-a-vis, protégé(cf.: the mysterious incognito suddenly disappeared - the mysterious incognito suddenly disappeared).

The word "jury" (having a collective meaning) refers to the middle gender.

The gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names is determined by the grammatical gender of the common noun, which acts as a generic concept: sunny Sochi("city"), wide Mississippi("river"), deep erie("lake"). Exception: Beshtau- m.r. (influence of the neighboring mountain Mashuk).

By generic name, the genus of indeclinable press organs is determined: The Times("newspaper") published…; "Figaro literer"("magazine") ... published. Found in colloquial speech The Times published...(the name with a final consonant is assigned to the masculine gender).

Compound words (abbreviations) formed by combining initial letters determine their grammatical gender according to the gender of the main word of the name: Moscow State University- m.r. ("university") CIS- s.r. ("commonwealth"). But, if the division of the statement is difficult or unusual, then we determine the gender at the end of the abbreviation: AIDS- m.r., UFO- s.r., RCC- m.r.

Substantiated indeclinable nouns are neuter: polite “hello”, categorical “but”, bright tomorrow.

Declension of anthroponyms (names and surnames)

1. Ukrainian surnames on - ENKO AND - KO are not inclined (to Korolenko, to Klitschko).

2. Surnames on CONSENT and on - Y are inclined if they denote males,

do not decline when referring to females:

OK, -EK, EC ( Yuriy Korinets, Maria Korinets; Alexandra Pochinok, Alexandra Pochinok), if -OK, - EK, - EC are a suffix, then the surnames are declined without dropping a vowel ( Crustacean - Crustacean, Pepper - Pepper);

H ( at Sasha Vulich, from Maria Romanovich);

Y ( Babiy - Babiy; Shamray – Shamray);

Surnames coinciding with common nouns, geographical names, names of animals, birds, insects, professions are not declined if they refer to females.

3. Surnames on - ЫХ, - THEM are not inclined ( Chernykh, Plesovsky)

4. Russian male surnames on - OV, -IN in T.p. unit ending - YM ( Putin, Pushkin), and foreign surnames have the ending -OM ( Darwin).

5. Male and female surnames in -OVO, -AKO, -AGO, -IAGO do not decline.

6. Georgian and Greek surnames on - And, -E, -U do not decline ( Take, Khalashvili, Beridze, Shalau, Botulu); But surnames like Okudzhav a, Chikobav a bow down.

7. Foreign and Russian surnames ending in unstressed -A are inclined. ( Piekha), if Surnames on - A and - I coincide with common nouns (with the names of the position of people (Orphan), animals, birds, insects, objects of nicknames (Fish, Book, Grave) in official speech they do not decline, in colloquial declension is possible, which is connected with the desire to breed a proper name and a common noun.

8. If the surname coincides in sound with the names, then a declined and a non-inclined variant is possible.

9. Rare surnames formed from combinations of a verb and a noun in V.p. do not decline ( Zabeyvorota, Namniboka), as opposed to surnames like Podoprigora, Nagnibed, who bow.

10. Foreign surnames do not decline to vowel.

11. Surnames of Polish and Czech origin in -SKA, -UKA are inclined according to the model of the noun MASK ( Jablonska, Mamuka) .

12. Non-Slavic names are not inclined to - O ( Leonardo, Othello).

Declension of toponyms (place names)

1. Geographical names on -OV (O), - EV (O), -IN (O), - ЫН (О) in modern Russian function in inflected and indeclinable versions. In an invariable form, these names are used in the following cases: a) with words denoting generic concepts ( at Likhovo station, in the village of Belkino); b) when matching with surnames ( I live in Pushkino); c) if the name is in quotation marks (near the Golovlevo farm).

a) toponyms on - A:

Borrowed names are inclined for a long time, as well as well-known names on the territory of the former USSR (in Lausanne, from Geneva, in Makhachkala from Klaipeda);

Compound names borrowed from Spanish, Italian and other languages \u200b\u200bare not inclined (from Santiago - de - Cuba); as a rule, Japanese names are not inclined (in Osaka, in Sunagawa);

Decline French place names like Toulouse Geneva, the note is not inclined with the stress on the last syllable (Gra, Spa, Le - Dora).

b) toponyms in - O, - E do not decline (Oslo, Tokyo, Sorrento);

c) toponyms on - Y are inclined (in Cheboksary, in Thebes);

d) toponyms in - And do not decline (Tbilisi, Sukhimi, Chile).

3. Consonant toponyms are consistently and regularly declined. Names (Russian or long-established) used with generic terms are inclined (in the city of Rostov, in the village of Samarskoye, etc.) Exactly, in the city of Sumy).

4. The names of principalities, duchies, states, provinces are not inclined (in the principality of Liechtenstein, in the state of California).

5, The names of lakes, tracts, islands, mountains, deserts, capes are not inclined (in the Sahara Desert, on Cape Chelyuskin, near Lake Baikal).

5. Names in - FL represent a complex case of declension. All Slavic toponyms - applications decline ( in the Republic of Bulgaria). Toponyms of other origin are inclined in newspaper and colloquial speech, not in official documents ( Ambassador of the Republic of Germany).

6. Geographical names representing the full forms of adjectives are declined together with generic concepts ( on Mount Zheleznaya, to Kamensky Island).

7. Compound names are subject to the following rules:

Both parts are inclined if the toponym is Russian or a long-established name ( in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky);

Names with closely welded elements are not inclined (Spas - Zaulok, Ust - Labinsk);

The first part of foreign toponyms, as a rule, does not decline (in Alma-Ata, near Buenos-Aires). The exception is toponyms with the name of the river (in Frankfurt am Main).

2.2. Adjective.

Adjective forms. There are a number of semantic, grammatical and stylistic differences between the full and short forms of the adjective.

1. Full and short forms may differ in meaning: deaf from birth - deaf to requests.

2. Full forms usually denote a permanent symptom, short ones - temporary (the so-called qualitative state): a woman is sick - a woman is sick. The full form can also denote an absolute sign, a short relative one, in relation to a certain situation: the ceiling is low - the ceiling is low (for someone or something).

3. The long and short forms can govern nouns differently: I'm ready to leave, he's prone to a cold,

4. The short form is usually more categorical: the decision is thought out and objective - the decision is thought out and objective.

5. The short form is more preferable in book-written forms of speech - scientific and official - business styles.

Degrees of comparison of the adjective: education and use.

Degrees of comparison, as is known, have only quality adjectives. To form a simple comparative degree, suffixes are used - EE (- YE), - E, - SHE. But not all qualitative adjectives form a simple comparative degree. Restrictions in education can be associated with semantic, structural and accentological factors, which is reflected in the classification:

a) semantic restrictions:

The adjective denotes the so-called absolute sign: dead, mute;

The adjective names the colors of animals: crow, bay;

The adjective denotes colors such as burgundy, blue, lilac, purple and some others;

b) structural constraints:

Adjectives have the suffix -AT or -OVAT: toothed, striped, roundish, heavy;

Adjectives have the suffix -L: seasoned, sunken;

Adjectives have the suffix -SK: fraternal, comic;

c) accentological restrictions: the adjective has a suffix - OB or - N- and a stressed ending - OY: free, manual.

2.3. Numeral.

Declension of numerals. Cardinal numbers are declined as follows:

P.	50-60	200-400	500-900
AND.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
R.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
D.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
AT.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
T.	fifty	three hundred	six hundred
P.	about fifty	about three hundred	about six hundred

1. In normative speech, all parts of the compound quantitative numeral are declined: pay off two hundred and sixty-seven rubles.

2. In the ordinal number, only the last word is declined: three hundred and seventy-first in turn.

3. Numerals FORTY, NINETY, HUNDRED, as well as 150, 150 have only two forms: for the I. and V. cases, another for all the others with the ending - A: forty, ninety, one hundred.

4. Numerals ONE THOUSAND has in T.p. unit form THOUSAND, and the noun is one THOUSAND.

5. Of the two options eight and eight the first is bookish, the second is colloquial.

The use of collective nouns. Collective numerals is a closed group of words, which includes 9 numerals (2-10). Collective numerals are formed from quantitative ones, but differ from them in features of compatibility:

1. Collective nouns combine with male nouns and do not combine with female names: two doctors, but two nurses; three soldiers, two students. The restrictions are only stylistic in nature: in strictly normalized speech there are no combinations of the type: two generals, two associate professors.

2. Collective numerals are combined with nouns CHILDREN, PEOPLE, PERSONS, PERSON, as well as with personal pronouns WE, YOU, THEY: two of us, three people, five children.

3. Collective numerals are combined with substantiated adjectives and participles with the meaning of a person: two prisoners, three managers.

4. Collective numbers are combined with the names of baby animals, but are not used with the name of adult animals: seven kittens, but seven cats.

5. Collective numbers are combined with nouns that are used only in the plural: two days, three sledges.

And also with nouns that have a couple: two gloves, three pants.

3. syntactic rules.

Syntax is a system of linguistic means and types of combining words into more complex structures (phrase, sentence, complex syntactic whole). The initial unit of syntax is the word.

Syntactic norms are historically established and theoretically meaningful rules for linking words into grammatical structures, such as sentences and phrases.

In modern speech, syntactic errors are often found, consisting in a violation of the order of words; incorrect coordination and management; mixing direct and indirect speech; the use of isolated members of the sentence in constructions that are unacceptable for them.

Violation of the order of words in a sentence.

Modern Russian has a free word order. Distinguish between direct and indirect word order. In direct word order, the predicate is placed after the subject; an agreed definition is placed before the word being defined, and an inconsistent one after; the complement comes after the predicate; the circumstance is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence or next to the predicate. Indirect word order is not erroneous, it is called inversion. Changes in the order of words are always associated with a change in meaning, most often with an increase in expression, introduced by the grammatical means of the language. Inversion is a figure of speech in which the words are not in the order required by the grammar rule: She turned pale, like a shroud, turned cold, like dew, Her scythe developed like a soul-snake.

In some cases, word order determines the meaning of the statement: Mother loves daughter. The daughter loves her mother. In cases of coincidence of forms by Im. p. and Vin. P. should use constructions with direct word order, otherwise ambiguity is inevitable : Villages and villages are served by dozens of agronomists. Staff turnover creates a careless attitude of the administration.

The place of the subordinate clause in a complex sentence may also be important. So, conditional (relating to one word, and not to the entire main part) subordinate clauses must appear immediately after the word being defined, otherwise grammatical incorrectness will lead to a semantic error: Similar phenomena can be found in Russian prose and poetry even today, against which the angry words of a publicist are directed.

Coordination and management in modern Russian.

The grammatical system of the Russian language includes three main types of subordination: coordination, control, connection. Coordination is the acquisition of word-dependent grammatical meanings of the main word. The adjectival use is in the same form as the noun, that is, it acquires the same grammatical meanings. When the form of the noun changes, the form of the dependent adjective must also change.

At management the dependent word is put in a specific form required by the main word: advantage over whom?; superiority over whom?; pay for what? pay for what? fee for what?; payment for what? payment for what? If in the phrase the main word is a noun or another nominal part of speech, then they say about nominal management; if the main word is a verb, the control is called verbal.

A special type of agreement between the predicate and the subject is called coordination. The difficulty is the choice of the form of the predicate, if the subject is expressed by a quantitative-nominal combination. Here are some rules that determine the norms of agreement (coordination) of the subject with the predicate.

1. If the subject includes a noun with a value of an indefinite amount ( mass, heap, heap etc.), then the predicate is put in the form of units. h. A lot of time was spent on preparation.

2. If the statement conveys the joint action of several persons, then the predicate can stand both in the singular form and in the plural form: Grandfather and granddaughter came to visit; Brother and sister went to the village. The choice of one of the two possible forms of agreement of the predicate depends on the semantic correlation of the action and its producer. In the first case, the whole combination will be the subject, in the second - only the noun in it. P., noun in creative p. - addition.

3. If the subject includes numerals ( two, three, four and etc.), then the predicate is put in the form of plural. h. Two people arrived late. Although in this case another option is also possible - conditional agreement in the form of units. h. wed r., because the numeral has no category of number at all.

4. If the subject includes nouns with the meaning of a certain amount ( three, couple, hundred etc.), then the predicate is put in the singular form: Three horses are harnessed to a wagon.

5. If the subject, which includes numerals, is preceded by restrictive particles ( everything, only, only Only five people came to class.

6. If the subject includes nouns with the meaning of the time period ( hour, day, year etc.), then the predicate is put in the form of units. hours: Two years have passed.

7. If the subject includes a compound number ending in one (thirty-one, two hundred and eighty-one, one hundred and sixty-one etc.), then the predicate is put in the singular form: One hundred and twenty one students took part in the conference.

8. If the subject includes numerals thousand, million, billion, then the predicate is put in the singular form: Thousands of people showed up for the subbotnik.

9. If with a collective noun there are several controlled words in the form genus. P. plural, which reinforces the idea of the plurality of producers of action, then the predicate is put in the form of plural: Most of my habits and tastes did not please him.

10. If there are homogeneous predicates with the subject, then they are put in the plural: Most of the part-time students completed all the tests in a timely manner, passed the tests and prepared well for the exams;

If the verb that plays the role of the predicate is in the past tense or conditional mood, then the predicate is consistent with the pronoun who in the masculine and singular, but with a pronoun what in the neuter gender and singular: Who's come?- but not Who came?(even if we are talking about several people); What happened?

When agreeing on a predicate with a subject that has an application, the following should be borne in mind:

a) the predicate is consistent with the subject, therefore the gender and number of the noun-application does not affect the form of the predicate: The girl-pilot skillfully drove the car;

b) when a generic name and a specific name are combined, the function of the subject is performed by the first, denoting a broader concept, and the predicate is consistent with this word: St. John's wort grew throughout the clearing;

c) When a common noun is combined with the proper name of a person, the latter acts as the subject, and the predicate agrees with it: The new accountant Irina Petrovna went to work.

Other proper names (names of animals, geographical names, names of press organs, etc.) are applications, and the predicate is consistent with the common noun, for example: The dog Trezor barked loudly (38).

When agreeing the predicate with complex nouns that form compound terms like cafe-dining room, semantic relationships between frequent compound words are taken into account. The leading component with which the predicate agrees is the word that expresses a broader concept or specifically denotes an object: cafe-dining room renovated (dining room - broader concept) vending machine open(the carrier of a specific meaning is the word diner); the chair-bed was in the corner(one of the types of chairs is conceived, the second part acts as a clarifying one); raincoat tent lay folded(tent in the form of a raincoat, not a raincoat in the form of a tent).

The order of parts of a complex name also plays a role, the inclination or non-inclination of one of the components, context conditions:

1. Usually the leading word is in the first place, with which the predicate agrees, for example: children liked the toy car ( compare: children liked the car toy); the library-museum acquired the writer's unpublished manuscripts; showcase-stand changed in the hall.

2. If a non-leading word is in the first place, then in such combinations, as a rule, it does not decline, which serves as the basis for coordinating the predicate with the second word of a complex name: "Roman-newspaper" was published in large circulation(cf .: in "Roman-gazeta" ...); raincoat rolled up ( compare: cover yourself with a raincoat).

3. The influence of the context, in particular the lexical meaning of the predicate, affects the choice of the form of the predicate, cf .: the scale car is attached to the train. – A standard weighing wagon was designed, accurately measuring a given amount of ores (38).

The definition for common nouns is put in the form of masculine or feminine, depending on what gender the person denotes by this noun: This simpleton is able to confuse everything in the world(about a man); This dormouse sleeps all day(about a woman).

Words like celebrity, personality, person etc., are not common nouns, so the definitions agree with them grammatically, i.e. are put in the feminine form and in those cases when they denote males: There's a new identity on our horizon(A.P. Chekhov); There was an important person in the city - the capital's actor.

Also, many masculine nouns denoting a person by profession, specialty, position held, which do not have paired feminine equivalents, are not common gender words, the so-called masculisms. Definitions for such words are put in the masculine form: she is an experienced teacher, she is a famous master of sports.

An incorrect combination of words can be caused by a mixture of nominal and verbal control. It must be borne in mind that with a verb, the dependent word can be used in one grammatical

These are the rules for the use of existing language means in a specific historical period in the evolution of the literary language (a set of rules for spelling, grammar, pronunciation, word usage).

The concept of a language norm is usually interpreted as an example of the generally accepted uniform use of such elements of the language as phrases, words, sentences.

The considered norms are not the result of fiction of philologists. They reflect a certain stage in the evolution of the literary language of an entire people. Language norms cannot simply be introduced or abolished, they cannot be reformed even administratively. The activities of linguists who study these norms are their identification, description and codification, as well as clarification and promotion.

Literary language and language norm

According to the interpretation of B. N. Golovin, the norm is the choice of the only one among the various functional variations of a linguistic sign, historically accepted within a certain linguistic community. In his opinion, she is the regulator of the speech behavior of many people.

The literary and linguistic norm is a contradictory and complex phenomenon. There are various interpretations of this concept in the linguistic literature of the modern era. The main difficulty in determining is the presence of mutually exclusive features.

Distinctive features of the concept under consideration

It is customary to distinguish the following features of language norms in literature:

1.Stability (stability), thanks to which the literary language unites generations due to the fact that the norms of the language ensure the continuity of linguistic and cultural traditions. However, this feature is considered relative, because the literary language is constantly evolving, while allowing changes in existing norms.

2. The degree of occurrence of the phenomenon under consideration. Nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that a significant level of use of the corresponding language variant (as a fundamental feature in determining the literary and linguistic norm), as a rule, also characterizes certain speech errors. For example, in colloquial speech, the definition of a language norm boils down to the fact that it is “frequently occurring”.

3.Compliance with an authoritative source(works of well-known writers). But do not forget that literary works reflect both the literary language and dialects, vernacular, therefore, when delineating norms, based on the observation of texts of predominantly fiction, it is necessary to distinguish between the author's speech and the language of the characters in the work.

The concept of a linguistic norm (literary) is associated with the internal laws of the evolution of a language, and on the other hand, it is determined by the purely cultural traditions of society (what is approved by it and protected, and what it fights and condemns).

Variety of language norms

The literary and linguistic norm is codified (acquires official recognition and is subsequently described in reference books, dictionaries that have authority in society).

There are the following types of language norms:

The types of language norms presented above are considered to be the main ones.

Typology of language norms

It is customary to distinguish the following norms:

oral and written forms of speech;
only oral;
only written.

The types of language norms related to both oral and written speech are as follows:

lexical;
stylistic;
grammatical.

Special norms of exclusively written speech are:

spelling standards;
punctuation.

The following types of language norms are also distinguished:

pronunciation;
intonation;
accents.

They apply only to the oral form of speech.

The language norms that are common to both forms of speech relate mainly to the construction of texts and linguistic content. Lexical ones (a set of norms of word usage), on the contrary, are decisive in the issue of the correct choice of a suitable word among linguistic units that are close enough to it in form or meaning and its use in a literary meaning.

Lexical language norms are displayed in dictionaries (explanatory, foreign words, terminological), reference books. It is the observance of this kind of norms that is the key to the accuracy and correctness of speech.

Violation of language norms leads to numerous lexical errors. Their number is constantly growing. The following examples of language norms that have been violated can be cited:

Variants of language norms

They involve four steps:

1. The only form is dominant, and the alternative is considered to be incorrect, since it is beyond the boundaries of the literary language (for example, in the 18th-19th centuries the word "turner" is the only correct option).

2. An alternative variant sneaks into the literary language as an admissible one (marked "additional") and acts either colloquially (marked "colloquial") or equal in rights with respect to the original norm (marked "and"). Hesitation regarding the word "turner" began to appear at the end of the 19th century and continued until the beginning of the 20th century.

3. The original norm is rapidly fading away and gives way to an alternative (competing) one, it acquires the status of obsolete (marked “obsolete.”). Thus, the aforementioned word “turner”, according to Ushakov’s dictionary, is considered obsolete.

4. Competing norm as the only one within the literary language. In accordance with the dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language, the previously presented word "turner" is considered the only option (literary norm).

It is worth noting the fact that the only possible strict language norms are present in the announcer's, teaching, stage, oratorical speech. In everyday speech, the literary norm is freer.

The relationship between the culture of speech and language norms

Firstly, the culture of speech is the possession of the literary norms of the language in written and oral form, as well as the ability to correctly select, organize certain language means in such a way that in a particular situation of communication or in the process of observing its ethics, the greatest effect is ensured in achieving the intended objectives of communication. .

And secondly, this is the area of linguistics, which deals with the problems of speech normalization and develops recommendations regarding the skillful use of the language.

The culture of speech is divided into three components:

Language norms are a hallmark of the literary language.

Language norms in business style

They are the same as in the literary language, namely:

the word must be used according to the lexical meaning;
taking into account the stylistic coloring;
according to lexical compatibility.

These are the lexical language norms of the Russian language within the business style.

For this style, it is extremely important to match the qualities that determine the parameter of the effectiveness of business communication (literacy). This quality also implies knowledge of the existing rules of word usage, sentence patterns, grammatical compatibility, and the ability to delimit the scope of the language.

At present, the Russian language has many variant forms, some of which are used in the framework of book and written styles of speech, and some - in colloquial and everyday. In a business style, forms of special codified written speech are used due to the fact that only their observance ensures the accuracy and correctness of information transmission.

This may include:

wrong choice of word form;
a number of violations regarding the structure of the phrase, sentence;
The most common mistake is the use of incompatible colloquial forms of plural nouns in written speech that end in -а / -я, instead of normative ones in -и / -ы. Examples are presented in the table below.

literary norm	Colloquial speech
Treaties	Agreements
Correctors	Corrector
Inspectors	Inspector

It is worth remembering that the following nouns have the form with a zero ending:

paired items (boots, stockings, boots, but socks);
names of nationalities and territorial affiliation (Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Kyivans, Armenians, British, southerners);
military groups (cadets, partisans, soldiers);
units of measurement (volt, arshin, roentgen, ampere, watt, micron, but grams, kilograms).

These are the grammatical language norms of Russian speech.

Sources of the language norm

There are at least five of them:

The role of the norms under consideration

They help to preserve the literary language its integrity, general intelligibility. Norms protect him from dialect speech, professional and social slang, and vernacular. This is what makes it possible for the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

The norm depends on the conditions under which the speech is realized. Language means that are appropriate in everyday communication may be unacceptable in official business. The norm does not distinguish between linguistic means according to the criteria "good - bad", but clarifies their expediency (communicative).

The norms under consideration are the so-called historical phenomenon. Their change is due to the continuous development of the language. The norms of the last century may now be deviations. For example, in the 30s and 40s. such words as diploma student and graduate student (a student who performs a thesis) were considered identical. At that time, the word "graduate student" was a colloquial version of the word "diploma student". Within the framework of the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a division of the meaning of the presented words: a diploma student is a student during the defense of a diploma, and a diploma student is a winner of competitions, competitions, reviews marked with a diploma (for example, a student of the International Review of Vocalists).

Also in the 30's and 40's. the word "applicant" was used to refer to persons who graduated from high school or entered a university. At present, those graduating from high school have begun to be called graduates, and the entrant in this sense is no longer used. They are called persons who take entrance exams to technical schools and universities.

Norms such as pronunciation are peculiar exclusively to oral speech. But not everything that is characteristic of oral speech can be attributed to pronunciation. Intonation is a rather important means of expressiveness, giving an emotional coloring to speech, and diction is not pronunciation.

As for stress, it refers to oral speech, however, despite the fact that this is a sign of a word or grammatical form, it still belongs to grammar and vocabulary, and does not act as a characteristic of pronunciation in its essence.

So, orthoepy indicates the proper pronunciation of certain sounds in the corresponding phonetic positions and in combination with other sounds, and even in some grammatical groups of words and forms or in individual words, provided that they have their own pronunciation features.

In view of the fact that language is a means of human communication, it needs to unify oral and written design. Just like spelling errors, mispronunciation draws attention to speech from its outside, which acts as a hindrance in the course of language communication. Since orthoepy is one of the aspects of the culture of speech, it has the task of contributing to the raising of the pronunciation culture of our language.

The conscious cultivation of precisely the literary pronunciation on the radio, in the cinema, the theater, and in school is of very significant importance in relation to the mastering of the literary language by the masses of many millions.

Vocabulary norms are such norms that determine the correct choice of a suitable word, the appropriateness of its use within the framework of a well-known meaning and in combinations that are considered generally accepted. The exceptional importance of their observance is determined by both cultural factors and the need for mutual understanding of people.

An essential factor determining the significance of the concept of norms for linguistics is the assessment of the possibilities of its application in various types of linguistic research work.

To date, there are such aspects and areas of research in which the concept under consideration can become productive:

Study of the nature of the functioning and implementation of various kinds of language structures (including the establishment of their productivity, distribution over various functional areas of the language).
The study of the historical aspect of language changes in relatively short time periods (“microhistory”), when both minor shifts in the structure of the language and significant changes in its functioning and implementation are revealed.

Degrees of normativity

A rigid, strict degree that does not allow for alternatives.
Neutral, allowing equivalent options.
A more mobile degree that allows the use of colloquial or obsolete forms.

The most important sign of the culture of speech is its correctness. The correctness of speech is determined by the observance of the norms inherent in the literary language.

Norm - the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language. The norm is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences). The norm is obligatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language.

Language norms are not invented by philologists, they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the whole people. The norms of the language cannot be introduced or canceled by decree, they cannot be reformed by administrative means.

Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargons, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - cultural.

A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of a language system, selected and fixed in the process of public communication.

The variability of a linguistic sign is the competitiveness of the means of expression, as a result of which the most convenient and expedient options win (for example: cottage cheese - cottage cheese, contracts - contracts, bulo [ch] aya - bulo [shn] aya, etc.).

The coexistence of parallel, or variant, forms is a common phenomenon in a living literary language. Many believe that the presence of such doublets is an imperfection, a disease of the language. However, this reasoning is deeply flawed. Form variation is an objective and inevitable consequence of linguistic evolution. Language develops and improves slowly, gradually. "Language changes while remaining itself." In this sense, the presence of variation, i.e., the stage of coexistence of the old and the new quality, is not only not harmful, but even expedient. The options seem to help us get used to the new form, make the shift in the norm less tangible and painful.

In addition to the fact that the options seem to support the continuity of speech skills, many of them are not identical and narrower, therefore, cannot be considered redundant, like a ballast of our speech. On the contrary, the functional load inherent in variants turns them into an important stylistic means of the literary language, which, along with synonymy, contributes to the clarification of thought. For example, teachers of secondary schools are called teachers, but when it comes to the founders of a teaching, they usually use the variant teachers. In a strictly official speech, they speak and write on vacation, in the workshop; in a casual conversation, forms are acceptable on vacation, in the workshop.

In the process of development of the literary language, the quantity and quality of variants does not remain constant. The fluctuation continues for a more or less long period, after which the options either diverge in meaning, acquiring the status of independent words (for example, ignorant and ignorant), or the productive variant completely displaces its competitor.

In general, the history of the Russian literary language is characterized by a certain reduction in the number of variants. The main reasons for this are the weakening of the influence of territorial dialects and "fashionable" foreign languages, the strengthening of the role of the written form of speech and conscious unification in the field of spelling and orthoepy. There was also a qualitative change in the ratio of variants: many parallel forms, previously used indifferently as complete doublets, received functional specialization. Thus, the coexistence of numerous variant forms at all language levels (accentological, morphological, etc.) is an indisputable fact of the modern Russian literary language. Because of the availability of options and the need for choice, in essence, the acute problem of the norm arises.

The concept of a norm is closely associated with the idea of correct, literary literate speech, which is one of the sides of a person's general culture. The nature of the norm is two-sided: on the one hand, it contains the objective properties of the language (the norm is the realized possibility of the language), on the other hand, public taste assessments (the norm is a stable way of expression fixed in the best examples of writing, preferred by the educated part of society). The norm is historically mobile, but at the same time stable and traditional.

From the point of view of compulsion, the norm is divided into imperative (mandatory, universal, non-variant) and dispositive (allowing the choice of options). For example: alphabet - obligatory stress, and phenomenon - phenomenon - variable. Variative norms are divided into older and younger: the older one is earlier in time of occurrence and reflects the tradition of use (plum [shn]ny, pemtlya), and the younger one is later, reflecting the latest trends in the development of the language (plum [ch]ny, loop? ). The norm can also be general language (fixed in dictionaries, used by all native speakers) and stylistic (characterizing professional speech) - cf.

Depending on the level of the language, the norms are divided into:

- spelling and punctuation (characterizing only written varieties of speech);
- orthoepic (inherent only in oral speech);
- lexical, morphological, syntactic and stylistic (inherent in both oral and written varieties of speech).

The norms common to oral and written speech relate to the linguistic content and construction of texts. Lexical norms, or norms of word usage, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.

Lexical norms are reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.

Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.

Their violation leads to lexical errors of various types:

- incorrect choice of a word from a number of units, including the mixing of paronyms, inaccurate choice of a synonym (bone type of thinking, analyze the life of writers);
- violation of the norms of lexical compatibility (a herd of hares, under the yoke of humanity, a secret curtain, inveterate foundations, has gone through all stages of human development);
- the contradiction between the speaker's intention and the emotional-evaluative connotations of the word (Pushkin correctly chose the path of life and followed it, leaving indelible traces, he made an unbearable contribution to the development of Russia);
- incorrect use of phraseological turns (youth beat him with a key, it is necessary to bring him to fresh water).

Grammatical norms are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic.

Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.).

A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or context-inappropriate inflectional form (analyzed image, reigning orders, victory over fascism). Sometimes you can hear such phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. In these phrases, a morphological error was made - the gender of nouns was incorrectly formed.

Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation of oral speech. The pronunciation norms of the Russian language are determined primarily by the following phonetic factors:

1) Stunning voiced consonants at the end of words: du [p], bread [p];
2) Reduction of unstressed vowels (changes in sound quality);
3) Assimilation - assimilation of consonants in terms of voicedness and deafness at the junction of morphemes: only voiced consonants are pronounced before voiced consonants, only deaf ones are pronounced before deaf ones: furnish - o[n] set, run away - [h] run, fry - and [f] fry;
4) Loss of some sounds in consonant combinations: stn, zdn, stl, lnts: holiday - pra [sign] ik, sun - so [nc] e.

Compliance with orthoepic norms is an important part of the culture of speech, because their violation creates an unpleasant impression on the listener about speech and the speaker himself, distracts from the perception of the content of speech. Orthoepic norms are fixed in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and stress dictionaries.

Variants (or doublets) are varieties of the same language unit that have the same meaning but differ in form. Some variants are not differentiated either semantically or stylistically: otherwise - otherwise; stack - stack; workshops - workshops; sazhen - sazhen. However, the vast majority of options undergo stylistic differentiation: called - called, accountants - accountants, condition - condition, wave - wave (the second options, compared to the first, have a colloquial or colloquial connotation).

How and why do options arise? What phenomena can be considered variant, and what are not? What is the fate of variant modes of expression? These and other questions are constantly in the field of view of scientists.

We know that language is constantly changing. It is obvious. Let's compare a text written about 150 years ago with a modern one to see the changes that have taken place in the language during this time:

But as soon as dusk fell to the ground,

The ax rattled on the elastic roots,

And pets of centuries fell without life!

Their clothes were torn off by little children,

Their bodies were then chopped up,

And they burned them slowly until morning with fire.

(M. Lermontov)

Zeus throwing thunders

And all the immortals around the father,

Their bright feasts and houses

We will see in the songs we are blind.

(N. Gnedich)

In the above contexts, phenomena are presented that diverge from modern norms on certain grounds: phonetic, lexical, morphological, etc. Permanent, continuous language changes that occur in short periods of time are hardly noticeable. The stage of variation and the gradual replacement of competing modes of expression provide a less perceptible and less painful shift in the norm, contributing in no small measure to the well-known paradox: language changes while remaining itself.

L. V. Shcherba once wrote: “... in normative grammar, the language is often presented in a petrified form. This corresponds to a naive philistine idea: the language has changed before us and will change in the future, but now it is unchanged” 1 .

The functioning of the language involves language changes, the replacement of one norm by another. V. A. Itskovich presents the process of changing norms as follows. The new enters the language contrary to the existing rules. It usually appears outside of literary use - in common speech, in professional speech, in colloquial everyday speech, etc. Then it gradually becomes fixed in the literary language 2 . Schematically, this can be represented as follows:

Scheme 1. Changing the norms of modern Russianliterary language

Initially, the X1 phenomenon is the norm, the X2 phenomenon is outside the KLA (used in colloquial speech, in common speech, in professional speech). At the second stage, there is a gradual convergence of these two phenomena, and is already beginning to be used in KLA, in its oral variety. The third stage is characterized by the fact that two phenomena are used on an equal footing, coexisting as variants of the norm. Then, at the fourth stage, there is a “shift” of the norm: the X2 variant gradually replaces the X1 variant, the latter is used only in the written speech of the KLA. And at the final stage, we observe a change in norms: the X2 phenomenon is the only form of the BLA, and X1 is already outside the norm. According to this scheme, there was, for example, a change in the endings of the nominative plural in the words lecturer - lecturers, factor - factors, caretaker - caretakers, compasses - compasses, corporal - corporal, etc. In the 70s. 19th century Forms with the ending -а(-я) were normative, then gradually they were replaced by forms with the ending -ы(-и). It is interesting that for these and similar nouns the norm changed twice: the original ending -ы(-и) was replaced by -а(-я), and then again replaced this then new norm. This diagram shows the most common process of changing norms. But this is not always the case.

Several more trends stand out in the development of variance (see the works of L. K. Graudina, V. A. Itskovich and other researchers).

The first is a tendency towards stylistic differentiation of variants (differentiation in terms of stylistic coloring, marking). Such a stylistic stratification occurred, for example, in the 70-80s. 19th century with the majority of non-vociferous and full-voiced options (cooling - getting colder, gild - gild, middle - middle, etc.). As early as the beginning of the 19th century. they (and others like them) were considered stylistically neutral. Later, these pairs sharply diverged, separated: non-vowel variants began to be used in poetic speech and acquired the features of an elevated poetic vocabulary. We also see an increase in contrast in stylistic coloring in pronunciation options for back-lingual consonants. In the XVIII - early XIX century. the “solid” pronunciation of consonants was considered the norm, often this was also spelled out. In K. N. Batyushkov, for example, we observe the following rhyme:

In this hut wretched

Standing in front of the window

The table is dilapidated and tripod

With torn cloth.

But you, oh my poor

The cripple and the blind

Walking the road...

Throw my cloak wide

Arm yourself with a sword

And at midnight deep

Knock suddenly...

("My Penates")

A little later, P. A. Vyazemsky already used other forms for back-lingual consonants, which are widely used today:

The north is pale, the north is flat,

Steppe, native clouds -

Where was the sadness...

Now, where are those triplets?

Where is their smart escape?

Where's the uhar escape?

Where are you, lively bell,

Are you cart poetry?

(“In memory of the painter Orlovsky”)

Nowadays, the “hard” pronunciation of back-lingual consonants is observed only in stage speech (and even then inconsistently, more often among the actors of the Moscow Art Theater of the older generation): there is a steady tendency for spelling and pronunciation to converge. Thus, in the second half of the XX century. the ratio of forms with "hard" and "soft" pronunciation of back-lingual consonants is different compared to what it was in the 18th - early 19th centuries. 3

Along with such a stylistic differentiation of linguistic means, there is also an opposite trend - the neutralization of bookish and colloquial coloring. For example, in the 19th century units of measurement of physical quantities in the genitive plural had the usual ending -ov (amps, volts, watts). Then (obviously, under the influence of the law of economy) there was a shift in the norm: the form with zero inflection (ampere, watt, volt) was neutralized, in the modern language it became dominant in most technical units of measurement: ohm, watt, coulomb, ampere, erg, hertz. This stage began, according to L.K. Graudina, in the 80s. 19th century and ended in the first decade of the 20th century, i.e., with the change of one generation of physicists by another. In the same units of measurement as grams, kilograms, in the genitive plural, Zero inflection is common in oral form in a colloquial style, and in writing, due to strict editorial corrections, forms on -ov are still considered normalized: grams, kilograms. Thus, the process of “shifts” in the ratio of options is not straightforward; it often proceeds unevenly and unevenly.

Variants are classified according to different characteristics. By belonging to the linguistic types of units, options are distinguished:

1) pronunciation (bulo [h '] naya - bulo [sh] naya, female [n '] china -
woman [n] china, wait [wait] eat - do [w’] eat and so on.);

2) inflectional (tractors - tractors, in the shop - in the shop, hectare - hectares, etc.);

3) derivational (cutting - cutting, stitching - stitching, stuffing - stuffing, etc.);

4) syntactic: a) prepositional control (to ride a tram - to ride a tram, a height of 10 meters - a height of 10 meters, remarks on someone's address - remarks on someone's address); b) unpredictable control (wait for the plane - wait for the plane, they cannot read a book - they cannot read books, two main questions - two main questions, etc.);

5) lexical (movie - motion picture - film, international - international, export - export, import - import, etc.).

It should be noted that phonetic, derivational and grammatical variants, in essence, are semantic doublets, while lexical variants stand somewhat apart 4 . As L. K. Graudina notes, the classification of variants according to their belonging to linguistic types of units is hardly appropriate; it is interesting only from the point of view of the relative frequency of variants of some types compared to others. R. M. Tseitlin classifies variants according to the types of stylistic relationships between members of pairs, highlighting, on the one hand, groups of pairs of variants in which one of the members is sharply stylistically colored (blato - swamp, breshchi - protect, helmet - helmet), and on the other - pairs, in which the options are closest to each other in stylistic terms (short - short, incessant - incessant, etc.).

This approach to variants is recognized by most researchers as fruitful. For example, M.V. Panov believes that the classification of variants should be based on the types of stylistic opposition. It does not matter whether the syntaxes, lexemes, morphemes of the phoneme vary. The main ones are stylistic patterns that govern their functioning in speech.

In the process of language development, the number of variants, according to most researchers, is noticeably and continuously reduced. This is due to the increase in the general literacy of the population, the strengthening of the influence of the mass media and propaganda on the culture of speech, the normalization activities of linguists, the constant unification in the field of spelling and orthoepy, the strengthening of book styles of language - speech, etc.

Notes:

1. Shcherba L.V. Next problems of linguistics // Izbr. works on linguistics and phonetics. L.G. 1958. T. 1. S. 15.

2. For more details, see: Itskovich V.A. language norm. M., 1968.

3. These forms are now in a transitional phase between the fourth and fifth positions (see Diagram 1).

4. Lexical variants differ from derivational, inflectional and syntactic ones in that they do not constitute a paradigm of a number of words united by a common grammatical meaning. Their commonality is only functional and stylistic.

T.P. Pleshchenko, N.V. Fedotova, R.G. Chechet. Stylistics and culture of speech - Mn., 2001.