Species e. Variety of human activities

The man of modern society is engaged in a variety of activities. In order to describe all types of human activity, it is necessary to list the most important needs for a given person, and the number of needs is very large.

The emergence of various types of activity is associated with the socio-historical development of man. The fundamental activities in which a person is included in the process of his individual development are communication, play, study, work.

* communication - the interaction of two or more people in the process of exchanging information of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature;
* game - a type of activity in conditional situations that imitate real ones, in which social experience is assimilated;
* learning -- the process of systematic mastery of knowledge, skills, abilities necessary to perform work;
* labor-an activity aimed at creating a socially useful product that satisfies the material and spiritual needs of people.

Communication is a type of activity consisting in the exchange of information between people. Depending on the age stage of human development, the specifics of the activity, the nature of communication changes. Each age stage is characterized by a specific type of communication. In infancy, an adult exchanges an emotional state with a child, helps to navigate in the world around. At an early age, communication between an adult and a child is carried out in connection with object manipulation, the properties of objects are actively mastered, and the child's speech is formed. In the preschool period of childhood, a role-playing game develops interpersonal communication skills with peers. The younger student is busy with educational activities, respectively, and communication is included in this process. In adolescence, in addition to communication, a lot of time is devoted to preparing for professional activities. The specificity of the professional activity of an adult leaves an imprint on the nature of communication, demeanor and speech. Communication in professional activity not only organizes, but also enriches it, new connections and relationships between people arise in it.

The game is a kind of activity, the result of which is not the production of any material product. She is the leading activity of a preschooler, because through her he accepts the norms of society, learns interpersonal communication with peers. Among the varieties of games, one can single out individual and group, subject and plot, role-playing and games with rules. Games are of great importance in people's lives: for children they are mainly of a developmental nature, for adults they are a means of communication and recreation.

Teaching is a type of activity, its purpose is to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities. In the process of historical development, knowledge was accumulated in various fields of science and practice, therefore, in order to master this knowledge, teaching became a special type of activity. Teaching affects the mental development of the individual. It consists of assimilation of information about the properties of surrounding objects and phenomena (knowledge), the correct choice of techniques and operations in accordance with the goals and conditions of activity (skill).

Labor is historically one of the first types of human activity. The subject of psychological study is not labor itself as a whole, but its psychological components. Usually labor is characterized as a conscious activity, which is aimed at the implementation of the result and is regulated by the will in accordance with its conscious purpose. Labor performs an important formative function in the development of the individual, as it influences the formation of his abilities and character.

The attitude to work is laid in early childhood, knowledge and skills are formed in the process of education, special training, and work experience. To work means to show oneself in activity. Work in a certain field of human activity is associated with a profession.

Thus, each of the above types of activity is the most characteristic for certain age stages of personality development. The current type of activity, as it were, prepares the next one, since it develops the corresponding needs, cognitive capabilities and behavioral characteristics.

Depending on the characteristics of a person's relationship to the world around him, activities are divided into practical and spiritual.

Practical activity is aimed at changing the surrounding world. Since the surrounding world consists of nature and society, it can be productive (changing nature) and socially transformative (changing the structure of society).

Spiritual activity is aimed at changing individual and social consciousness. It is realized in the spheres of art, religion, scientific creativity, in moral deeds, organizing collective life and orienting a person towards solving the problems of the meaning of life, happiness, well-being.

Spiritual activity includes cognitive activity (obtaining knowledge about the world), value activity (determining the norms and principles of life), prognostic activity (building models of the future), etc.

The division of activity into spiritual and material is conditional. In reality, the spiritual and the material cannot be separated from each other. Any activity has a material side, since in one way or another it correlates with the outside world, and an ideal side, since it involves goal setting, planning, choice of means, etc.

By spheres of public life - economic, social, political and spiritual.

Traditionally, there are four main areas of public life:

§ social (peoples, nations, classes, gender and age groups, etc.)
§ economic (productive forces, production relations)
§ political (state, parties, socio-political movements)
§ spiritual (religion, morality, science, art, education).

It is important to understand that people are simultaneously in different relationships with each other, connected with someone, isolated from someone when solving their life issues. Therefore, the spheres of the life of society are not geometric spaces where different people live, but the relations of the same people in connection with various aspects of their lives.

The social sphere is the relationship that arises in the production of direct human life and man as a social being. The social sphere includes various social communities and relations between them. A person, occupying a certain position in society, is inscribed in various communities: he can be a man, a worker, a father of a family, a city dweller, etc.

The economic sphere is a set of people's relations arising from the creation and movement of material goods. The economic sphere is the area of production, exchange, distribution, consumption of goods and services. The relations of production and productive forces together constitute the economic sphere of the life of society.

The political sphere is the relations of people connected with power, which provide joint security.

The elements of the political sphere can be represented as follows:

§ political organizations and institutions - social groups, revolutionary movements, parliamentarism, parties, citizenship, presidency, etc.;
§ political norms - political, legal and moral norms, customs and traditions;
§ political communications - relations, connections and forms of interaction between participants in the political process, as well as between the political system as a whole and society;
§ political culture and ideology - political ideas, ideology, political culture, political psychology.

The spiritual sphere is the sphere of relations that arise in the production, transfer and development of spiritual values (knowledge, beliefs, norms of behavior, artistic images, etc.).

If the material life of a person is connected with the satisfaction of specific daily needs (for food, clothing, drink, etc.). then the spiritual sphere of human life is aimed at meeting the needs for the development of consciousness, worldview, and various spiritual qualities.

The inclusion of society - mass, collective, individual.

In connection with the social forms of association of people in order to carry out activities, collective, mass, and individual activities are distinguished. Collective, mass, individual forms of activity are determined by the essence of the acting subject (a person, a group of people, a public organization, etc.). Depending on the social forms of association of people in order to perform activities, they establish individual (for example: management of a region or country), collective (ship management systems, work in a team), mass (an example of mass media is the death of Michael Jackson).

Dependence on social norms - moral, immoral, legal, illegal.

Conditionality from the conformity of activities to existing general cultural traditions, social norms differentiate legal and illegal, as well as moral and immoral activities. Illegal activity is everything that is prohibited by law, the constitution. Take, for example, the manufacture and production of weapons, explosives, the distribution of drugs, all of this is an illegal activity. Naturally, many try to adhere to moral activity, that is, to study conscientiously, to be polite, to value relatives, to help the old and the homeless. There is a vivid example of moral activity - the whole life of Mother Teresa.

The potential of the new in activity is innovative, inventive, creative, routine.

When human activity affects the historical course of events, with social growth, then progressive or reactionary, as well as creative and destructive activities are distributed. For example: The progressive role of the industrial activity of Peter 1 or the progressive activity of Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin.

Depending on the absence or presence of any goals, the success of the activity and the ways to accomplish it, they reveal a monotonous, monotonous, patterned activity, which in turn proceeds strictly according to certain requirements, and a new one is most often not given (Manufacturing of any product, substance according to the scheme at the plant or factory). But the activity is creative, inventive, on the contrary, it carries the character of the originality of the new, previously unknown. It is distinguished by specificity, exclusivity, originality. And elements of creativity can be applied in any of the activities. An example is dancing, music, painting, there are no rules or instructions, here is the embodiment of fantasy, and its implementation.

Types of human cognitive activity

Teaching or cognitive activity refers to the spiritual spheres of human life and society. There are four types of cognitive activity:

ordinary - consists in the exchange of experience and the images that people carry in themselves and share with the outside world;
scientific - characterized by the study and use of various laws and patterns. The main goal of scientific cognitive activity is to create an ideal system of the material world;
Artistic cognitive activity consists in the attempt of creators and artists to assess the surrounding reality and find shades of beauty and ugliness in it;
Religious. Its subject is the man himself. His actions are judged from the point of view of pleasing God. This also includes moral norms and moral aspects of actions. Given that the whole life of a person consists of actions, spiritual activity plays an important role in their formation.

Types of human spiritual activity

The spiritual life of a person and society corresponds to such activities as religious, scientific and creative. Knowing the essence of scientific and religious activity, it is worth considering in more detail the types of human creative activity. This includes artistic or musical direction, literature and architecture, directing and acting. Every person has the makings of creativity, but in order to reveal them, you need to work long and hard.

Types of human labor activity

In the process of labor, a person's worldview and his life principles develop. Labor activity requires planning and discipline from the individual. Types of labor activity are both mental and physical. There is a stereotype in society that physical labor is much more difficult than mental work. Although outwardly the work of the intellect does not manifest itself, in fact these types of labor activity are almost equal. Once again, this fact proves the diversity of professions that exist today.

Types of professional activity of a person

In a broad sense, the concept of a profession means a diverse form of activity performed for the benefit of society. Simply put, the essence of professional activity is that people work for people and for the benefit of the whole society. There are 5 types of professional activity.

1. Man-nature. The essence of this activity is in interaction with living beings: plants, animals and microorganisms.
2. Man-man. This type includes professions in one way or another related to interaction with people. The activity here is to educate, guide people, and provide them with information, trade and consumer services.
3. Man-technique. A type of activity characterized by the interaction of a person and technical structures and mechanisms. This includes everything related to automatic and mechanical systems, materials and types of energy.
4. Man - sign systems. The activity of this type consists in interaction with numbers, signs, natural and artificial languages.
5. Man is an artistic image. This type includes all creative professions related to music, literature, acting, and visual arts.

Types of economic activities of people

Human economic activity has recently been strongly contested by environmentalists, since it is based on natural reserves, which will soon exhaust themselves. The types of human economic activity include the extraction of minerals, such as oil, metals, stones, and everything that can benefit a person and cause damage not only to nature, but to the entire planet.

Types of human information activity

Information is an integral part of human interaction with the outside world. The types of information activities include the receipt, use, dissemination and storage of information. Information activity often becomes a threat to life, because there are always people who do not want third parties to know and disclose any facts. Also, this type of activity can be provocative in nature, and also be a means of manipulating the consciousness of society.

Types of human mental activity

Mental activity affects the state of the individual and the productivity of his life. The simplest type of mental activity is a reflex. These are habits and skills established through constant repetition. They are almost imperceptible, in comparison with the most complex type of mental activity - creativity. It is distinguished by constant diversity and originality, originality and uniqueness. Therefore, creative people are so often emotionally unstable, and professions related to creativity are considered the most difficult. That is why creative people are called talents that can transform this world and instill cultural skills in society.

Culture includes all types of transformative human activity. There are only two kinds of this activity - creation and destruction. The latter, unfortunately, is more common. Many years of man's transforming activity in nature have led to troubles and catastrophes.

Only creation can come to the rescue here, which means at least the restoration of natural resources.

Action distinguishes us from animals. Some of its types are beneficial to the development and formation of the personality, others are destructive. Knowing what qualities are inherent in us, we can avoid the deplorable consequences of our own activities. This will not only benefit the world around us, but will also allow us to do what we love with a clear conscience and consider ourselves people with a capital letter.

The activities are varied. It can be playful, educational and cognitive and transformative, creative and destructive, industrial and consumer, economic, socio-political and spiritual. Special activities are creativity and communication. Finally, as an activity, one can analyze the language, the human psyche and the culture of society.

Material and spiritual activities

Usually activities are divided into material and spiritual.

Material activities aimed at changing the environment. Since the surrounding world consists of nature and society, it can be productive (changing nature) and socially transformative (changing the structure of society). An example of material production activity is the production of goods; examples of social transformation are state reforms, revolutionary activity.

Spiritual activity is aimed at changing individual and social consciousness. It is realized in the spheres of art, religion, scientific creativity, in moral deeds, organizing collective life and orienting a person towards solving the problems of the meaning of life, happiness, well-being. Spiritual activity includes cognitive activity (obtaining knowledge about the world), value activity (determining the norms and principles of life), prognostic activity (building models of the future), etc.

Creativity and communication

Creativity and communication in the system of activities has a special place.

Creation- this is the emergence of a new in the process of transformative human activity. Signs of creative activity are originality, unusualness, originality, and its result is inventions, new knowledge, values, works of art.

Speaking of creativity, they usually mean the unity of the creative person and the creative process.

Creative person represents a person endowed with special abilities. The actual creative abilities include imagination and fantasy, i.e. the ability to create new sensory or mental images. However, often these images are so divorced from life that their practical application becomes impossible. Therefore, other, more "mundane" abilities are also important - erudition, a critical mindset, observation, a desire for self-improvement. But even the presence of all these abilities does not guarantee that they will be embodied in activity. This requires will, perseverance, efficiency, activity in defending one's opinion. creative process includes four stages: preparation, maturation, insight and verification. The actual creative act, or insight, is associated with intuition - a sudden transition from ignorance to knowledge, the causes of which are not recognized. Nevertheless, it cannot be considered that creativity is something that comes without effort, labor and experience. Insight can only come to one who has thought hard about the problem; a positive result is impossible without a long process of preparation and maturation. The results of the creative process require mandatory critical verification, since not all creativity leads to the desired result.

There are various techniques for creatively solving a problem, such as using associations and analogies, looking for similar processes in other areas, recombining elements of what is already known, trying to present someone else as understandable, and understandable as someone else, etc.

Since creativity can be developed, and creative techniques and elements of the creative process can be studied, any person is able to become a creator of new knowledge, values, works of art. All that is needed for this is the desire to create and the willingness to work.

Communication there is a way of being a person in relationship with other people. If ordinary activity is defined as a subject-object process, i.e. the process during which a person (subject) creatively transforms the surrounding world (object), then communication is a specific form of activity that can be defined as a subject-subject relationship, where a person (subject) interacts with another person (subject).

Communication is often identified with communication. However, these concepts should be separated. Communication is an activity that has a material and spiritual character. Communication is a purely informational process and is not an activity in the full sense of the word. For example, communication between man and machine or between animals (animal communication) is possible. We can say that communication is a dialogue where each participant is active and independent, and communication is a monologue, a simple transmission of a message from the sender to the recipient.

Rice. 2.3. Structure of communication

In the course of communication (Fig. 2.3), the addresser (sender) will transmit information (message) to the addressee (recipient). For this, it is necessary that the interlocutors possess information sufficient to understand each other (context), and that the information is transmitted by signs and symbols understandable to both (code) and that contact is established between them. Thus, communication is a one-way process of transmitting a message from an addresser to an addressee. Communication is a two-way process. Even if the second subject in communication is not a real person, human traits are still attributed to him.

Communication can be considered as one of the sides of communication, namely its informational component. In addition to communication, communication includes both social interaction, and the process of knowing each other by subjects, and the changes that occur with subjects in this process.

Language, which performs a communicative function in society, is closely related to communication. The purpose of the language is not only to ensure human mutual understanding and transmission of experience from generation to generation. Language is also a social activity in the formation of a picture of the world, an expression of the spirit of the people. The German linguist Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835), emphasizing the procedural nature of language, wrote that "language is not a product of activity, but activity."

Play, communication and work as activities

Under labor understand the expedient human activity to transform nature and society in order to meet personal and social needs. Labor activity is aimed at a practically useful result - various benefits: material (food, clothing, housing, services), spiritual (scientific ideas and inventions, achievements of art, etc.), as well as the reproduction of the person himself in the totality of social relations.

The process of labor is manifested by the interaction and complex interweaving of three elements: the most living labor (as human activity); means of labor (tools used by man); objects of labor (material transformed in the labor process). living labor it can be mental (such is the work of a scientist - philosopher or economist, etc.) and physical (any kind of muscular labor). However, even muscular labor is usually intellectually loaded, since everything a person does, he does consciously.

In the course of labor activity, they are improved and changed, resulting in an ever higher efficiency of labor. As a rule, the evolution of the means of labor is considered in the following sequence: the natural tool stage (for example, a stone as a tool); tool-artifact stage (appearance of artificial tools); engine stage; stage of automation and robotics; information stage.

The subject of labor a thing to which human labor is directed (material, raw material, semi-finished product). Labor eventually materializes, is fixed in its object. A person adapts an object to his needs, turning it into something useful.

Labor is considered the leading, initial form of human activity. The development of labor contributed to the development of mutual support of members of society, its cohesion, it was in the process of labor that communication and creative abilities developed. In other words, thanks to labor, the person himself was formed.

Under understand the activities for the formation of knowledge and skills, the development of thinking and consciousness of the individual. Thus, learning acts both as an activity and as a translation of activity. The well-known psychologist Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934) noted the active nature of education: “The educational process should be based on the personal activity of the student, and all the art of the educator should be reduced only to directing and regulating this activity.”

The main feature of educational activity is that its goal is not to change the surrounding world, but the subject of activity itself. Although a person changes both in the process of communication and in labor activity, this change is not the direct goal of these types of activity, but only one of their additional consequences. In training, all means are specifically aimed at changing a person.

Under game understand the form of free self-expression of a person, aimed at the reproduction and assimilation of social experience. As the constitutive characteristics of the game, the Dutch cultural theorist Johan Huizinga (1872-1945) singles out freedom, positive emotionality, isolation in time and space, and the presence of voluntarily adopted rules. To these characteristics one can add virtuality (the game world is two-dimensional - it is both real and imaginary), as well as the role-playing nature of the game.

In the process of the game, norms, traditions, customs, values are assimilated as necessary elements of the spiritual life of society. Unlike labor activity, the purpose of which is outside the process, the goals and means of gaming communication coincide: people rejoice for the sake of joy, create for the sake of creativity, communicate for the sake of communication. In the early stages of the development of mankind, beauty only during the playtime of the holiday could be felt only as beauty, outside the relationship of utility, which gave rise to an artistic attitude to the world.

Occurs mainly in the course of play, learning and work. In the process of growing up, each of these activities consistently acts as a leader. In the game (before school), the child tries on various social roles, at more adult stages (at school, college, university), he acquires the knowledge, teachings, and skills necessary for adult life. The final stage of personality formation takes place in the process of joint labor activity.

03May

Hello! In this article we will talk about the types of activities of an individual entrepreneur.

Today you will learn:

What are the types of activities according to OKVED;
What type of activity to choose;
How to add and change the type of IP activity;
What is for activities.

What are the types of activities (OKVED) for individual entrepreneurs

The main reason for the impossibility of using a particular system is the type of activity in which the individual entrepreneur is engaged.

Taxation by type of activity is presented in the table:

Tax regime	Prohibited activities of IP
Basic system of taxation
Simplified taxation system	Banking; Insurance services; Non-state pension funds; Investment organizations; Work with securities; activity of pawnshops; Production of excisable goods; Extraction and sale of minerals; gambling establishments; Lawyer activity
Patent taxation system	Almost all types of activities that are aimed at the production of something other than: the production of business cards, pottery, the production of sausages, the production of clothes and shoes
A single tax on imputed income	Currency exchange; gambling establishments; Production and sale of excisable goods; Extraction, production and sale of precious metals and stones; Extraction and sale of minerals; Banking; Management activities; Communication services; Retail trade type of activity trade in objects of art, antiques; Tour organization
Agricultural tax	Everything except agricultural production

However, despite the variety of modes, you will need to take into account many conditions, such as the maximum number of staff members, maximum turnover, classifier restrictions.

In addition to taxes, there is also an obligation to pay contributions to off-budget funds for oneself, and this must be taken into account when choosing a favorable tax regime.

What are IP contributions for yourself? These are your contributions to medical and pension funds. That is, regardless of whether you worked this year, made a profit or not, you will be required to pay these contributions to the state in a fixed amount.

In 2018, the amount of contributions will be 32,385 rubles. And if, for example, income for the whole year was more than 300,000 rubles, contributions to the pension fund will be calculated additionally, at the rate of 1% of income in excess of the limit.

Summing up the choice of the most favorable taxation regime, it is best to make an individual tax calculation for individual entrepreneurs within each system.

The following parameters will need to be taken into account:

If there are workers, then their number;
Which region of the Russian Federation do you belong to;
The taxation system used by your future partners and clients;
The area of the trading floor;
The use of transport in transportation, etc.

Considering the issue of taxes, it is impossible not to touch on the topic of the so-called “tax holidays”, which have come into effect since 2015. For many, this innovation is very useful and applicable. “Tax holidays” involve the exemption of individual entrepreneurs from paying any tax, lowering the percentage on other taxes. However, not all individual entrepreneurs can take advantage of the benefit.

Conditions for granting "tax holidays":

Your type of activity is the production of goods, scientific work or social activity;
You are registering an IP for the first time;
IP exists no more than two years;
Your region is included in the list of regions of the Russian Federation where this benefit has been introduced and your IP was registered after the adoption of the law in your region on “tax holidays”;
You are using USN or a patent.

It should be borne in mind that the regional authorities have the right to introduce certain restrictions regarding the number of employees, the maximum income per year, and the activities of the IP.

Do they confirm the type of activity of the IP

We will not torment you and immediately say that. The main direction of the activity of the IP is fixed during its registration, when the businessman enters the number of the activity in the USRIP, after which this information comes to the FSS.

However, if you decide to change the main activity of the enterprise, then you need to apply to the tax office with an application for a change in the direction of activity in order to secure the change.

Why do it? You must receive payment for services rendered and manufactured products strictly according to the business activity code declared in the Federal Tax Service. Otherwise, this income will be considered as received outside the declared OKVED code, and will be taxed at 13% of personal income tax.

Also, the amount of insurance premiums for injuries depends on the code of the main activity. Now experts identify 32 points, which determine the amount of contributions in various areas of activity. The amount of payments depends on the degree of danger and complexity of work.

Thus, we can conclude that it is necessary to confirm the main type of activity in order to correctly make deductions for injuries to the FSS in the current year without overpaying if the percentage differs from the previous year.

How to change and add an IP activity type

The enterprise develops along with the market, and now you are no longer doing what you used to, which means that you need to think about changing OKVED. It's easy, now we'll take a closer look at how to do it.

To begin with, you will have to generate a number for a new type of activity, and then fill out an application for a change in the direction of activity.

To do this, follow these steps in sequence:

Go to the subsection “Registration of individual entrepreneurs” on the resource of the Federal Tax Service;
Download the form, this is your application, and fill in the fields with information (in virtual or paper format, in the second case it will need to be printed out after filling out).

The application consists of four pages. The first page is the title page, here we write our first name, last name and patronymic, indicate the OGRNIP and. The second sheet is for recording a new line of business. On the third sheet, it is necessary to cancel the old direction of the enterprise. All three pages of the document are mandatory.

Now you need to collect the missing documents for the tax.

These include:

Passport;

If you are sending a trustee to the tax office, then attach a notarized power of attorney and your representative's passport.

And the last stage is to deliver all this wealth to the tax office. You can do this yourself, through a representative (do not forget about the power of attorney), using mail or the Internet. But remember that you need to contact the same tax office in which you registered the IP.

But that is not all. If you are an entrepreneur with employees, you need to confirm the main type of activity of the individual entrepreneur by submitting a certificate to the FSS. If your individual entrepreneur does not have employees, then such a certificate is not needed.

And what to do if OKVED has not changed, but only new areas of doing business have been added. We simply add side lines of business to the existing list. To do this, fill in only the lines for the auxiliary areas of activity of the IP on the second page in the P24001 form. The third page should be completed only if you want to exclude any type of activity.

Activity- specific conscious activity of a person, aimed at the knowledge and creative change of the surrounding world and oneself in accordance with actual needs and goals. The main feature of activity is that it cannot be determined only by those needs and motives that give rise to it. The need itself can act as an incentive to activity, and its content will be determined by the level of knowledge, skills, goals of society, and individual experience.

Features of human activity

The activity of the individual is very different from the activity of animals, since it has a creative and transformative character. If you need to give a definition of human activity in the exam, then it is important to understand its features in order to clearly formulate the concept.

She has these traits:

Main Components

In order to fully understand the complexity and specifics of human activity, you need to understand its main components:

Subject - the individual who performs the action.
An object - what the actions and activity of the subject are aimed at. The object can be any material (manufacturing of products), another individual (influence to change beliefs), or the subject himself (training in the gym to change himself).

There are also components that form the structure of activity:

human needs

The famous American psychologist A. Maslow developed a "pyramid of human needs". He divides all human needs into primary (physiological, the need for safety and security) and secondary (social needs, respect, self-realization). Primary needs are basic for the survival of the individual, if they are not satisfied, then the transition to the satisfaction of needs from the higher layers of the pyramid is impossible. Secondary needs are acquired in the process of human social life, their satisfaction occurs during the interaction of individuals in interpersonal communication.

Motives of activity

On the basis of needs, the motives of the subject are formed, pushing him to activity. Complex activities can carry many motives. In such cases, a hierarchy of motives is formed, in which the dominant (main) and secondary motives are determined.

The motive can be formed under the influence of one or more needs that pass through the prism of the interests, beliefs, traditions, attitudes of the individual:

Interest is the main reason for action. Different social groups may have identical needs but different interests. For example, entrepreneurs and people of art: the first group has material interests, and the second - spiritual; Both groups have a common need, but the ways to achieve it are different. In addition, each person has interests that are formed under the influence of the environment, inclinations, level of development (people can read books of different genres or engage in different types of creativity).
Traditions are a set of rituals, attitudes from previous generations, which is manifested in religion, national rituals, professional and corporate features. Sometimes people, following traditions, can limit their basic needs. For example, soldiers in war may limit their need for security because professional and national traditions require them to defend their country.
Beliefs are fundamental and firm views on events and the world around them, which can make the subject give up basic needs in favor of what he considers right (renunciation of money to preserve dignity).

Goal definition

Human motivation determines the formation of goals and results. An individual can create an internal plan of action, on the basis of which they will be carried out in a certain order to obtain a specific result. When the subject begins to do something, he keeps in mind the image of the desired result. That is, before creating something in reality, the individual creates it in his imagination.

Since human activities are often complex, goals are also divided into simple and complex. To achieve a complex goal, it is necessary to plan your activity, break it down into steps, highlight tasks, identify tools for action and possible ways to overcome obstacles. If all the tasks during the manipulations are solved, then the goal will be achieved.

Individuals may have common needs, goals and go to achieve the same results, however, when using different means and performing different actions, the content of the activity will be very different.

Action types

There are such types of social actions identified by M. Weber:

goal-oriented - with such actions, a person plans all the tasks and means, thinks over ways to overcome obstacles (preparing a teacher for a lecture);
value-rational - this type of action is based on moral principles, values, beliefs (the decision to save the life of another person, risking his own life);
affective - spontaneous actions under the influence of strong emotional states (flight when attacked);
traditional - actions that a person performs out of habit can be developed on the basis of rituals or traditions (the sequence of actions in a wedding ceremony).

The basis for active human actions are the first two types of actions, which are characterized by awareness of the goal and creative nature.

Forms of activity

There are two main forms of activity of the subject, different in the nature of the functions performed:

Physical work- is carried out with the activation of the musculoskeletal system, muscles and all functional systems of the body. With this form of activity, very high energy costs and fatigue of the body.
Brainwork- implies intellectual activity to perform work related to the processing of information. With this form of activity, the tension of all mental processes increases: attention, memory, thinking, imagination.

As a rule, human actions include both forms of activity.. There are many examples of human activity that combines physical and mental labor: actions to modify the surrounding space, work to create creative objects, and others. Let's consider in more detail: in order to plant a tree, you must first think over the course of action, get all the necessary materials for this, and then, with the help of physical effort, perform this action.

There are many activities in which a person is involved throughout his life. But which of them are called the main ones and why? These include play, learning, communication, work and creativity. They are the main ones, because it is in them that the most intensive and effective development of the individual takes place.

This is a specific type of human activity, the purpose of which is not a result, but a process. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that all actions take place in an imaginary situation that can change rapidly. Children use substitute objects that are analogues for them of what adults use in real life.

In the game, the development of mental processes, attention, social activity and the acquisition of interpersonal communication skills take place. There are different types of games that occur at certain age periods, subject to the normal development of the child.

This is one of the basic types of interaction, which is characterized by the mutual exchange of emotions, thoughts, views.. The structural components of communication are the subject (the initiator of communication), the goal (what the communication is for), content (information that is transmitted), means (methods of information transmission; drawings, audio, video, sense organs can be used) and the recipient of information.

Communication is a structural component of any purposeful activity, and the activity itself is a condition for the emergence of communication.

The purpose of this type of activity is the acquisition by the subject of knowledge, skills and abilities. Teaching can be specially organized or spontaneous (gaining knowledge and experience while performing other actions). And also there is such a form of teaching as self-education.

Labor is the purposeful activity of an individual, the purpose of which is to obtain a specific result.. Labor is impossible without a certain level of knowledge, skills and craftsmanship. This purposeful activity helps to develop the personality and transform the environment.

Creation

Creativity is called the activity of a person, which gives rise to something new, which did not exist before. It can be an independent activity or a component of another type of activity. This is an activity that is common to all children. When a person grows up, he already has certain abilities and talents that develop and manifest themselves in creativity.

Depending on the result aimed at the actions of the individual, there are:

Based on the number of subjects and objects of activity, they distinguish individual and collective activity. According to the impact on social progress, it is customary to divide progressive(develops society) and reactionary activity. There are also the following types of activities: legitimate and illegal, reproductive(modeling) and creative(creating something new) extraversion(physical actions) and introversion(thinking, fantasy, feelings).

The purposeful activity of a person is fundamentally different from the behavioral activity of animals, since it is his way of existence. The behavior of animals is regulated by instincts and is a means of adaptation to changing environmental conditions.

Human behavior is a conscious activity that is aimed at transforming the surrounding world. An example of this is setting a goal, developing an internal plan of action, anticipating the result of this activity.

The very existence of a person is a constant creation and development, a change in oneself and the outside world to create better living conditions and satisfy one's needs. Human activity is characterized by awareness, the presence of an internal plan of action, which is subsequently implemented in the performance of tasks. Another important difference between human and animal behavior is that the activity of an individual is not always associated with basic motives and can very often come into conflict with them.

Activity is a specific type of human activity aimed at creative transformation, improvement of reality and oneself. Activity is a form of realization of the relation of the subject to the world of objects; different types of such relations can be distinguished, implemented in different forms of activity: practical, cognitive, aesthetic, etc. Practical activity is aimed primarily at transforming the world in accordance with the goals set by man. Cognitive activity serves the purpose of understanding the objective laws of the existence of the world, without which it is impossible to perform practical tasks. Aesthetic activity associated with the perception and creation of works of art involves the transmission (transmission) of meanings, which are determined by the value orientations of a particular society and individual. All these are types of human activity.

Within each type of activity, separate types of activity can be distinguished according to the difference in their objects - motives: communication, play, learning and work.

Communication is the first type of activity that occurs in the process of individual development of a person, followed by play, learning and work. All these activities are of a developmental nature, i.e. when the child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development takes place.

Communication is considered as an activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also pursues the goals of establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relations, providing mutual assistance and teaching and educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal. In direct communication, people are in direct contact with each other.

A game is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games often have the character of entertainment, they are aimed at getting rest. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic relaxation of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is not able to weaken in any other way.

Games are: individual (one person is engaged in the game), group (with several people), subject (associated with the inclusion of any objects in a person’s gaming activity), plot (unfold according to the scenario, in basic details), role-playing (in the game a person leads himself according to the role he takes on) and games with rules (governed by a system of rules). Games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games have a developmental value, for adults - a discharge.

Teaching is a type of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized (in special educational institutions) and unorganized (in other activities as a side, additional result). Educational activity serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.

Labor occupies a special place in the system of human activity. Thanks to labor, man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered the prospects for further, practically unlimited development. First of all, the creation and improvement of labor tools is connected with labor. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity. These are the main characteristics of activities.

At school A.N. Leontiev distinguish two forms of activity of the subject (according to the nature of its openness for observation): external and internal. External activity usually refers to various forms of objective-practical activity (for example, driving a nail with a hammer, working on a machine tool, manipulating toys in young children, etc.), where the subject interacts with an object clearly presented for external observation. Internal activity is the activity of the subject hidden from direct observation with images of objects (for example, the theoretical activity of a scientist in solving a mathematical problem, the work of an actor on a role, proceeding in the form of internal reflections and experiences, etc.). The ratio of external and internal components is not constant. With the development and transformation of activities, a systematic transition from external components to internal ones is carried out. It is accompanied by their internalization and automation. If any difficulties arise in the activity, during its restoration, associated with violations of the internal components, a reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: the reduced, automated components of the activity unfold, appear outside, the internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.

Activity differs from behavior (behavior is not always purposeful, does not imply the creation of a specific product, is often passive) and has the following main characteristics: motive, goal, object, structure, means. We talked about motives and goals in paragraph 1.1., so let's move on to the third characteristic - the subject of activity. The object of activity is everything with which it directly deals. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is information, educational - knowledge, skills, labor - the created material product.

Activities have a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several "layers", or levels. These are special activities (or special activities); then the action level; the next is the level of operations; finally, the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions. Special types of activity: game, educational, labor activity.

Action is the basic unit of activity analysis. Action is one of the main "formative" activities. This concept, like a drop of water, reflects the main starting points or principles of the theory of activity, new in comparison with previous concepts.

1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must be brought into the activity of the subject ("opening" the circle of consciousness).

2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness. When considering behavior, consciousness must not only be preserved, but also defined in its fundamental function (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).

3. Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).

4. Human actions are objective; they realize social - industrial and cultural - goals (the principle of the objectivity of human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).

The goal sets the action, the action ensures the realization of the goal. Through the characteristics of the goal, you can also characterize the action. There are large goals that are divided into smaller, private goals, which, in turn, can be divided into even more private goals, etc. Accordingly, any sufficiently large action is a sequence of actions of a lower order with transitions to different "floors" hierarchical system of actions. This can be demonstrated with any example.

Suppose a person wants to call another city. To carry out this action (I order), he needs to perform a number of private actions (II order): go to the call center, find a suitable machine, take a queue, purchase telephone tokens, etc. Getting into the booth, he must perform the following action in this row: connect with the subscriber. But for this, he will have to perform a number of even smaller actions (III order): lower the coin, press a button, wait for a beep, dial a certain number, etc.

Now we turn to operations, which form the next, lower level in relation to actions.

An operation is a way to perform an action. You can multiply two two-digit numbers in your mind and in writing, solving the example "in a column". These will be two different ways to perform the same arithmetic operation, or two different operations. As you can see, operations characterize the technical side of performing actions, and what is called "technique", dexterity, dexterity, refers almost exclusively to the level of operations. The nature of the operations depends on the conditions of the action being performed. If the action corresponds to the goal itself, then the operation corresponds to the conditions in which this goal is given. At the same time, "conditions" means both external circumstances and the possibilities, or internal means, of the acting subject himself.

The most accurate psychological sign that distinguishes between actions and operations - awareness / unconsciousness, in principle, can be used, however, not always. It stops working just in the border zone, near the border, which separates the layer of actions and operations. The farther from this boundary, the more reliable the data of self-observation: the subject usually has no doubts about the representation (or non-representation) in the mind of very large or very small acts. But in the border zone, the situational dynamics of the activity process becomes significant. And here, the very attempt to determine the awareness of an act can lead to its awareness, i.e., disrupt the natural structure of activity.

The only way that is now seen is the use of objective indicators, i.e., behavioral and physiological signs, of the active level of the current process.

Let's move on to the last, lowest level in the structure of activity - psychophysiological functions. Psychophysiological functions in the theory of activity are understood as the physiological provision of mental processes. These include a number of abilities of our body, such as the ability to sense, to form and fix traces of past influences, motor ability, etc. Accordingly, they speak of sensory, mnemonic, and motor functions. This level also includes innate mechanisms fixed in the morphology of the nervous system, and those that mature during the first months of life. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of the processes of activity. Without reliance on them, it would be impossible not only to carry out actions and operations, but also to set the tasks themselves.

Let's return to the characteristics of the activity, and the last characteristic is the means of carrying out the activity. These are the tools that a person uses when performing certain actions and operations. The development of the means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which it becomes more productive and of high quality.

And in conclusion of the paragraph, we emphasize the main differences between human activity and animal activity:

1. Human activity is productive, creative, constructive. The activity of animals has a consumer basis; as a result, it does not produce or create anything new in comparison with what is given by nature.

2. Human activity is connected with the objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used by him either as tools, or as objects for satisfying needs, or as means of his own development. For animals, human tools and means of satisfying needs do not exist as such.

3. Human activity transforms himself, his abilities, needs, living conditions. The activity of animals practically does not change anything either in themselves or in the external conditions of life.

4. Human activity in its various forms and means of realization is a product of history. The activity of animals acts as a result of their biological evolution.

5. The objective activity of people from birth is not given to them. It is "given" in the cultural purpose and way of using the surrounding objects. Such activity must be formed and developed in training and education. The same applies to the internal, neurophysiological and psychological structures that govern the external side of practical activity. The activity of animals is initially set, genotypically determined and unfolds as the natural anatomical and physiological maturation of the organism.

Essence of motivation. Motive and incentive. Basic theories of motivation.

Motivation is a certain process of stimulating oneself or others to work and achieve certain goals. Incentive, stimulation also includes a material side, it is a kind of promise of reward, a reward that also serves as an incentive to work, to achieve goals. Motivation is an internal process. Stimulation is external. The motive implies the internal motivation or aspiration of the individual to behave in a certain way to satisfy the needs. And the incentive also captures the material aspect. Motivation theories: Informative: A. Maslow's model of motivation based on the hierarchy of needs: primary, social, respect and self-expression, self-realization through their consistent implementation; D. McClelland's model of motivation using the needs of power, success and recognition in the group, involvement in it; F. Herzberg's model of motivation using hygienic factors (working conditions, interpersonal relationships, etc.) in combination with the "enrichment" of the labor process itself: a sense of success, promotion, recognition from others, responsibility, growth of opportunities; Procedural: a model of motivation based on the theory of expectations by V. Vram: a person directs his efforts to achieve a goal when he is sure that his needs are met. Motivation is a function of the expectation factor according to the scheme: "labor costs -> results -" reward "; a model of motivation based on the theory of justice: people compare personal efforts expended with remuneration, comparing it with the remuneration of others for similar work. If labor is underestimated, efforts are reduced.

The concepts of "leadership" and "leadership", the features of these forms of influence.

Leadership is a purposeful impact on the people being led and their communities, which leads to their conscious and active behavior and activities, in accordance with the intentions of the leader. Leadership is the process of psychological influence of one person on others during their joint life, which is carried out on the basis of perception, imitation, suggestion, understanding of each other. Leadership is based on the principles of free communication, mutual understanding and voluntary subordination. The leader is characterized by: the ability to perceive the common needs and problems of the team and take on a certain share in solving these problems; the ability to be an organizer of joint activities: he formulates a task that worries most members of the team, plans joint work taking into account the interests and capabilities of each member of the team; sensitivity and insight, trust in people, he is the spokesman for the collective positions of its members. The main differences between leadership and leadership: leadership provides for the organization of all group activities, and leadership characterizes the psychological relations that arise in the group “vertically”, that is, from the point of view of dominance and subordination relations; leadership is a natural and necessary element in the process of emergence of an official organization, while leadership arises spontaneously as a result of the interaction of people; leadership acts as a process of legal organization and management of the joint activities of members of organizations, and leadership is a process of internal socio-psychological organization and management of communication and activities; the head is a mediator of social control and power, and the leader is the subject of group norms and expectations that are spontaneously formed in personal relationships. The leader-leader does not command, does not call and "does not put pressure" on employees, but leads people along to solve common problems for this team.

General and special functions of management activities.

Control functions- this is a direction or types of management activities based on division and cooperation in management, and characterized by a separate set of tasks and performed by special techniques and methods. Any management function includes the collection of information, its transformation, decision-making, shaping and bringing to the performers. General control functions:- carried out in every organization and at every level of management; - inherent in the management of any organization; - divide the content of management activities into types of work on the basis of the sequence of their implementation in time; - are relatively independent and at the same time closely interact. To such functions, in particular, in management include: planning, organization, motivation and control. Concrete (specific) functions- are the result of the division of managerial labour. Such functions include various activities that differ in purpose and method of implementation. Specific functions do not affect the entire organization, but certain parts or parts of it. Each specific management function in an organization is complex in content and includes common functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. Special Features - are subfunctions of a specific function (for example, a special function of main production management is operational scheduling of main production).

The main categories of PU are activity and labor. Activity - activity that realizes the needs of a person, its characteristic is the external side (the tools used, technologies, social roles, languages, norms and values), the internal side (expressed in the conditionality of the psyche by past experience, needs, motives and goals). Human activity has a complex genetic, functional and structural character. It has its origins, "causes" and more or less definite structural and functional organization. Its composition is multicomponent. Its implementation involves mental processes, states and personality traits of different levels of complexity. Depending on the goals, this activity can last for years or even a lifetime. However, no matter how complex it may be, no matter how long it lasts, it can be described using universal units, which reflect not a meaningful, but precisely a structural-level approach to its description. The units of activity, which are its smaller fragments, but at the same time retain the specifics of its psychological content, are those of its elements that are fixed in the concepts of action and operation. Purposeful activity associated with the achievement of private goals in the implementation of a broader activity, it is customary in psychology to call actions. An operation is that specific set and sequence of movements that is determined by the specific conditions of interaction with objects in the process of performing actions (for example, the physical properties of the object, location, orientation in space, accessibility, etc.). Simply put, an operation is a way of performing an action. Operations are formed through imitation (copying) and by automating actions. Unlike actions, operations are less conscious.

The principle of the unity of the psyche and activity; two-stage study of the psychology of activity.

The principle of the unity of consciousness and activity is the fundamental principle of the activity approach in psychology. Activity is not a set of reflex and impulsive reactions to external stimuli, since it is regulated by consciousness and reveals it. At the same time, consciousness is considered as a reality that is not given to the subject directly, in his self-observation: it can be known only through a system of subjective relations, incl. through the activity of the subject, in the process of which consciousness is formed and develops. The psyche, consciousness "live" in the activity that makes up their "substance", the image is an "accumulated movement", i.e. curtailed actions, which were at first fully developed and "external", i.e. consciousness is not just "manifested and formed" in activity as a separate reality - it is "embedded" in activity and is inseparable from it. The principle of a two-stage psychological study of activity. According to him, the analysis of activity should include two successive stages - the analysis of its content and the analysis of its psychological mechanisms. The first stage is connected with the characterization of the objective content of the activity, the second - with the analysis of the subjective, proper psychological content.

The main functions of management: planning, motivation, etc.

Currently, the process approach to management is widespread, which considers management as a process consisting of a number of specific sequential steps. Most people plan their activities for the day (month, year, etc.), then organize the resources that will be required to carry out their plan. Those. management must be seen as a cyclical process ^ Main types of managementPlanning - the process of preparing for the future decisions about what should be done, how, when, what and how much resources should be used. The planning function answers three questions: Where is the organization currently located? Where does she want to go? How the organization is going to do it. ^ Organization. Stages: 1. structural organization (includes the structure of authority and the structure of communications; 2. organization of the production process (includes the organization of personnel work, work in time, work in space). Motivation - maximum satisfaction of the needs of the employees of the organization in exchange for their effective work. Stages: 1. determination of the needs of employees; 2. enabling the employee to meet these needs through good work. The control - the process of ensuring that the organization actually achieves its purpose. Stages: 1. setting standards; 2. measuring what has actually been achieved and comparing what has been achieved against the intended standards; 3. identification of sources of discrepancy and actions necessary to correct plans.

Basic psychological requirements for an effective manager.

Many existing approaches to defining the normative model of an effective leader can be grouped into 3 main groups:

1. Situational;

2. Personal;

3. Situational.

1. Functional approach. The main point for developing requirements for

An effective manager is to define his functions. At the same time, the structure of the manager's activity is the main one for the allocation of functions.

In most cases, the functional characteristics of the activities of managers are associated with understanding and formulating the mission of the organization, setting goals, managing resources, controlling processes in the external and internal environment of the organization.

There are 12 functions that reflect the structure and specifics of the professional activity of a manager of functions:

1. Knowledge - knowledge of a person, group, organization, its environment, the current situation of management;

2. Forecast - determination of the main directions and dynamics of the development of controlled variables;

3. Designing - defining the mission, goals and objectives of the organization, programming and planning activities;

4. Communication and information - formation, structuring, preservation of communication networks, collection, transformation and direction to communication networks necessary for information management;

5. Motivation - a rational impact on the totality of external and internal conditions that cause activity and determine the direction of the activity of the subject and object of management;

6. Guidelines - taking responsibility for proposed solutions and their consequences based on regulations or agreements within organizations;

7. Organizations - implementation of the goals and objectives of management;

8. Training - the transfer of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to personnel;

9. Development - an expedient change in the psychological variables of the individual and the group;

10. Assessments - formation and application of norms and standards of activity;

11. Control - a reflection of the compliance of the current state of organizations with the goals of management;

12. Corrections - making the necessary changes to the goals and management programs.

When carrying out procedures for the professional selection of managers from the standpoint of a functional approach, the readiness of applicants to effectively perform precisely those functions that are characteristic of the proposed position is assessed.

2. Personal approach. It is based on the assumption that effective managerial activity is associated with the manager's possession of some set of personality traits.

The profile of an effective manager, according to which a successful leader is characterized by the following features:

Search for opportunities and initiative; perseverance and perseverance;

Focus on efficiency and quality; involvement in working contacts;

Purposefulness;

Awareness;

Ability to persuade and establish connections; independence and self-confidence.

3. Situational (behavioral) approach. Successful leadership depends on:

1. expectations and needs of led persons;

2. structure of the group and the specifics of the situation;

3. The cultural environment in which the group is included;

4. the history of the organization in which the management activities are carried out;

5. age and experience of the leader, his length of service;

6. Psychological climate in the group;

7. personal characteristics of subordinates.

The situational approach allows us to identify a number of managerial personality traits that indicate the manager's readiness for productive activity in a wide range of situations. These include, in particular, the ability to change leadership style flexibly, resistance to uncertainty, and the absence of rigid stereotypes.

Thus, we can conclude that beyond the task of the professional selection of managers is to establish the correspondence of the personal characteristics of the applicant to the characteristics of the organization, the structure and functions of the activity, the current and predicted state of the professional environment.

The essence of management activity, two main plans for its characteristics.

Activity is defined as a form of the subject's active attitude to reality, aimed at achieving consciously set goals and associated with the creation of socially significant values and the development of social experience. The subject of the psychological study of activity is the psychological components that induce, direct and regulate the labor activity of the subject and implement it in performing actions, as well as the personality traits through which this activity is realized. The main psychological properties of activity are activity, awareness, purposefulness, objectivity and systemic nature of its structure. An activity is always based on some motive (or several motives). Activity involves two main characterization plans - external (subject-effective) and internal (psychological). The external characteristic of activity is carried out through the concepts of the subject and object of labor, the subject, means and conditions of activity. The subject of labor is a set of things, processes, phenomena with which the subject in the process of work must mentally or practically operate. Means of labor - a set of tools that can enhance a person's ability to recognize the features of the object of labor and influence it. Working conditions - a system of social, psychological and sanitary-hygienic characteristics of activity. The internal characteristic of activity involves a description of the processes and mechanisms of its mental regulation, its structure and content, operational means of its implementation.

The mechanism of execution of decisions and its role in management activities. Decision-making model as a circular process, its stages.

Stages of the decision-making process: 1) Identification of the problem - the primary distinction in a given conflicting situation of a problem that needs to be resolved. The discovered discrepancy between the actual and desired state of the organization. 2) Analysis, diagnosis of the problem based on the collection of factual material related to the problem that has arisen. Having discovered the problem, it is necessary to properly qualify it, which is the second task of the process of developing a management decision. Diagnostics is designed to establish the nature of the problem, its connection with other problems, the degree of its danger, the collection and analysis of facts. 3) Determining the essence of the problem, its main content. At this stage, the results of the analysis are used to develop solutions. There should be many such options, so that by comparing them it would be possible to choose the best, most reasonable. 4) Choosing the optimal solution and bringing its content to the performers. Such a choice involves consideration of all options for the proposed solution and the exclusion of subjective moments in its content. The optimal option will be the one that best takes into account the essence of the problems that have arisen, is acceptable in terms of the amount of expenses necessary for its implementation, and is the most reliable in terms of the possibility of its implementation. 5) Practical implementation under the control of the head through the use of a feedback mechanism. The implementation of the adopted decision includes all the main phases of the management cycle - planning, organization, motivation and control.

Sole and agreed decisions, conditions for their adoption. The need to make a decision arises when the usual, stereotyped reaction to the information received is impossible. The manager can make decisions both individually and in coordination with the work team. Sole decisions are made by the manager mainly with a minimum communicative space - for example, decisions made in emergency conditions, or decisions whose significance is not great. But there are also decisions that are better to make agreed, taking into account the opinion of the team, or taking into account the opinion of firms with which the enterprise cooperates, for example, on changing the delivery time of products.

The role of feedback in the management communication system.

Feedback - prompt reaction to what is heard, read or seen; this is information (in verbal and non-verbal form) that is sent back to the sender, indicating a measure of understanding, trust in the message, assimilation and agreement with it. Feedback allows the sender not only to know the result of the act of communication, but also to correct the next message to achieve a greater effect. If the result of the message transmission is achieved, it is said that positive feedback is in effect; otherwise, negative feedback operates. Establishing feedback in an organization is a rather difficult task. This is especially true of vertical, power communications under control through coercion, when the recipient of information is afraid of possible sanctions and deliberately distorts the message coming through feedback channels.

Methods of psychological research: general scientific and special; non-experimental and experimental.

Non-experimental methods: observation; questioning; conversation; archival method "or the study of products of activity (The object of research when using the method of studying products of activity can be a wide variety of creative products of the subjects (poems, drawings, various crafts, diary entries, school essays, objects, as a result of a certain type of labor experimental methods: natural (conditions are organized not by the experimenter, but by life itself, the natural behavior of a person is evaluated); modeling (the subject acts according to the experimenter's instructions and knows that he is participating in the experiment as a subject); laboratory (conducting research in the psychological laboratory equipped with special instruments and devices.This type of experiment, which is also distinguished by the greatest artificiality of experimental conditions, is usually used in the study of elementary mental functions (sensory and motor reactions, reaction choice).General scientific methods reflect the scientific apparatus of research, determining ii efficiency of any type. Specific - these are methods that are born by the specifics of management systems and reflect the peculiarity of management activities.