Types of languages ​​natural artificial. Natural and artificial languages

Natural languages ​​are sound (speech) and then graphic (writing) information sign systems that have historically developed in society. They arose to consolidate and transfer the accumulated information in the process of communication between people. Natural languages ​​are carriers of centuries-old culture and are inseparable from the history of the people who speak them.

Everyday reasoning is usually conducted in natural language. But such a language was developed in the interests of ease of communication, the exchange of thoughts, at the expense of accuracy and clarity. Natural languages ​​have rich expressive possibilities: they can be used to express any knowledge (both ordinary and scientific), emotions, feelings.

Natural language performs two main functions - representative and communicative. The representative function lies in the fact that the language is a means of symbolic expression or representation of abstract content (knowledge, concepts, thoughts, etc.), accessible through thinking to specific intellectual subjects. The communicative function is expressed in the fact that language is a means of transferring or communicating this abstract content from one intellectual subject to another. By themselves, letters, words, sentences (or other symbols, such as hieroglyphs) and their combinations form a material basis in which the material superstructure of the language is realized - a set of rules for constructing letters, words, sentences and other linguistic symbols, and only together with the corresponding superstructure that or some other material basis forms a concrete natural language.

Based on the semantic status of natural language, the following can be noted:

1. Since a language is a set of certain rules that are implemented on certain symbols, it is clear that there is not one language, but many natural languages. The material basis of any natural language is multidimensional, i.e. is divided into verbal, visual, tactile and other varieties of symbols. All these varieties are independent of each other, but in most real-life languages ​​they are closely related, and verbal symbols are dominant. Usually, the material basis of a natural language is studied only in its two dimensions - verbal and visual (written). At the same time, visual symbols are considered as a kind of equivalent of the corresponding verbal symbols (the only exceptions are languages ​​with hieroglyphic writing). From this point of view, it is permissible to speak of the same natural language having different varieties of visual symbols.

2. Due to differences in the basis and superstructure, any specific natural language represents the same abstract content in a unique, inimitable way. On the other hand, in any particular language, such abstract content is also represented, which is not represented in other languages ​​(in one or another specific period of their development). However, this does not mean that each particular language has its own special sphere of abstract content and that this sphere is part of the language itself. The sphere of abstract content is unified and universal for any natural languages. That is why translation from one natural language to any other natural language is possible, despite the fact that all languages ​​have different expressive capabilities and are at different stages of their development. For logic, natural languages ​​are of interest not in themselves, but only as a means of representing the sphere of abstract content common to all languages, as a means of “seeing” this content and its structure. Those. the object of logical analysis is the abstract content itself as such, while natural languages ​​are only a necessary condition for such an analysis.

The sphere of abstract content is a structured area of ​​clearly distinguishable objects of a special kind. These objects form a kind of rigid universal abstract structure. Natural languages ​​represent not only certain elements of this structure, but also certain integral fragments of it. Any natural language to some extent really reflects the structure of objective reality. But this mapping is superficial, imprecise and contradictory. Natural language is formed in the process of spontaneous social experience. Its superstructure meets the requirements not of purely theoretical, but of practical (mainly everyday) human activity and therefore is a conglomeration of limited and often contradictory rules.

This question can be asked to different people and get completely unexpected answers. But hardly anyone will immediately say about natural and formal languages. The definition and examples of such systems rarely come to mind with such a question. And yet - what is this classification? And what then is considered a language?

On the history of languages ​​and their study

The main science dealing with the study of communication systems is linguistics. There is also a related specialty that studies signs - semiotics. Both sciences originated several millennia ago, so the history of the origin of languages, obviously, has interested people for a very long time.

Unfortunately, due to the fact that a lot of time has passed since the birth of the first systems, it is now difficult to say how everything happened. There are many hypotheses that speak both about the development of language from more primitive systems of communication, and about its almost accidental emergence as a unique phenomenon. Of course, the first option has many more adherents and is practically generally accepted.

Essence

Communicating with each other, not many people think about what a language is, what can be attributed to this category, and what is not. The fact is that there are still sign systems that partially perform the same functions, and the differences are very arbitrary. Therefore, the question arises as to what is the essence of language.

There are several concepts on this topic. Some linguists view language as a biological phenomenon, others as a mental one. According to another popular opinion, he belongs to the sphere of interest of sociologists. Finally, there are researchers who perceive it only as a special system of signs. Be that as it may, it is obvious that in this case only natural languages ​​are meant. Examples of concepts that would also include a formal category do not yet exist, linguistics actually ignores them.

Tasks and functions

What are languages ​​for? Linguists distinguish a number of basic functions:

• Nominative, that is, denominative. The language is used to name various objects, events, phenomena, etc.
• Communicative, that is, the function of communication. This is understood as the fulfillment of the purpose of information transfer.
• Expressive. That is, the language also serves to express the emotional state of the speaker.

Obviously, in this case, again, both categories are not taken into account: natural and formal languages ​​- we are talking only about the first. However, the second function also retains two, only the expressive one drops out. And this is understandable if you know what a formal language is.

Classification

In general, linguistics distinguishes between two categories: formal and natural languages. Further division occurs according to a number of other features. Sometimes a third category is distinguished - animal languages, since natural is usually understood only as systems through which people communicate. There is a further division into smaller groups and subspecies, but it is not necessary to delve so deeply into linguistics to understand the difference between these two large categories.

So, you need to find out how natural and formal languages ​​differ. The definition and examples will be understood by looking at them in more detail.

Natural

Systems that allow people to understand each other when communicating, that is, performing a communicative function, belong to this category. Now it is difficult to imagine how it would be possible to do without them.

• natural languages, examples of which include all dialects that arose and developed in the most common way (English, German, Russian, Chinese, Urdu, etc.);
• artificial (Esperanto, Interlingua, Elvish, Klingon, etc.);
• sign language (language of the deaf).

All of them have their own characteristics and scope. But there is another large category for which most people find it difficult to find examples.

Formal

Languages ​​that require clarity in writing and cannot be perceived subjectively also appeared a very long time ago. They are distinguished by impeccable logic and unambiguity. And they are also different. But all of them have two basic principles: abstraction and strictness of judgment.

Natural and formal languages ​​differ primarily in their complexity. Most of the systems from the first category are a multi-component and multi-level complex. Examples of the second can be both complex and quite simple. It has its own grammar, punctuation and even word formation. The only serious difference is that these systems exist, as a rule, only in writing.

What could be examples? Formal languages ​​include the "queen of sciences" mathematics, followed by chemistry, physics and partly biology. Whatever the nationality of scientists, they will always understand the formulas and records of reactions. And for mathematics it is absolutely not important what this or that number means: the number of apples on a tree or molecules in a gram of a substance. As well as when calculating the friction force, physicists do not take into account the color of the object or some other properties that are not important at the moment. This is how abstraction works.

With the advent of electronics, the issue of communication between a person and a machine, which understands only zeros and ones, has become extremely relevant. Since human acceptance of this system would be too inconvenient and would make the work too complicated, it was decided to create intermediate communication systems. This is how programming languages ​​were born. Of course, they also need to be taught, but they greatly facilitated the understanding between people and electronics. Unfortunately, many-valued, albeit more familiar, natural languages ​​are not at all suitable for this function.

Examples

There is simply no point in talking about natural languages ​​again, linguistics has been studying them for a very long time and has advanced enough in this. At the same time, researchers bypass the category of formal. Only recently, when they have become very relevant, the first scientific papers on them, theories and understandable examples began to appear. Formal languages ​​are artificially created and usually international in nature. They can be both highly specialized and understandable to everyone or at least to the majority.

Perhaps the simplest example is musical notation. There is an alphabet, punctuation rules, etc. This is really a language, although from some points of view, musical notation can only be equated with sign systems.

Of course, this also includes the already mentioned mathematics, the rules for writing in which are extremely strict. All exact sciences can also be conditionally ranked in this category. Finally, there are programming languages. And it is probably worth talking about them in more detail.

Usage

What pushes forward the development and study of formal languages ​​is, of course, technological progress. Computing systems, electronic devices - today almost every thing is a computer in miniature. And if they understand only binary code, then people usually perceive only natural languages. Examples of various ways and attempts to find some kind of compromise ended with the idea of ​​​​creating an intermediate system of communication. Over time, quite a few of them appeared. So today programming is actually the work of a translator from computer to human and vice versa.

But people continue to use natural and artificial languages, examples of which make it clear that too loose rules of grammar and syntax make it very difficult for computers to interpret statements. It is unlikely that linguistic evolution will reach a serious tightening. So one of the most promising areas is natural language understanding systems. They will allow machines to process requests that are written without special rules. Search engines were probably the first step towards this technology. They are developing now, so perhaps the future is already close.

natural language- in linguistics and the philosophy of language, a language used for human communication (as opposed to formal languages ​​and other types of sign systems, also called languages ​​in semiotics) and not artificially created (as opposed to artificial languages).

The vocabulary and grammatical rules of a natural language are determined by the practice of application and are not always formally fixed.

Natural language features

Natural language as a system of signs

Currently, consistency is considered the most important characteristic of a language. The semiotic essence of a natural language is to establish a correspondence between the universe of meanings and the universe of sounds.

Based on the nature of the plan of expression in its oral form, human language refers to auditory sign systems, and in written form, to visual ones.

By type of genesis natural language is classified as a cultural system, thus it is opposed to both natural and artificial sign systems. The human language as a sign system is characterized by a combination of features of both natural and artificial sign systems.

The natural language system refers to multilevel systems, because consists of qualitatively different elements - phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences, the relationships between which are complex and multifaceted.

With regard to the structural complexity of natural language, the language is called the most complex of sign systems.

On a structural basis distinguish also deterministic and probabilistic semiotic systems. Natural language belongs to probabilistic systems in which the order of elements is not rigid, but is of a probabilistic nature.

Semiotic systems are also divided into dynamic, movable and static, fixed. Elements of dynamic systems change their position relative to each other, while the state of elements in static systems is motionless, stable. Natural language is classified as a dynamic system, although it also has static features.

Another structural characteristic of sign systems is their completeness. A complete system can be defined as a system with signs representing all theoretically possible combinations of a certain length from elements of a given set. Accordingly, an incomplete system can be characterized as a system with a certain degree of redundancy, in which not all of the possible combinations of given elements are used to express signs. Natural language is an incomplete system with a high degree of redundancy.

The differences between sign systems in their ability to change make it possible to classify them into open and closed systems. Open systems in the course of their functioning can include new signs and are characterized by higher adaptability compared to closed systems that are not capable of change. The ability to change is also inherent in human language.

According to V. V. Nalimov, natural language occupies a middle position between "soft" and "hard" systems. Soft systems include ambiguously coding and ambiguously interpreted sign systems, for example, the language of music, and hard systems include the language of scientific symbols.

The main function of the language - construction of judgments, the ability to determine the meaning of active reactions, the organization of concepts that are some symmetrical forms that organize the space of relations of "communicators": [source not specified 1041 days]

communicative:

ascertaining(for a neutral statement of fact),

interrogative(for a query about a fact),

appellative(to encourage action)

expressive(to express the mood and emotions of the speaker),

contact-setting(to create and maintain contact between interlocutors);

metalinguistic(for the interpretation of linguistic facts);

aesthetic(for aesthetic impact);

function of the indicator of belonging to a certain group of people(nations, nationalities, professions);

informational;

cognitive;

emotional.

Constructed languages- special languages, which, unlike natural ones, are purposefully constructed. There are already more than a thousand such languages, and more and more are constantly being created.

Classification

There are the following types of artificial languages:

Programming languages ​​and computer languages- languages ​​for automatic processing of information with the help of a computer.

Information languages- languages ​​used in various information processing systems.

Formalized languages ​​of science- languages ​​intended for symbolic recording of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.

Languages ​​of non-existent peoples, created for fiction or entertainment purposes, for example: the Elvish language, invented by J. Tolkien, the Klingon language, invented by Mark Okrand for the fantasy series Star Trek (see Fictional Languages), the Na "vi language, created for the movie Avatar.

International auxiliary languages- languages ​​created from elements of natural languages ​​and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.

The idea of ​​creating a new language of international communication originated in the 17th-18th centuries as a result of the gradual decrease in the international role of Latin. Initially, these were mainly projects of a rational language, freed from the logical errors of living languages ​​and based on a logical classification of concepts. Later, projects appear based on the model and materials of living languages. The first such project was the universalglot published in 1868 in Paris by Jean Pirro. Pirro's project, which anticipated many details of later projects, went unnoticed by the public.

Volapuk, created in 1880 by the German linguist I. Schleyer, became the next project for an international language. He caused a very big resonance in society.

The most famous artificial language was Esperanto (L. Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that has become widespread and has united quite a few supporters of the international language around itself.

Of the artificial languages, the most famous are:

basic english

Esperanto

interlingua

latin-blue-flexione

occidental

solresol

Klingon

elvish languages

There are also languages ​​that were specifically designed to communicate with extraterrestrial intelligence. For example, Linkos.

According to the purpose of creation artificial languages ​​can be divided into the following groups:

Philosophical and logical languages- languages ​​that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Tokipona, Ithkuil, Ilaksh.

Auxiliary languages- designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slovian.

Artistic or aesthetic languages- created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.

Also, the language is created to set up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language spoken by a person limits consciousness, drives it into certain limits).

By its structure Artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:

A priori languages- based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.

A posteriori languages- languages ​​built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental

mixed languages- words and word formation are partially borrowed from non-artificial languages, partially created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.

The number of speakers of artificial languages ​​can only be given approximately, due to the fact that there is no systematic record of speakers.

According to the degree of practical use artificial languages ​​are divided into projects that have become widespread: Ido, Interlingua, Esperanto. Such languages, like national languages, are called "socialized", among artificial ones they are united under the term planned languages. An intermediate position is occupied by such artificial language projects that have a certain number of supporters, for example, Loglan (and its descendant Lojban), Slovio and others. Most artificial languages ​​have a single speaker - the author of the language (for this reason, it is more correct to call them "linguo projects" rather than languages).

Hierarchy of communication goals

Language Features

Basic functions:

cognitive(cognitive) function consists in the accumulation of knowledge, its ordering, systematization.

Communicative the function is to ensure the interaction of the sender of a verbal message and its recipient.

Private language features

Contact-setting (phatic)

Impacts (voluntarily)

Reference- a function associated with the subject of thought, with which the given linguistic expression is correlated.

Estimated

Emotive (emotional-expressive)

accumulative- that property of the language to accumulate, to accumulate the knowledge of people. Subsequently, this knowledge is perceived by descendants.

Metalinguistic

aesthetic- The ability of language to be a means of research and description in terms of the language itself.

ritual and etc.

1. Logic and language.The subject of the study of logic are the forms and laws of correct thinking. Thinking is a function of the human brain. Labor contributed to the separation of man from the environment of animals, was the foundation for the emergence of consciousness (including thinking) and language in people. Thinking is inextricably linked with language. Language, according to K. Marx, is immediate reality of thought. In the course of collective labor activity, people had a need to communicate and transfer their thoughts to each other, without which the very organization of collective labor processes was impossible.

The functions of natural language are numerous and multifaceted. Language is a means of everyday communication between people, a means of communication in scientific and practical activities.. Language allows you to transfer and receive accumulated knowledge, practical skills and life experience from one generation to another, to carry out the process of training and education of the younger generation. language the following functions are also characteristic: to store information, to be a means of expressing emotions, to be a means of cognition.

Language is a sign information system, a product of human spiritual activity. The accumulated information is transmitted using the signs (words) of the language.

Speech can be oral or written, sound or non-sound (as, for example, with the deaf and dumb), external speech (for others) or internal, speech expressed using natural or artificial language. With the help of the scientific language, which is based on natural language, the provisions of philosophy, history, geography, archeology, geology, medicine (which uses, along with the "living" national languages, the now "dead" Latin language) and many other sciences are formulated.

Language is not only a means of communication, but also the most important component of the culture of any people.

Artificial languages ​​of science arose on the basis of natural languages. These include the languages ​​of mathematics, symbolic logic, chemistry, physics, as well as algorithmic programming languages ​​for computers, which are widely used in modern computers and systems. Programming languages ​​are called sign systems used to describe the processes of solving problems on a computer. Currently, there is a growing tendency to develop the principles of "communication" between a person and a computer in natural language, so that computers can be used without intermediaries - programmers.

A sign is a material object (phenomenon, event) that acts as a representative of some other object, property or relationship and is used to acquire, store, process and transmit messages (information, knowledge).

Signs are divided into linguistic and non-linguistic. Non-linguistic signs include copy signs (for example, photographs, fingerprints, reproductions, etc.), signs-signs, or signs-indicators (for example, smoke is a sign of fire, fever is a sign of illness), signs-signals (for example, a bell is a sign of the beginning or end of a lesson), signs-symbols (for example, road signs) and other types of signs. There is a special science - semiotics, which is a general theory of signs. Varieties of signs are linguistic signs. One of the most important functions of linguistic signs is to designate objects by them. Names are used to designate objects.

A name is a word or phrase denoting a particular object. (The words "designation", "naming", "name" are considered as synonyms.) The subject here is understood in a very broad sense: these are things, properties, relationships, processes, phenomena, etc., both of nature and social life, mental the activities of people, the products of their imagination and the results of abstract thinking. So, the name is always the name of some object. Although objects are changeable, fluid, they retain a qualitative certainty, which is indicated by the name of this object.

2. The language of logic and the language of law. The necessary connection between thinking and language, in which language acts as a material shell of thoughts, means that the identification of logical structures is possible only through the analysis of linguistic expressions. Just as the kernel of a nut can be reached only by opening its shell, so logical forms can only be revealed by analyzing the language.

In order to master logical-linguistic analysis, let us briefly consider the structure and functions of the language, the relationship between logical and grammatical categories, as well as the principles for constructing a special language of logic.

Language is a symbolic information system that performs the function of forming, storing and transmitting information in the process of cognition of reality and communication between people.

The main building material in the construction of the language are the signs used in it. A sign is any sensually perceived (visually, aurally or otherwise) object that acts as a representative of another object. Among the various signs, we distinguish two types: signs-images and signs-symbols.

Signs-images have a certain similarity with the designated objects. Examples of such signs: copies of documents; fingerprints; photographs; some road signs depicting children, pedestrians and other objects. Signs-symbols have no resemblance to the designated objects. For example: musical signs; Morse code characters; letters in the alphabets of national languages.

3. Natural and artificial languages. By origin, languages ​​are natural and artificial.

natural languages- these are sound (speech) and then graphic (writing) information sign systems that have historically developed in society. They arose to consolidate and transfer the accumulated information in the process of communication between people. Natural languages ​​act as carriers of the centuries-old culture of peoples. They are distinguished by rich expressive possibilities and universal coverage of various areas of life.

Constructed languages are auxiliary sign systems created on the basis of natural languages ​​for accurate and economical transmission of scientific and other information. They are constructed using natural language or a previously constructed artificial language. A language that acts as a means of building or learning another language is called a metalanguage, the main language is called an object language. The metalanguage, as a rule, has richer expressive possibilities compared to the object language.

Constructed languages of varying degrees of severity are widely used in modern science and technology: chemistry, mathematics, theoretical physics, computer technology, cybernetics, communications, shorthand.

4. Principles of construction of formalized languages ​​of logic.

formalized language- an artificial language of logic designed to reproduce the logical forms of the contexts of a natural language, as well as the expression of logical laws and methods of correct reasoning in logical theories built in this language.

The construction of a formalized language begins with the specification of its alphabet– sets of initial, primitive symbols. The alphabet includes logical symbols (signs of logical operations and relations, eg propositional connectives and quantifiers), non-logical symbols (parameters of descriptive components of natural language), and technical symbols (eg brackets). Then the so-called rules for the formation of complex characters of the language from simple ones are formulated - various types of well-formed expressions are given. Their most important type are formulas - analogues of natural language statements.

A distinctive feature of a formalized language is the effectiveness of the definitions of all its syntactic categories: the question of whether an arbitrary character or sequence of alphabetic characters belongs to a particular class of linguistic expressions is solved algorithmically, in a finite number of steps.

Sometimes formalized languages, along with the alphabet and rules of formation, include the so-called transformation rules - deduction procedures, exact rules for transitions from one sequence of characters to another. In this case, the formalized language is essentially identified with the logical calculus. Another interpretation of a formalized language involves the adoption of rules for interpreting its expressions, allowing each syntactic category of signs to be compared with a semantic one, which is essential for identifying logical forms.

Formalized languages ​​may have different expressive capabilities. Thus, propositional languages ​​allow one to explore the logical form only at the level of complex statements, without taking into account the internal structure of simple statements. Syllogistic languages ​​allow fixing the logical forms of attributive statements. First-order languages ​​reproduce the structure of both simple (both attributive and relational) and complex statements, but they allow quantification only by individuals. In richer languages ​​- languages ​​of higher orders - quantification is also allowed by properties, relations and functions.

The principles of constructing formalized languages ​​can also be used to define the languages ​​of non-logical, applied theories. In this case, instead of abstract non-logical symbols (parameters), the names of specific objects of the subject area of ​​the theory, signs of certain functions, properties, relations, etc. are introduced into the alphabet of the language.

FORM AND LANGUAGE OF PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION

The form of presentation of the same information may be different.

Thus, information can be presented in various forms:

• iconic written, consisting of various characters, among which it is customary to single out:
• symbolic in the form of text, numbers, special characters (on
• example, textbook text);
• graphic(for example, a geographical map);
• tabular(for example, a table for recording the course of a physical experiment);
• in the form of gestures or signals (for example, traffic controller signals
• road traffic);
• oral verbal (for example, conversation).

The basis of any language is alphabet- a set of uniquely defined characters (symbols) from which a message is formed. Languages ​​are divided into natural (spoken) and formal. The alphabet of natural languages ​​depends on national traditions. Formal languages ​​are found in special areas of human activity (mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc.).

Natural and formal languages.

In the process of the development of human society, people have developed a large number of languages. Language examples:

• Spoken languages ​​(currently there are more than 2000 of them in the world);
• languages ​​of facial expressions and gestures;
• languages ​​of drawings, drawings, diagrams;
• · languages ​​of science (mathematics, chemistry, biology, etc.);
• languages ​​of art (painting, music, sculpture, architecture, etc.);
• Special languages ​​(Braille for the blind, Morse code, Esperanto, Maritime semaphore, etc.);
• · algorithmic languages ​​(block diagrams, programming languages).

Language- this is a sign system used for the purposes of communication and cognition. The foundation of most languages ​​is alphabet- a set of characters from which words and phrases of a given language can be composed.

The language is characterized by:

• The set of symbols used
• rules for the formation of such language structures from these signs as “words”, “phrases” and “texts” (in a broad interpretation of these concepts);
• · a set of syntactic, semantic and pragmatic rules for the use of these language constructs.

All languages ​​can be divided into natural and artificial.

Natural are called "ordinary", "colloquial" languages, which develop spontaneously and over a long period of time. Natural language, intended primarily for everyday communication, has a number of peculiar features:

• almost all words have not one, but several meanings;
• Often there are words with inaccurate and unclear content;
• The meanings of individual words and expressions depend not only on them, but also on their environment (context);
• Synonyms (different sound - same meaning) and homonyms (same sound - different meaning) are common;
• The same objects can have several names;
• There are words that do not denote any objects;
• · many conventions regarding the use of words are not formulated explicitly, but are only assumed and there are exceptions for each rule, etc.

Main functions natural language are:

• communicative (function of communication);
• Cognitive (cognitive function);
• emotional (function of personality formation);
• directive (function of influence).

artificial languages ​​are created by people for specific purposes or for certain groups of people. A characteristic feature of artificial languages ​​is the unambiguous definition of their vocabulary, the rules for the formation of expressions and the rules for assigning meanings to them.

Any language - both natural and artificial - has a set of certain rules. They can be explicitly and strictly formulated (formalized), or they can allow various options for their use.

Formalized (formal) a language is a language characterized by precise rules for constructing expressions and understanding them. It is built in accordance with clear rules, providing a consistent, accurate and compact display of the properties and relationships of the studied subject area (modeled objects).

Unlike natural languages, formal languages ​​have clearly defined rules for the semantic interpretation and syntactic transformation of the signs used, as well as the fact that the meaning and meaning of the signs does not change depending on any pragmatic circumstances (for example, on the context).

Most formal languages ​​(created constructs) are built according to the following scheme. is selected first alphabet , or a set of initial characters from which all expressions of the language will be built; then described syntax language, that is, the rules for constructing meaningful expressions. The letters in the alphabet of a formal language can be letters of the alphabets of natural languages, and brackets, and special characters, etc. From letters, according to certain rules, you can make words and expressions . Meaningful expressions are obtained in a formal language only if certain regulations education. For each formal language, the set of these rules must be strictly defined, and the modification of any of them most often leads to the emergence of a new variety (dialect) of this language.

Formal languages ​​are widely used in science and technology. From the point of view of computer science, formal languages ​​play the most significant role among formal languages. language of logic (the language of the algebra of logic) and programming languages .

emergence programming languages dates back to the beginning of the 1950s.