The foreign policy of Alexander 2 is the most important thing. What reforms have been carried out

The explosions of the Crimean War were still thundering, Russian valiant soldiers fought with the Turks, the whistle of bullets was heard when Alexander II ascended the Russian throne. The emperor had to solve many problems and tasks in the foreign policy of the state. Firstly, it was necessary to stop the Crimean War, since it was already a burden for the Russian Empire. Secondly, it was necessary to establish itself in the European arena. As for the southern borders, Alexander II also sought to expand them. The Russian emperor successfully coped with all these tasks. In addition, mutually beneficial agreements were concluded with the Far Eastern countries, and Alaska was also sold to America. More about all this in this lesson.

Rice. 2. Eastern (Crimean) war ()

As a result, Russia found itself in international isolation.. The primary task facing Alexander II was the restoration of its former greatness. To do this, it was necessary first of all to solve the affairs of domestic politics, that is, to strengthen the state, make it stronger. Therefore, in foreign policy, he adopts for a while the tactics of waiting, while Russia is engaged in its domestic policy.

During the reign of Alexander II, a graduate of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, an outstanding diplomat and politician, became the new Minister of Foreign Affairs, Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov(Fig. 3) . He sought to prevent Russia from being drawn into new European conflicts. Russian society was dissatisfied, because it was believed that Russia did not seek to regain its lost positions, but the wise Gorchakov answered: “Russia is reproached for isolating itself and keeping silent. They say that Russia is pouting. Russia is not pouting, Russia is concentrating.” Thus, Gorchakov showed that until the most important issues in domestic politics were resolved, until Russia regained its former power, did not find allies in the international arena, it would not enter new wars.

Rice. 3. Gorchakov A.M. ()

The first task facing Gorchakov in the European direction was to upset the anti-Russian coalition that had formed as a result of the Crimean War. In 1859, Russia concluded a number of treaties with France. However, the Polish uprising of 1863-1864 soon began. England and France provided active assistance to the rebellious Poles. The only state that took the side of Russia was Prussia. The Prussian leadership allowed Russia to pursue the Polish rebels on its territory. Therefore, Russia is changing its foreign policy tactics: from rapprochement with France, Russia is moving towards rapprochement and improving relations with Prussia.

Soon new wars broke out in Europe: the Austro-Prussian War (1866) and the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). In these wars, Russia supported Prussia. The result of these wars was the victory of Prussia, thereby changing the balance of power in Europe.

France was greatly weakened, and Russia, taking advantage of this, announced at the London Conference in 1871 that it was no longer going to fulfill the humiliating conditions of the Paris Peace Treaty. As a result of Gorchakov's efforts, Russia was allowed to have a fleet on the Black Sea. England, France and Turkey were not happy with this outcome, but now Russia's ally was a powerful, growing Germany.

Important for Russia was the entry in 1873 into the Union of the Three Emperors(Fig. 4) . This union was formed between the emperors of Russia (Alexander II), Germany (Wilhelm I) and Austria-Hungary (Franz Joseph I).

Rice. 4. Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph, German Emperor Wilhelm I, Russian Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna during a meeting on September 17, 1884 in Skiernevtsy ()

Another important direction in the policy of Alexander II was the development of Central Asia. In the 1860s, Russia took over the Kazakh tribe. Now the Russian sovereign took care of these people. However, the Kazakhs were constantly threatened by their southern neighbors, namely three states: the Emirate of Bukhara, the Kokand and Khiva khanates. There were attempts to build a line of fortifications to protect the southern Russian territories from the raids of the Bukhara and Kokand people. However, these attempts were not successful.

As a result, in 1865 General M.G. Chernyaev led the Russian troops on the attack to resolve the so-called southern conflict. He managed to capture the city of Tashkent, one of the largest in Central Asia. In this city, the creation of a new Russian province, Turkestan, was proclaimed. Its leader was the hero of the Central Asian wars - General K.P. Kaufman. Russian opponents could not come to terms with this, and the Emirate of Bukhara declared a Holy War on Russia. But this war was not successful for the Bukhara emirate. General Kaufman led the Russian troops on the attack and captured Samarkand.

The result of the war was the recognition by the Emirate of Bukhara, the Kokand and Khiva khanates of dependence on Russia. Thus, the development of Asia continued successfully (Fig. 5) .

Rice. 5. The southern direction of the foreign policy of Alexander II ()

The Asian side was dissatisfied, and new attempts began to get out of subordination to Russia. In order to finally pacify the enemy, the famous General M.D. was sent from St. Petersburg to lead the Central Asian troops. Skobelev (Fig. 6), nicknamed the "White General".

Rice. 6. M.D. Skobelev ()

In 1876, having inflicted a number of defeats on the Kokand people, Skobelev forced the khan to recognize Russian citizenship.

There was one more serious opponent for Russia - this is the Akhal-Teke oasis, it was believed that the Akhal-Teke fortress was impregnable. But Skobelev's campaign in 1881 ended with the fall of the Akhal-Teke oasis, and Russia had no more enemies in the Asian region.

Central Asia was conquered by the Russian Empire.

Under Alexander II, Russian territories expanded in the Far East.

In 1860, the Peking Treaty was signed with China., according to which Russia departed the Ussuri region. In 1860, Russian sailors founded one of the central cities in this region - Vladivostok (Fig. 7).

Rice. 7. Vladivostok in the 19th century ()

In 1875, an important treaty was signed with Japan, according to which Russia received the entire island of Sakhalin, and the ridge of the Kuril Islands was transferred to Japan.

As a result, Russia's position in the Far East has strengthened.

Sale of Alaska to the USA

In addition, an important event in the policy of Alexander II was the sale of Alaska. It was not very important for Russia, the cost of maintaining it was very high, and this region brought little income. Thus, the maintenance of Alaska was unprofitable for the Russian Empire. Therefore, America's offer to buy Alaska was very relevant for Russia.

As a result, in 1867 in Washington, AlexanderIIsigned an agreement under which Alaska passed into the hands of the United States for the amount of $ 7 million.

Summing up this topic, we can say that the foreign policy of Alexander II was successful. Russia expanded its territories and strengthened its influence in a number of new regions. Also, Russia was able to achieve the annulment of the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty, which were humiliating for it, and also to strengthen its influence in the international arena.

Bibliography

1. Zayonchkovsky A.M. Eastern war 1853-1856. - St. Petersburg: Polygon, 2002.

2. Ivanov P.P. Essays on the history of Central Asia (XVI - mid-XIX centuries). - M., 1958.

3. Lazukova N.N., Zhuravleva O.N. Russian history. 8th grade. - M.: "Ventana-Count", 2013.

4. Lyashenko L.M. Russian history. 8th grade. - M .: "Drofa", 2012.

Homework

1. Describe the foreign policy of the Russian Empire under Alexander II in the European direction. What main events of this policy can you single out and what were their results?

2. What was the importance of joining the southern lands to the Russian Empire?

3. What were the main achievements made by Russia in the Far Eastern foreign policy under Alexander II?

4. Do you think the sale of Alaska to America is a deliberate economic and political move or thoughtless recklessness?

Their success to a large extent depended on the external situation: a new war could disrupt the transformation. The emperor appointed consistent supporters of his course as ambassadors in the largest states of the world. In 1856, Prince A. M. Gorchakov was placed at the head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In a letter to Alexander II, he defined the main foreign policy goal of the country as follows: “In the current situation of our state and Europe in general, Russia's main attention should be stubbornly directed to the realization of the cause of our internal development, and all foreign policy should be subordinated to this task.

Based on this goal, the main directions of foreign policy were identified: exit from international isolation and the restoration of the role of Russia as a great power, the abolition of the humiliating articles of the Paris Peace Treaty, which forbade having a fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea. In addition, it was necessary to fix the borders with neighboring states in Central Asia and the Far East by treaties. These difficult tasks were solved peacefully largely thanks to the brilliant diplomatic talent of A. M. Gorchakov.

Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov (1798-1883) after graduating in 1817 from the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, where he studied with A. S. Pushkin, he entered the diplomatic service. Before the start of the Crimean War, at the Vienna Ambassadors Conference, he made a lot of efforts to keep Austria and a number of other powers from entering the war against Russia.

A. M. Gorchakov was distinguished by his independence of character, high morality, and had extensive connections among politicians of foreign states. He enjoyed the great confidence of Emperor Alexander II, not only in matters of foreign policy, but also in matters of reforms within the country. For services to the Fatherland, Gorchakov was awarded the highest honors, including the title of His Serene Highness Prince and the highest civil rank of the Table of Ranks - State Chancellor Russian Empire.

Gorchakov, skillfully using the contradictions between the European powers, sought the necessary agreements for his state. Being a supporter of a cautious foreign policy, he showed restraint in Central Asian affairs, trying to counteract the aggressive plans of the military ministry.

European politics

The main efforts of Russian diplomacy were aimed at finding allies in Europe, getting out of isolation and the collapse of the anti-Russian bloc, which included France, England and Austria. The situation then prevailing in Europe played into the hands of Russia. Former allies in the anti-Russian coalition were torn apart by sharp disagreements, sometimes reaching wars.

The main efforts of Russia were aimed at rapprochement with France. In September 1857, Alexander II met with the French Emperor Napoleon III, and in February 1859 an agreement on Franco-Russian cooperation was signed. However, this union did not become long and lasting. And when the war broke out between France and Austria in April 1859, Russia evaded French help, thereby seriously undermining Franco-Russian relations. On the other hand, relations between Russia and Austria have improved significantly. By these actions, Gorchakov actually destroyed the anti-Russian alliance and brought Russia out of international isolation.

Polish uprising 1863-1864 and the attempts of England and France to intervene under the pretext of this uprising in the internal affairs of Russia caused an acute crisis, which ended in the rapprochement of Russia and Prussia, which allowed the persecution of the Polish rebels on its territory. Subsequently, Russia took a position of benevolent neutrality towards Prussia during her wars against Austria (1866) and France (1870-1871).

Having enlisted the support of Prussia, Gorchakov launched an attack on the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 that were unfavorable for Russia. In October 1870, in the midst of the Franco-Prussian War, he declared that Russia no longer considers itself bound by the obligations of the Paris Treaty in terms of "neutralization" Black Sea, which have been repeatedly violated by other powers. Despite the protests of England, Austria and Turkey, Russia set about creating a navy on the Black Sea, restoring the destroyed and building new military fortifications. Thus, this foreign policy task was also solved peacefully.

The defeat of France in the war with Prussia and the subsequent unification of Germany changed the balance of power in Europe. A powerful militant power appeared on the western borders of Russia. A particular threat was the alliance of Germany with Austria (since 1867 - Austria-Hungary). In order to prevent this alliance and at the same time neutralize England, irritated by Russia's successes in Central Asia, Gorchakov organized in 1873 a meeting of the emperors of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Under an agreement signed by the three monarchs, they pledged to provide each other with assistance, including military assistance. But when, 2 years after the signing of the agreement, Germany again set out to attack France, Russia, alarmed by the excessive strengthening of the Germans, opposed a new war. The Union of Three Emperors finally collapsed in 1878.

Thus, Alexander II managed to fulfill the main foreign policy task in the main - European - direction. Russia achieved the abolition of the most humiliating articles of the Paris Treaty and peacefully restored its former influence. This favorably affected the implementation of reforms and the end of wars in the Caucasus and Central Asia.

End of the Caucasian War

In an effort to complete the annexation of the Caucasus, the Russian government sent significant forces to fight the highlanders.

The Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasian Army A. I. Baryatinsky (1856-1860), just as at the beginning of the Caucasian War A. P. Yermolov, began to compress the blockade ring around the enemy with a strong consolidation of the occupied territories. In April 1859, Shamil's "capital" fell - the village of Vedeno. Shamil himself fled to the village of Gunib. On August 25, the village was taken by storm. Shamil surrendered on honorable terms. He, his family and guards were provided with housing in Kaluga and financial support. The Imam's sons got the opportunity to study at military schools and serve in the Russian army.

In the north-west of the Caucasus, military operations against the Russian troops were conducted by Shamil's comrade-in-arms Mukhamed-Amin. Here the situation of the Russian troops was facilitated by the disunity of the Circassian and Abkhazian tribes, as well as a change in the mood of the local population. In November 1859, the main forces of the Circassians surrendered. By April 1864, Russian troops occupied the entire Black Sea coast of Abkhazia. On May 21, 1864, the last center of resistance of the Circassian tribes was suppressed. This day is considered the date of the end of the Caucasian War and the entry of the mountain peoples of the Caucasus into Russia, although some skirmishes still continued.

The entry of the peoples of the Caucasus into Russia contributed to their economic and cultural development. At the end of the XIX century. here appeared its own commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, which owned oil fields and factories. In the early 90s. the Vladikavkaz railway was built, oil production began to develop rapidly.

Russian policy in Central Asia

In the early 60s. the voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Kazakhs ended. But their lands were still subject to raids from neighboring states: the Emirate of Bukhara, the Khiva and Kokand khanates. Kazakhs were captured and then sold into slavery. To prevent such actions along the Russian border, fortification systems began to be created. However, the raids continued, and the governor-generals of the border regions, on their own initiative, made retaliatory campaigns.

These campaigns, or, as they were called, expeditions, caused discontent in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It did not want to aggravate relations with England, which considered Central Asia to be its area of ​​influence. But the Ministry of War, seeking to restore the authority of the Russian army, shaken after the Crimean War, tacitly supported the actions of its military leaders. Yes, and Alexander II himself was not averse to expanding his possessions in the east. Central Asia was not only of military but also economic interest for Russia, both as a source of cotton for the textile industry and as a marketplace for Russian goods. Therefore, actions to annex Central Asia also found wide support in industrial and merchant circles.

In June 1865, Russian troops under the command of General M. G. Chernyaev, taking advantage of the war between Bukhara and Kokand, captured the largest city of Central Asia, Tashkent, and a number of other cities almost without loss. This provoked a protest from England, and Alexander II was forced to dismiss Chernyaev for "arbitrariness". But all the conquered lands were annexed to Russia. Here the Turkestan Governor-General (Turkestan Territory) was formed, the head of which the tsar appointed General K.P. Kaufman.

To protect these lands from the east, in 1867, the Semirechensk Cossack army was formed along the border with China. In response to the “holy war” declared by the Bukhara emir, Russian troops captured Samarkand in May 1868 and forced the emir in 1873 to recognize dependence on Russia. In the same year, the Khiva Khan also became dependent. The religious circles of the Kokand Khanate called for a "holy war" against the Russians. In 1875, Russian detachments under the command of General M. D. Skobelev defeated the Khan's troops in the course of swift actions. In February 1876, the Kokand Khanate was abolished, and its territory was included in the Fergana region of the Turkestan Governor-General.

The conquest of Central Asia also took place from the side of the Caspian Sea. In 1869, Russian troops under the command of General N. G. Stoletov landed on its eastern shore and founded the city of Krasnovodsk. Further advance to the east, towards Bukhara, met the stubborn resistance of the Turkmen tribes. The oasis of Geok-Tepe became a stronghold of resistance of the large tribe of Tekins. Repeated attempts by the Russian troops to seize it failed.

Later, M. D. Skobelev was appointed commander of the Russian troops in the west of Turkmenistan. For the uninterrupted supply of Russian troops, a railway line was laid from Krasnovodsk towards Geok-Tepe. On January 12, 1881, after a fierce battle, Russian troops captured Geok-Tepe, and a week later - Ashgabat.

The conquest of Central Asia by Russia deprived the peoples inhabiting it of statehood. But at the same time, internecine wars ceased, slavery and the slave trade were eliminated, part of the lands seized from the feudal lords who fought against the Russian troops was transferred peasants. Cotton growing and sericulture began to develop rapidly, railway construction began, and the extraction of oil, coal, and non-ferrous metals began.

On the annexed lands, the Russian government pursued a flexible policy, avoiding disruption of the usual way of life, without interfering in national culture and religious relations.

Russia's Far Eastern Policy

Until the middle of the XIX century. Russia had no officially recognized borders with its neighbors in the Far East. Russian pioneers continued to settle in these lands, as well as in Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. The expeditions of Admiral G. I. Nevelsky to the coast of the Tatar Strait and Sakhalin (1850-1855) and the Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N. N. Muravyov, who explored the banks of the Amur (1854-1855), were of great not only scientific, but also political importance. To consolidate, develop and protect the lands along the Amur in 1851, the Trans-Baikal Cossack Army was created, and in 1858 - the Amur Cossack Host.

Unleashed in the late 50s. Britain and France did not support the "opium war" against China, which caused a favorable response in Beijing. N. N. Muravyov took advantage of this. He invited the Chinese government to sign an agreement on the establishment of the border between the countries. The presence of settlements of Russian pioneers in the Amur region served as a weighty argument to justify Russia's rights to these lands. In May 1858, N. N. Muravyov signed the Aigun Treaty with representatives of the Chinese government, according to which the border with China was established along the Amur River until the Ussuri River flows into it. The Ussuri region between this river and the Pacific Ocean was declared a joint Russian-Chinese possession. In 1860, a new Beijing Treaty was signed, according to which the Ussuri Territory was declared a possession of Russia. On June 20, 1860, Russian sailors entered the Golden Horn Bay and founded the port of Vladivostok.

It was difficult to negotiate the border between Russia and Japan. According to an agreement concluded in the Japanese city of Shimoda in 1855, at the height of the Crimean War, the Kuril Islands were recognized as the territory of Russia, and Sakhalin Island was jointly owned by the two countries. After the signing of the treaty, a significant number of Japanese settlers rushed to Sakhalin. In 1875, to avoid complications with Japan, Russia agreed to sign a new treaty. Sakhalin completely retreated to Russia, and the islands of the Kuril ridge - to Japan.

Sale of Alaska

By the middle of the XIX century. in Russian America - in Alaska - American entrepreneurs traders, poachers. Protecting and maintaining this remote territory became increasingly difficult, the costs far exceeded the income brought by Alaska. American possessions have become a burden for the state.

At the same time, the government of Alexander II sought to eliminate possible contradictions and strengthen the friendly relations that had developed between the United States and Russia. The emperor decided to sell Alaska to the American government for an insignificant sum of $7.2 million for a deal of this magnitude.

The sale of Alaska in 1867 showed that the Russian government underestimated the economic and military importance of its possessions in the Pacific. It is impossible not to take into account the fact that the main opponents of Russia in Europe - England and France - were at that time on the verge of a war with the United States. The sale of Alaska was a demonstration of US support from Russia.

The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II was active in almost all of its areas. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state succeeded in solving the foreign policy tasks facing it and restoring its position as a great power.

Questions and tasks

1. What were the main goals and directions of Russia's foreign policy in the reign of Alexander II?

2. Give the characteristic of the European policy of Russia. What were the main achievements of Russia in this direction?

3. Tell us about Russia's policy in Central Asia. Can we assume that Russia pursued a colonial policy in this region?

4. How did Russia's relations with China and Japan develop?

5. What were the features of the accession of the Far Eastern territories?

Documentation

From the dispatch of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia A. M. Gorchakov to the representatives of Russia at the courts of the powers that signed the Paris Treaty of 1856 October 19, 1870

The repeated violations to which in recent years the treaties, revered as the foundation of European equilibrium, have been subjected, made it necessary for the imperial cabinet to delve into their significance in relation to the political situation in Russia.

Our august sovereign cannot allow treatises violated in many of his essential and general articles to remain binding on those articles that concern the direct interests of his empire ...

Sovereign Emperor, in confidence in the sense of justice of the powers that signed the Treaty of 1856, and in their consciousness of their own dignity, orders you to declare:

that he considers it his right and his duty to declare to the Sultan about the termination of the force of a separate and additional to the aforementioned treatise of the convention determining the number and size of military ships that both powers allowed themselves to maintain in the Black Sea;

that the Sovereign Emperor expressly informs the Powers that have signed and guaranteed the general treatise, of which this particular convention constitutes an essential part;

which returns, for that matter, the Sultan's rights just as he restores his own.

About Russian America

From a letter from Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich to Vice Chancellor A. M. Gorchakov. March 22, 1857

This sale would be very timely, for one should not deceive oneself and one must foresee that the United States, constantly striving to round off its possessions and desiring to dominate North America undividedly, will take the aforementioned colonies from us and we will not be able to return them.

From the note of the Minister of State Property of Russia. 1862

The main fishery of the colonies - beaver - is constantly falling. In general, the fur trade begins to give way to Canada and England, from where furs began to be obtained in Europe in huge quantities and incomparably cheaper. Whaling in the colonies passed into the hands of the Americans. Fishing barely satisfies the needs of the colonies, despite the extraordinary abundance of various and good fish in the seas and rivers of the colonies. Nothing has been done with regard to agriculture and animal husbandry. The company hardly touches the mineral wealth of the region. All commercial relations of the company weaken and go to decline. Her merchant fleet is the most insignificant, and for her own needs she is forced to charter other people's ships.

Questions about documents

1. What foreign policy event is referred to in the first document?

2. How does Russia justify its refusal to fulfill certain conditions of the Paris Treaty?

3. What foreign policy conditions allowed Russia to take such a step?

5. What other reasons can you name? What is your take on this step?

Summing up the foreign policy of Alexander II

During the reign of Alexander II, quite active work was carried out in all directions, aimed at implementing foreign policy. All the foreign policy tasks set by Alexander II were fulfilled and Russia again restored its dominance in the world.

And the tasks set by Emperor Alexander II in foreign policy were as follows:

First, the main task remained to find a way out of international isolation and restore Russia's status as a great power.

But at that time, Russia was weak in terms of military power, and even after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. all European diplomacy was set against Russia, so at the moment this goal was elusive.

Secondly, in foreign policy with Europe, Alexander II sought to achieve a revision of the Paris Treaty, which forbade having its own fleet and military fortifications on the Black Sea.

With the help of a wise diplomatic approach, Emperor Alexander II and Minister of Foreign Affairs A.M. Gorchakov managed to achieve positive results in this problem as well. In 1871, a new treaty was signed, which canceled a number of articles prohibiting having your own fleet. After that, Russia was able to begin to strengthen its coast on the Black Sea and keep military vessels on it in the required number.

The third task that the Russian ruler set himself was to strengthen the borders with neighboring states, both with Central Asia and the Far East.

In addition to the facts already listed, during the reign of Emperor Alexander II, a victory was won in the Caucasian War. The geopolitical space of Russia also expanded due to the offensive against Central Asia and the subjugation of Turkestan. Thanks to these military actions internecine wars stopped. Slavery and the slave trade were abolished in these territories.

The war with Turkey also brought not a little glory to the Russian Empire and thanks to it it further expanded the territory of the state.

In the middle of the eighteenth century, Russia and China signed the Aigun Treaty on the borders along the Amur River, where at first the Ussuri Territory belonged to joint ownership with China, but a little later it was ceded to Russia.

Having concluded an agreement with Japan, Russia received Sakhalin as its possession, and Japan - the Kuriles.

In an effort to strengthen friendly relations with America, Russia had to sacrifice such territory as Alaska. This acquisition cost America a rather small amount of 7 million 200 thousand dollars.

Danilov A. A. History of Russia, XIX century. Grade 8: textbook. for general education institutions / A. A. Danilov, L. G. Kosulina. - 10th ed. - M.: Enlightenment, 2009. - 287 p., L. ill., maps.

Foreign policy trends were dictated by the Crimean War, which introduced huge contradictions into the international relations of the Russian Empire. The military confrontation, which lasted virtually a century, brought not only a military defeat to Russia, but also a loss of positions in the international political arena.

During the reign of Alexander II, the state was opposed by three powerful empires at that time: Ottoman, French and British. The Austrian Empire tried to maintain diplomatic neutrality.

European policy of Alexander II

The Russian emperor had the primary task of initiating a revision of the provisions of the Treaty of Paris. To do this, it was necessary to break through the political blockade and restore dialogue with European states. The foreign policy of Alexander II in relation to Europe was unusually subtle and flexible. Realizing that it would be very difficult to get out of isolation after the Polish uprising, Russian diplomacy, led by the emperor, played on the internal contradictions of the European empires.

Alexander II managed to establish relations with France and Prussia and even maintain neutrality during the war of these states. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War, the Russian Empire lost its main enemy, which limited the influence of the Russian crown on the Crimean peninsula. A major success in diplomatic relations was achieved thanks to the efforts of Gorchakov: Russia received access to the Black Sea, the waters of which were declared neutral.

In 1873, the rapprochement between Europe and the Russian Empire was consolidated as a result of the creation of the "Union of Three Emperors" - German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian. The end of European isolation allowed Alexander II to come to grips with the Turkish issue, which by 1873 had become unusually acute.

Confrontation in the Balkans

In April 1877, hostilities were unleashed between the Russian Empire and Turkey, the reason for which was the infringement of the rights of the Slavic peoples by the Ottoman authorities. In a relatively short time, the Russian army was able to win a number of victories and capture the main military bases of the Turks.

The result of the war was the signing of the San Stefano peace agreement, according to which the states of the Balkan Peninsula received political independence from Turkey, and the Russian Empire returned the coast of Crimea, Bessarabia and the Caucasian military fortresses to its crown.

Sale of Alaska

Plans for the possible sale of Alaska to the United States arose from Alexander II during the Crimean War. Such a bold step was logically justified: the territory was very remote from the center, the supreme power belonged to the governor general, who, in fact, could carry out his own policy in Alaska without control.

This situation did not suit the emperor. Ultimately, in the spring of 1867, an agreement was signed in the US capital, according to which the Russian Empire transferred the land of Alaska to the state. The cost of the territory at that time was symbolic - 7 million dollars.

Great Reforms. The Crimean War revealed Russia's serious lag behind the developed countries of the West, and the new tsar, like Peter I in his time, began a series of reforms designed to eliminate the military, economic, and socio-political weakness of the Russian state.

The first action was abolition of serfdom, which was the main brake on social development. On February 19, 1861, Alexander II issued a Manifesto and a number of "Regulations" explaining the conditions for the liberation of peasants from serfdom. Peasants received free personal freedom and the right to freely dispose of their property, conclude various kinds of transactions, and open industrial and commercial establishments. The landowners were obliged to provide the peasants with "estate settlement" and a field allotment. On average, landlord peasants received 3.4 acres of land per male capita. State and specific peasants received a little more land. The land was given to the peasants for ransom. The peasants paid 20-30% of the value of the land directly to the landowner. The remaining 70-80% of the value of the land after the conclusion of the redemption transaction was paid to the landowner by the state. The peasants, on the other hand, were obliged to pay the main debt to the state - redemption payments - for 49 years in equal installments. The annual payment was 6% of the redemption amount. The peasant did not become the owner of the land. The land became the property of the peasant community, which was responsible to the state for collecting taxes and redemption payments.

The reform of February 19, 1861 meant the end of the era of feudalism and Russia's transition to the path of capitalist development. It paved the way for a number of other transformations.

As part of local government reforms were held zemstvo and urban reform. On January 1, 1864, the Regulations were issued, which introduced all-class elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos. The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were county and provincial zemstvo assemblies, the executive bodies were county and provincial zemstvo councils. Members ( vowels) county zemstvo assemblies were elected for a three-year term by curia. Vowels of the provincial zemstvo assembly were elected by the district zemstvo assemblies. Only men were given the right to vote. Elections were not secret, direct and equal. The law ensured the predominance of landowners in county zemstvo assemblies. Zemstvos were responsible for education, public health, timely food supplies, road quality, insurance, local trade and industry, etc.

On June 16, 1870, the City Regulations were published. Elected self-government was introduced in the cities - city dumas, elected for four years by citizens who had a high property qualification. The city duma elected the city council, which consisted of the mayor and several members. The Dumas were engaged in the improvement of cities, the arrangement of bazaars, the organization of local health care, the maintenance of prisons, the organization of fire prevention measures, etc.

In 1864 began judicial reform, which provided for the complete separation of the judiciary from the administrative, publicity, publicity and adversarial procedure for legal proceedings, the independence and irremovability of judges, the institution of jurors. To deal with cases involving peasants, a class volost court was maintained, which consisted of peasants and judged according to local customs. There were also spiritual, military and commercial courts, as well as courts for non-Christians.

In 1874, as part of military reform Recruitment kits were replaced by all-class military service: all males who reached the age of 21 were subject to conscription for military service. The service life was reduced: they served in the infantry for 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. For persons with higher education, the term of service was reduced to 6 months. Those who served in the army or navy remained in reserve for a statutory period.

Education reform began in 1863 with the adoption of a new university charter, which provided for the election of the rector and deans of faculties, administrative and economic independence. Access to higher educational institutions was open to representatives of all classes. Primary and secondary education became more democratic.

censorship reform was carried out in 1865 and abolished preliminary censorship for all non-periodical literature, official and scientific publications. Mass periodicals were censored in the usual way, i.e. before publications.

It should be noted that these progressive reforms were assessed by the radical part of the intelligentsia as insufficient. Among the raznochintsy intelligentsia, a movement arose populists who set as their goal the creation of a just social system in Russia and saw the prototype of such a system in the peasant community. The author of the theory of Russian peasant socialism was A. I. Herzen, who believed that the Russian community is the germ of socialism, since it does not have private ownership of land and the communal land is periodically redistributed, taking into account the number of members in each family. Strong communal traditions and weak development of capitalist relations will create an opportunity for socialism to establish itself in Russia, bypassing the stage of capitalism.

The followers of A. I. Herzen imagined the ways of implementing this theory in different ways. M.A. Bakunin believed that the people were ready for revolution and the task was to provoke a revolt that would sweep away the old system ( rebellious direction). P. L. Lavrov advocated conducting a long-term propaganda of the ideas of socialism ( propagandists). P. N. Tkachev assigned the main role to a narrow group of revolutionaries who would seize power and begin a socialist reorganization ( conspirators).

In the early 1870s the populists undertook a massive "going to the people" to implement their ideas, but did not have much success. Against this background, the most radical part of the populists created the secret organization "Narodnaya Volya", and after a series of unsuccessful attempts, Emperor Alexander II was killed on March 1, 1881 on the Catherine's Canal in St. Petersburg.

Foreign policy. During the reign of Alexander II, Russia pursued an active not only domestic, but also foreign policy. Thus, through diplomacy, Russia managed to get rid of the humiliating conditions of the Paris Peace Treaty, which forbade it to have a navy on the Black Sea (1870). The Caucasian War (1817–1864) was successfully ended. Tangible results were also achieved in Central Asia: in the late 1870s. vassal dependence on Russia was recognized by the Khanate of Khiva and the Emirate of Bukhara, in the early 1880s. Turkmenistan was annexed. The final annexation of Central Asia took place during the time of Alexander III.

The most significant event in foreign policy during this period was Russo-Turkish War(1877–1878), which Russia joined in order to assist the national liberation movement of the Slavic peoples who were under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. As a result of this war, Russia returned the lands of Southern Bessarabia lost in the Crimean War, and also acquired new fortresses in the Caucasus - Ardagan, Kars, Batum, Bayazet. Russia again took its rightful place among the European powers, lost after the Crimean War, and the Russian Emperor Alexander II was proclaimed the "tsar-liberator" of Bulgaria.

Power passed to Alexander II in a rather difficult period of Russian history, in the context of the Crimean War. It was the inevitable defeat that could predetermine his foreign and domestic policy. This war exposed the backwardness of the state, not only in terms of the organization of the army, but also in almost every industry. Therefore, all the reforms of the tsar were imbued with overcoming backwardness and strengthening the authority of Russia.

Many rulers before Alexander II understood that one of the main brakes on the development of the Russian state was serfdom, which was a relic of a form of slavery. Under such conditions, the active economic development of the state was simply impossible. And it is the abolition of serfdom in 1861 that is considered the central reform of the domestic policy of Alexander II.

Subsequent modernization was expressed in the reforms of the sixties and seventies. They were aimed at the successful development of the state in new historical conditions for Russia. Judicial, financial, military, urban, and also zemstvo reforms are being carried out. Significant improvements have been made in the field of education.

One of the most important decisions for the country at that time was the introduction of general conscription, as well as the improvement of military production and military education.

The main task of Alexander II in foreign policy was the soonest worthy end of the shameful Crimean War. The loss of the Russian fleet as a result of these military actions dealt a big blow to the position of Russia in another important, Eastern question.

As a result, a fairly confident victorious end to hostilities in 1878 brought independence to parts of the Slavic peoples under the rule of the Turkish Empire. In addition, the Russian state began to receive a considerable contribution from Turkey. For example, the lands that were lost during the entire period of the Crimean War were returned to her. The provisions of the existing peace treaty, however, were strongly revised by the Western countries, who feared the strengthening of the empire at the Berlin Congress in 1878, but the fact of the revival of the former power of Russia was on the face.

Another important direction of Alexander's foreign policy was the strengthening of Russian positions in Central Asia and the Far East. In the first, three Muslim kingdoms acted as rivals of the empire at once:

· Khiva;

· Bukhara;

· Kokand.

However, a series of Russian military campaigns eventually led them to defeat.