In the second half of the XIX century. Spain in the second half of the 19th century

Despite the factors hindering scientific progress and technology, the second half of the XIX century. - this is a period of outstanding achievements in science and technology, which allowed Russian research activities to be introduced into world science. Russian science developed in close connection with European and American science. Russian scientists took part in experimental and laboratory research in scientific centers in Europe and North America, made scientific reports, published articles in scientific journals.

Capitalism, with its increased technical potential and the scope of industrial production, which required an increase in the raw material base, led to profound shifts in the field of domestic science and technology. The general ideological atmosphere of the first post-reform decades, the democratic upsurge that stirred up the whole country, the ideas of revolutionary democrats about the enormous social role of science also contributed to the “extraordinary success of the mental movement” (K.A. Timiryazev).

The Academy of Sciences, universities, scientific societies retained the importance of the main scientific centers. In the post-reform period, the authority of university science grew. Large scientific schools arose here, and the works of some university professors received worldwide recognition. In the mid-1960s, Sovremennik noted that "in many branches of science, representatives of our university scholarship are not only not inferior, but even surpass the representatives of academic scholarship in their merits."

New scientific centers arose in the country: the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography (1863), the Society of Russian Doctors, and the Russian Technical Society (1866). A serious contribution to the development of the natural and social sciences was made by scientific societies that, as a rule, existed at universities. In 1872, there were more than 20 such societies in Russia, the majority of which arose in the second half of the 19th century. (Russian Mathematical Society; Russian Chemical Society, later transformed into a physical and chemical society; Russian Technical Society; Russian Historical Society, etc.).

St. Petersburg became a major center of mathematical research, where a mathematical school was formed, associated with the name of the outstanding mathematician P.L. Chebyshev (1831-1894). His discoveries, which still influence the development of science, relate to the theory of approximation of functions, number theory and probability theory.

In the second half of the XIX century. domestic science, based on materialistic and scientific traditions, has achieved unprecedented success. The achievements of Russian science, connected with the development of world science, have greatly raised its international prestige. “Take any book from a foreign scientific journal,” wrote K.A. Timiryazev in the mid-90s - and you will almost certainly come across a Russian name. Russian science has declared its equality, and sometimes even superiority.

A.M. Lyapunov (1857-1918) created the theory of equilibrium stability and motion of mechanical systems with a finite number of parameters, which influenced the further development of world science.

It is also worth mentioning the first female professor of mathematics S.V. Kovalevskaya (1850-1891), who discovered the classical case of the solvability of the problem of rotation of a rigid body around a fixed point.

The brilliant scientist-chemist who created the periodic system of chemical elements was D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907). (Appendix 2.) He proved the inner strength between several kinds of chemicals. The periodic system was the foundation in the study of inorganic chemistry and advanced science far ahead. The work of D.I. Mendeleev "Fundamentals of Chemistry" was translated into many European languages, and in Russia it was only published seven times during his lifetime.

Scientists N.N. Zinin (1812-1888) and A.M. Butlerov (1828-1886) - the founders of organic chemistry. Butlerov developed the theory of chemical structure and was the founder of the largest Kazan School of Russian Organic Chemists.

The founder of the Russian physical school A.G. Stoletov (1839-1896) made a number of important discoveries in the field of magnetism and photoelectric phenomena, in the theory of gas discharge, which was recognized throughout the world.

From the inventions and discoveries of P.N. Yablochkov (1847-1894), the most famous is the so-called "Yablochkov candle" - practically the first electric lamp suitable for use without a regulator. Seven years before the invention of the American engineer Edison A.N. Lodygin (1847-1923) created an incandescent lamp using tungsten for incandescence.

The discoveries of A.S. Popov (1859-1905), on April 25, 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society, he announced his invention of a device for receiving and recording electromagnetic signals, and then demonstrated the operation of a "lightning detector" - a radio receiver, which very soon found practical application.

Major scientific and technical discoveries were made by the physicist P.N. Lebedev (1866-1912), who proved and measured the pressure of light.

The founder of modern aerodynamics was N.E. Zhukovsky (1847-1921). He owns numerous works on the theory of aviation. The first studies in the field of aero- and rocket dynamics by K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), a gymnasium teacher in Kaluga, the founder of modern astronautics.

The works of K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), one of the pioneers of astronautics. A teacher at a gymnasium in Kaluga, Tsiolkovsky was a scientist on a wide scale, he was the first to indicate the development of rocket science and astronautics, and found solutions for the design of rockets and rocket diesel engines.

A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) explored the possibilities of creating aircraft. In 1876, a flight demonstration of his models was a success. In the 80s. he worked on the creation of the aircraft.

The biological sciences have made great strides. Russian scientists have discovered a number of laws of development of organisms. The largest discoveries were made by Russian scientists in physiology.

In 1863, I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) "Reflexes of the brain", which laid the foundations of materialistic physiology and psychology, which was of great importance for the development of the doctrine of higher nervous activity. The largest researcher, propagandist and popularizer of scientific knowledge, Sechenov created the physiological school, from which I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936). In the 1970s, he began his career as a physiologist.

I.P. Pavlov (1894-1936) - scientist, physiologist, creator of the science of higher nervous activity and ideas about the processes of digestion regulation; the founder of the largest Russian physiological school made a huge contribution to the development of world science.

Russian natural scientists were staunch propagandists and continuers of Charles Darwin's teachings. A Russian translation of his main work, The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, appeared in Russia six years after its publication in England, in 1865.

Among the first Russian Darwinists was the founder of the evolutionary morphology of plants A.N. Beketov (1825-1902). The development of evolutionary teaching in Russia is associated with the name of I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916) and A.O. Kovalevsky (1840-1901), who convened comparative embryology. Mechnikov also worked in the field of comparative pathology, laid the foundations of the doctrine of immunity, discovering in 1883 the phenomenon of phagocytosis, the ability of the body's protective properties. Mechnikov's works were world famous. He was elected an honorary doctor of the University of Cambridge, worked at the Louis Pasteur Institute in France.

In the development of Darwinism and natural-science materialism in Russia, the merits of K.A. Timiryazev (1843-1920), one of the founders of the Russian scientific school of plant physiology. He was a brilliant popularizer of science and did much to promote Darwinism. Timiryazev considered the evolutionary doctrine of Darwin as the greatest achievement of science in the 19th century, which affirmed the materialistic worldview in biology.

V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) - the creator of modern genetic soil science, studied the soil cover of Russia. His work "Russian Chernozem", recognized in world science, contains a scientific classification of soils and a system of their natural types.

The expeditions organized by the Russian Geographical Society for the study of Central and Central Asia and Siberia by P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), N.M. Przhevalsky (1839-1888), Ch.Ch. Valikhanov (1835-1865). With the name of N.N. Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888) are connected with discoveries of world significance in the field of geography and ethnography, which he made while traveling in Southeast Asia, Australia, Oceania.

In the second half of the XIX century. In Russia, humanities scholars fruitfully worked in the field of history, linguistics, literary criticism, and economics, creating important scientific research.

In the field of philology and linguistics, I.I. Sreznevsky (1812-1880) - the founder of the St. Petersburg school of Slavists. He wrote valuable works on the history of the Russian Old Slavonic language, the history of Old Russian literature. A prominent linguist, the founder of the Moscow linguistic school was F.F. Fortunatov (1848-1914). In the post-reform period, a foundation was laid for the study of A.S. Pushkin. The first scientific edition of the works of the great poet was prepared by P.V. Annenkov (1813-1887). He also wrote a number of studies on his life and work.

Intensive work was carried out in the field of Russian folklore, the collection and study of oral folk art was expanding. The published works were extremely valuable for the rich factual material contained in them. Vast work on collecting and studying folk art was done by V.I. Dahl (1801-1872), who published in the 60s the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, which has not lost its scientific significance to this day. In Soviet times, the dictionary of V.I. Dahl has been reprinted several times. (Appendix 3.)

Russian scientists paid special attention to the study of national history. In the 50-70s. the talented Russian historian S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879). On the basis of vast factual material, he showed the transition from tribal relations to statehood, the role of autocracy in the history of Russia.

Of great importance for Russian historiography was the emergence of a Marxist trend associated with the name of G.V. Plekhanov (1856-1918), theorist and propagandist of the ideas of Marxism in Russia. By 1883, his first Marxist work, Socialism and the Political Struggle, dates back.

IN. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) taught the Course of Russian History, which organically combined the ideas of the state school with an economic and geographical approach, studied the history of the peasantry, serfdom and the role of the state in the development of Russian society. In the works of N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) paid great attention to the history of the liberation war of Russia and Ukraine against the Polish invaders, the history of medieval Novgorod and Pskov. He is the author of "Russian history and biographies of its main figures." Thus, in the field of science, the 19th century represents the stunning successes of Russian science, bringing it to a leading position in the world. There are two lines in the development of Russian philosophical thought: Slavophiles and Westernizers, who, despite a cardinal divergence of philosophical views on the past and future of Russia, converge in relation to the existing regime of tsarism and its policies.

One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought in the 19th century was the theme of choosing the path of development, the theme of the future of Russia. The clash of the historical views of the Westerners (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, T.T. Granovsky, I.S. Turgenev) and the Slavophiles (A.S. Khomyakov, brothers Kireevsky, Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin) over time, it developed into an irreconcilable ideological conflict.

Westerners believed in the unity of human civilization and argued that Western Europe is at the head of this civilization, most fully implementing the principles of parliamentarism, humanity, freedom and progress, and showing the way to the rest of humanity.

The Slavophiles argued that there is no single universal civilization, and, consequently, a single path of development for all peoples. Each nation lives its own independent original life, which is based on a deeply ideological principle, the "folk spirit" that permeates all aspects of collective life.

Despite all their ideological differences, Slavophiles and Westerners unexpectedly converged on practical issues of Russian life: both trends had a negative attitude towards serfdom and the contemporary police-bureaucratic regime, both demanded freedom of the press, speech, and therefore were unreliable in the eyes of the tsarist government.

A distinctive feature of the scientific life of the post-reform period was the extensive social and educational activities of scientists, the popularization of scientific knowledge through public lectures, and the publication of popular science literature. At this time, the number of scientific and special periodicals increased (from about 60 in 1855 to 500 by the end of the century), and this growth primarily affected the provinces (instead of 7, about 180 scientific journals began to be published) .

The development of science, achievements in the field of natural sciences had a huge impact on social and cultural life. This was reflected in the literature, left an imprint on the state of the school, influenced to some extent on the way of thinking, the level of public consciousness.

The position of Russia in the second half of the 19th century remained extremely difficult: it stood on the edge of the abyss. The economy and finances were undermined by the Crimean War, and the national economy, bound by the chains of serfdom, could not develop.

Legacy of Nicholas I

The years of the reign of Nicholas I are considered the most unsuccessful since the Time of Troubles. An ardent opponent of any reforms and the introduction of a constitution in the country, the Russian emperor relied on an extensive bureaucratic bureaucracy. the ideology of Nicholas I was based on the thesis “the people and the tsar are one”. The result of the reign of Nicholas I was the economic backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe, the general illiteracy of the population and the arbitrariness of the small-town authorities in all spheres of public life.

It was necessary to urgently solve the following tasks:

In foreign policy, to restore the international prestige of Russia. Overcome the country's diplomatic isolation.
In domestic policy, to create all conditions for stabilizing domestic economic growth. Solve the sore peasant question. To overcome the lag behind Western countries in the industrial sector through the introduction of new technologies.
When solving internal problems, the government involuntarily had to face the interests of the nobility. Therefore, the mood of this class also had to be taken into account.

After the reign of Nicholas I, Russia needed a breath of fresh air, the country needed reforms. The new Emperor Alexander II understood this.

Russia in the reign of Alexander II

The beginning of the reign of Alexander II was marked by unrest in Poland. In 1863, the Poles revolted. Despite the protest of the Western powers, the Russian emperor brought an army into the territory of Poland and crushed the rebellion.

Social movements in the second half of the 19th century

The transformations of Alexander II contributed to the awakening of revolutionary and liberal forces in Russian society. The social movement of the second half of the 19th century is divided into three main currents :

conservative trend. The founder of this ideology was Katkov, later D. A. Tolstoy and K. P. Pobedonostsev joined him. The conservatives believed that Russia could develop only according to three criteria - autocracy, nationality and Orthodoxy.
Liberal movement. The founder of this trend was the prominent historian Chicherin B.N., later Kavelin K.D. and Muromtsev S.A. joined him. Liberals advocated a constitutional monarchy, the right of the individual and the independence of the church from the state.
revolutionary current. The ideologists of this current were A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky and V.G. Belinsky. Later N. A. Dobrolyubov joined them. Under Alexander II, thinkers published the magazines Kolokol and Sovremennik. The views of theoretical writers were based on the complete rejection of capitalism and autocracy as historical systems. They believed that prosperity for all would come only under socialism, and socialism would come immediately bypassing the stage of capitalism, and the peasantry would help it in this.

One of the founders of the revolutionary movement was M.A. Bakunin, who preached socialist anarchy. He believed that civilized states should be destroyed in order to build a new world Federation of communities in their place. The end of the 19th century brought the organization of secret revolutionary circles, the largest of which were “Land and Freedom”, “Great Russian”, “People's Reprisal”, “Ruble Society”, etc. The introduction of revolutionaries into the peasant environment was promoted in order to agitate them.

The peasants did not react in any way to the calls of the raznochintsy to overthrow the government. This led to the split of the revolutionaries into two camps - practitioners and theorists. Practitioners staged terrorist attacks and cracked down on prominent statesmen. The organization "Land and Freedom", later renamed the "People's Will" issued a death sentence to Alexander II. The sentence was carried out on March 1, 1881 after several unsuccessful assassination attempts. The terrorist Grinevitsky threw a bomb at the feet of the tsar.

Russia in the reign of Alexander III

Alexander III inherited a state deeply shaken by a series of murders of prominent politicians and police officials. The new tsar immediately set about crushing the revolutionary circles, and their main leaders, Tkachev, Perovskaya and Alexander Ulyanov, were executed.

Russia, instead of a constitution almost prepared by Alexander II, under the rule of his son, Alexander III, received a state with a police regime. The new emperor began a systematic attack on his father's reforms.
Since 1884, student circles have been banned in the country, since the government saw the main danger of freethinking in the student environment.
The rights of local self-government were revised. The peasants again lost their vote in the election of local deputies. Rich merchants sat in the city duma, and the local nobility sat in the zemstvos.
Judicial reform has also undergone changes. The court has become more closed, the judges are more dependent on the authorities.
Alexander III began to spread Great Russian chauvinism. The favorite thesis of the emperor was proclaimed - “Russia for the Russians”. By 1891, pogroms of Jews began with the connivance of the authorities.

Alexander III dreamed of the revival of the absolute monarchy and the advent of the era of reaction. The reign of this king proceeded without wars and international complications. This made it possible to accelerate the development of foreign and domestic trade, cities grew, factories and factories were built. At the end of the 19th century, the length of roads in Russia increased. The construction of the Siberian Railway was begun in order to connect the central regions of the state with the Pacific coast.

Rice. 2. Construction of the Siberian Railway in the second half of the XIX century.

Cultural development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century

The transformations that began in the era of Alexander II could not but affect various spheres of Russian culture in the second 19th century.

Literature . New views on the life of the Russian population have become widespread in the literature. The society of writers, playwrights and poets was divided into two currents - the so-called Slavophiles and Westerners. A. S. Khomyakov and K. S. Aksakov considered themselves Slavophiles. The Slavophiles believed that Russia had its own special path and there was and will not be any Western influence on Russian culture. Westerners, to whom Chaadaev P. Ya., I. S. Turgenev, historian S. M. Solovyov considered themselves, argued that Russia, on the contrary, should follow the Western path of development. Despite the differences in views, both Westerners and Slavophiles were equally worried about the future fate of the Russian people and the state structure of the country. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, Russian literature flourished. F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Goncharov, A. P. Chekhov and L. N. Tolstoy write their best works.
Architecture . In architecture in the second half of the 19th century, ecletism began to prevail - a mixture of different styles and trends. This affected the construction of new stations, shopping centers, apartment buildings, etc. Also, the design of certain forms in the architecture of a more classical genre was developed. A.I. Shtakenshneider was a well-known architect in this direction, with the help of which the Mariinsky Palace in St. Petersburg was designed. St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg from 1818 to 1858. This project was designed by Auguste Montferrand.

Rice. 3. St. Isaac's Cathedral. St. Petersburg.

Painting . The artists, inspired by new trends, did not want to work under the close tutelage of the Academy, which was stuck in classicism and was cut off from the real vision of art. Thus, the artist V. G. Perov focused his attention on various aspects of the life of society, sharply criticizing the remnants of the serf system. In the 60s, the work of the portrait painter Kramskoy flourished, V. A. Tropinin left us a lifetime portrait of A. S. Pushkin. The works of P. A. Fedotov did not fit into the narrow framework of academicism either. His works “Courtship of a Major” or “Breakfast of an Aristocrat” ridiculed the stupid complacency of officials and the remnants of the serf system.

In 1852, the Hermitage was opened in St. Petersburg, where the best works of painters from all over the world were collected.

What have we learned?

From the article briefly described, you can learn about the transformations of Alexander II, the emergence of the first revolutionary circles, the counter-reforms of Alexander III, as well as the flowering of Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century.

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Literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century played an important role in the public life of the country. Most modern critics and readers are convinced of this. At that time, reading was not entertainment, but ways of knowing the surrounding reality. For the writer, creativity itself became an important act of civic service to society, since he had a sincere belief in the power of the creative word, in the likelihood that a book could influence the mind and soul of a person so that he would change for the better.

Opposition in literature

As modern researchers note, it was precisely because of this belief in the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century that the civic pathos of the struggle for some idea was born that could play an important role in transforming the country, sending the whole country along one path or another. The 19th century was the century of maximum development of domestic critical thought. Therefore, the speeches in the press of critics of that time entered the annals of Russian culture.

A well-known confrontation, which emerged in the history of literature in the middle of the 19th century, emerged between Westernizers and Slavophiles. These social movements arose in Russia as early as the 40s of the 19th century. Westerners advocated that the true development of Russia began with the reforms of Peter I, and in the future it is necessary to follow this historical path. At the same time, they treated the entire pre-Petrine Russia with disdain, noting the absence of a culture and history worthy of respect. Slavophiles advocated the independent development of Russia, regardless of the West.

Just at that time, a very radical movement became popular among Westerners, which was based on the teachings of utopians with a socialist bias, in particular, Fourier and Saint-Simon. The most radical wing of this movement saw revolution as the only way to change something in the state.

The Slavophiles, in turn, insisted that the history of Russia is no less rich than that of the West. In their opinion, Western civilization suffered from individualism and unbelief, having become disillusioned with spiritual values.

The confrontation between Westernizers and Slavophiles was also observed in Russian literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century, and especially in criticism of Gogol. Westerners considered this writer the founder of the socio-critical trend in Russian literature, while the Slavophiles insisted on the epic fullness of the poem "Dead Souls" and its prophetic pathos. Remember that critical articles played a big role in Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century.

"Naturalists"

In the 1840s, a whole galaxy of writers appeared who rallied around the literary critic Belinsky. This group of writers began to be called representatives of the "natural school".

In the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century, they were very popular. Their protagonist is a representative of the underprivileged class. These are artisans, janitors, beggars, peasants. The writers sought to give them the opportunity to speak out, to show their customs and way of life, reflecting through them all of Russia from a special angle.

The most popular among them is the genre. It describes different strata of society with scientific rigor. Outstanding representatives of the "natural school" are Nekrasov, Grigorovich, Turgenev, Reshetnikov, Uspensky.

Revolutionary Democrats

By the 1860s, the confrontation between the Westerners and the Slavophils was coming to naught. But disputes between representatives of the intelligentsia continue. Cities, industry are rapidly developing around, history is changing. At this moment, people from various social strata come to the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century. If earlier writing was the lot of the nobility, now merchants, priests, philistines, officials and even peasants take up the pen.

In literature and criticism, the ideas laid down by Belinsky are developed, the authors pose sharp social questions for readers.

Chernyshevsky lays the philosophical foundations in his master's thesis.

"Aesthetic Criticism"

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the direction of "aesthetic criticism" received special development in literature. Botkin, Druzhinin, Annenkov do not accept didacticism, proclaiming the inherent value of creativity, as well as its detachment from social problems.

"Pure art" should solve exclusively aesthetic problems, representatives of "organic criticism" came to such conclusions. In its principles, developed by Strakhov and Grigoriev, true art became the fruit of not only the mind, but also the soul of the artist.

soilmen

Soil cultivators gained great popularity during this period. Dostoevsky, Grigoriev, Danilevsky, Strakhov included themselves among them. They developed the ideas in a Slavophilic way, warning at the same time to be too carried away by social ideas, to break away from tradition, reality, history and the people.

They tried to penetrate into the lives of ordinary people, deriving general principles for the maximum organic development of the state. In the magazines Epoch and Vremya, they criticized the rationalism of their opponents, who, in their opinion, were too revolutionary.

Nihilism

One of the features of the literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century was nihilism. In it, the soil scientists saw one of the main threats to real reality. Nihilism was very popular among different sections of Russian society. It was expressed in the denial of accepted norms of behavior, cultural values and recognized leaders. At the same time, moral principles were replaced by the concepts of one's own pleasure and benefit.

The most striking work of this trend is Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons", written in 1861. Its protagonist Bazarov denies love, art and compassion. They were admired by Pisarev, who was one of the main ideologists of nihilism.

Genre of the novel

The novel plays an important role in Russian literature of this period. It was in the second half of the 19th century that Leo Tolstoy's epic "War and Peace", Chernyshevsky's political novel "What Is to Be Done?", Dostoevsky's psychological novel "Crime and Punishment", and Saltykov-Shchedrin's social novel "Lord Golovlev" came out.

The most significant was the work of Dostoevsky, reflecting the era.

Poetry

In the 1850s, poetry flourished after a brief oblivion that followed the golden age of Pushkin and Lermontov. Polonsky, Fet, Maikov come to the fore.

In poetry, poets pay increased attention to folk art, history, and everyday life. It becomes important to comprehend Russian history in the works of Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Maikov, May. It is epics, folk legends and old songs that determine the style of the authors.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the work of civil poets became popular. The poems of Minaev, Mikhailov, Kurochkin are associated with revolutionary democratic ideas. The main authority for the poets of this direction is Nikolai Nekrasov.

By the end of the 19th century, peasant poets became popular. Among them are Trefolev, Surikov, Drozhzhin. She continues the traditions of Nekrasov and Koltsov in her work.

Dramaturgy

The second half of the 19th century is the time of the development of national and original dramaturgy. The authors of the plays actively use folklore, pay attention to peasant and merchant life, national history, and the language spoken by the people. You can often find works devoted to social and moral issues, in which romanticism is combined with realism. These playwrights include Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Ostrovsky, Sukhovo-Kobylin.

The variety of styles and artistic forms in dramaturgy led to the emergence at the very end of the century of vivid dramatic works by Chekhov and Leo Tolstoy.

Influence of foreign literature

Foreign literature of the 2nd half of the 19th century has a noticeable influence on Russian writers and poets.

At this time, realistic novels reigned in foreign literature. First of all, these are the works of Balzac ("Shagreen Skin", "Parma Convent", "Eugenia Grande"), Charlotte Brontë ("Jane Eyre"), Thackeray ("Newcomes", "Vanity Fair", "History of Henry Esmond"), Flaubert ("Madame Bovary", "Education of the Senses", "Salambo", "Simple Soul").

In England at that time, Charles Dickens was considered the main writer, his works Oliver Twist, The Pickwick Papers, The Life and Adventures of Niklas Nickleby, A Christmas Carol, Dombey and Son are also read in Russia.

In European poetry, the collection of poems by Charles Baudelaire "Flowers of Evil" becomes a real revelation. These are the works of the famous European symbolist, which caused a whole storm of discontent and indignation in Europe due to the large number of obscene lines, the poet was even fined for violating the norms of morality and morality, making the collection of poems one of the most popular in the decade.

Russia in the second half of the 19th century

On February 18, 1855, after the death of Nicholas I, his son Alexander II ascended the throne. His reign (1855-1881) passed under the sign of a deep modernization of Russian society. February 19, 1861 was made public Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom and approved legislative acts that compiled the "Regulations on the peasants who came out of serfdom." Zemstvo self-government was introduced in 1864 (gradually, in 34 provinces of European Russia), jury trials and advocacy, in 1870 - city self-government, in 1874 - universal military service.

In 1863 an uprising broke out in Poland. It was suppressed. In 1864, Russia managed to end the Caucasian War, which had lasted 47 years. Accession to Russia in 1865-1876 significant territories of Central Asia put the tsarist administration in front of the need to organize the management of a remote foreign cultural outskirts.
Reforms of 1860-1870s led to a sharp growth of the economy and especially industry. The most noticeable aspect of this growth was the “railway boom” of the second half of the 1860s and early 1870s, during which the most important highways were built: Moscow-Kursk (1868), Kursk-Kyiv (1870), Moscow -Brest (1871).
In the middle of the XIX century. Russia was an agricultural country, the largest producer and supplier of agricultural products. Under the terms of the abolition of serfdom, the peasants had to redeem their land plots. "Redemption payments" placed a heavy burden on rural communities and often dragged on for many years, which caused more than 1,300 mass actions of peasants, of which more than 500 were suppressed with the use of force. Communal land use (the inability to dispose of their allotments) and lack of land caused dissatisfaction among the peasants and held back the growth of the working class, and the lack of social guarantees from the state led to increased exploitation of workers.

The ideas of V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), A. I. Herzen (1812-1870) and N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), who believed that that the ideal state structure can be established only on the principles of extending the communal orders familiar to the Russian countryside to the whole of society. They saw a general peasant uprising as a means of reorganizing public life. To prepare for this all-Russian peasant revolt, the revolutionary youth tried to organize the propaganda of their ideas among the peasants (“going to the people” in 1874-1875), but among the peasants, naive-monarchist sentiments were still very strong. Some of the youth mistakenly believed that the assassination of the tsar would automatically cause the collapse of the state apparatus, which would facilitate the revolution. Already in 1866, the first attempt on the life of Alexander II took place, and in 1879, the secret organization Narodnaya Volya arose, which set as its task terror against prominent members of the tsarist administration, and regicide as its highest goal. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed by the "populists", but the peasant revolution did not take place.

The son of Alexander II, Alexander III, became king. His reign (1881-1894) was characterized by protective tendencies. The new monarch sought in every possible way to strengthen the state apparatus and increase the manageability of the country. To do this, he went to a partial curtailment of the transformations that were carried out by Alexander II. In historiography, this period is called "period of counter-reforms". Zemstvo chiefs (nobles) appeared in the counties, managing peasant affairs; security departments were established in the provinces to combat the revolutionary movement. The rights of zemstvo self-government were significantly limited, and the electoral system was changed in order to ensure the predominance of delegates from landlords in zemstvo bodies. Reactionary changes were made to judicial and censorship matters. On the other hand, the administration of Alexander III sought to act as a social arbiter. The government was forced to pass laws restricting the exploitation of workers. In 1883 the poll tax was abolished.

Alexander III died in 1894. His son Nicholas II ascended the throne, who, like his father, fought against liberal tendencies and was a consistent supporter of absolute monarchy, which, however, did not prevent him from favorably treating certain innovations and transformations, if they were tactical in nature and did not affect the foundations of autocracy. In particular, during the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917), the gold backing of the ruble and the state wine monopoly were introduced, which significantly improved the country's finances. The Trans-Siberian Railway, the construction of which was completed in those years, connected the Far Eastern borders with the central regions of Russia. In 1897, a First All-Russian population census.
The liberation of the peasants from serfdom contributed to the rapid development of capitalism: the emergence of a large number of industrial and commercial enterprises, banks, the construction of railways, and the development of agricultural production. By the end of the XIX century. The number of workers has doubled and reached 1.5 million people. In 1879-1900. the share of large enterprises increased from 4 to 16%, i.e., 4 times, the workers in them - from 67 to 76%.

The growth of the proletariat was accompanied by the appearance of the first revolutionary workers' organizations. In 1883, G. V. Plekhanov (1856-1918) and his associates in Geneva united in the Emancipation of Labor group, which marked the beginning of the spread Marxism in Russia. The group developed a program of Russian social democracy, the ultimate goal of which was proclaimed the creation of a workers' party, the overthrow of the autocracy, the seizure of political power by the working class, the transfer of means and instruments of production to public ownership, the elimination of market relations and the organization of planned production. The publications of this group were distributed in Russia in more than 30 provincial centers and industrial cities.
Marxist circles began to appear in Russia (by the end of the 19th century there were about 30 of them). In 1892, V. I. Lenin (Ulyanov, 1870-1924) began revolutionary activity in Samara. In 1895, together with members of the Marxist circle of students-technologists (S. I. Radchenko, M. A. Silvin, G. M. Krzhizhanovsky and others) and St. Petersburg workers (I. V. Babushkin, V. A. Shelgunov, B. I. Zinoviev and others) Lenin created an organization in St. Petersburg "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class", which was soon defeated by the police, and Lenin had to emigrate.

In 1898, a congress of representatives of the St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Yekaterinoslav "unions of struggle" and the Bund (the party of the Jewish proletariat) was held in Minsk. The congress proclaimed the creation Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) and elected the Central Committee (CC). On behalf of the Congress of the Central Committee issued Manifesto of the RSDLP, in which the democratic and socialist tasks of the Russian proletariat and its party were briefly set. However, the party did not yet have a program and rules, its local committees were in a state of ideological and organizational confusion.
In 1855 the Kuril Islands were officially incorporated into Russia. The accession of the Amur and Primorye was formalized Aigunsky(1858) and Beijing(1860) treaties with China. Under the Aigun Treaty, the undemarcated lands along the left bank of the Amur were recognized as the possession of Russia, and under the Beijing Treaty, Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was ceded to it. In 1875, Sakhalin Island passed to Russia, and the Kuril Islands - to Japan.
In 1867, the Turkestan Governor General was formed from the annexed possessions of the Kokand Khanate and the Emirate of Bukhara. In 1868, the Samarkand and Kata-Kurgan districts of the Emirate of Bukhara were annexed to Russia, which recognized the protectorate of Russia. In 1869, the Trans-Caspian military department was formed with its center in Krasnovodsk. After 1881, the Trans-Caspian region was formed with the Center in Askhabad. By agreement with Great Britain (England), on September 10, 1885, the border of Russia with Afghanistan was established, and in 1895 - the border in the Pamirs.
In the spring of 1875, an uprising broke out in the Turkish possessions of Russia in the Balkans. The Serbs turned to the Russian government for help, which demanded that Turkey conclude a truce with the Serbs. The refusal of the Turks caused the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. In the summer of 1877, Russian troops crossed the Danube and entered Bulgaria.

However, the forces for a decisive offensive were not enough. The detachment of General Gurko, advanced to the south, occupied the Shipka Pass on the Balkan Range, but could not advance further. On the other hand, numerous attempts by the Turks to knock the Russians off the pass also failed. The delay of the Russians with the occupation of Plevna on the western face of the Transdanubian bridgehead became especially dangerous. Turkish troops were the first to reach this strategically important point and gain a foothold in it. Three extremely bloody assaults on July 8 (20), July 18 (30) and August 30-31 (September 11-12), 1877 were unsuccessful. In autumn, the Russians occupied the fortifications of Telish and Gorny Dubnyak, finally blocking Plevna. Trying to support the encircled fortress, the Turks launched a counteroffensive immediately from Sofia and on the eastern face of the bridgehead. In the Sofia direction, the Turkish counteroffensive was repelled, and the Eastern Front of the Russian location was broken through, and only a desperate counterattack by the Russian troops, which crushed the Turkish orders near Zlataritsa, stabilized the front. Having exhausted the possibilities for resistance, after an unsuccessful attempt to break through, the Pleven garrison capitulated on November 28 (December 10), 1877. In the winter of 1877-1878. in incredibly difficult weather conditions, Russian troops crossed the Balkan Range and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turks at Sheinovo. On January 3-5 (15-17), 1878, the last Turkish army was defeated in the battle near Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and on January 8 (20) Russian troops occupied Adrianople without any resistance. According to the Berlin Treaty on July 13, 1878, South Bessarabia, Batum, Kars and Ardagan were annexed to Russia.
The trends in literature and art that developed in the first half of the 19th century were further developed and in the second half of the 19th century. - early XX century.
Reforms of 1860-1870s represented a real revolution, the consequence of which were cardinal changes in social, state and all people's life, which could not but affect the development of culture. There was not only social, but also spiritual emancipation of the people, which had new cultural needs and opportunities to satisfy them. The circle of people of intelligent labor and bearers of culture has also expanded significantly. Of no small importance was also scientific and technological progress, which served both as factors and as an indicator of the development of culture.

Early 20th century - this is the "Silver Age" of Russian culture especially in the field of literature and art. Russia has firmly entered the system of world powers closely linked by economic, political and cultural ties. In Russia, the novelties of the scientific and technological progress of the advanced countries (telephone, cinema, gramophone, automobile, etc.), the achievements of the exact sciences, were widely used; have become widespread in literature and art in various directions. And global culture has been significantly enriched by the achievements of Russian science, literature and art. Performances by Russian composers, opera singers, ballet masters were held in famous theaters in Italy, France, Germany, England, and the USA.
AT Russian literature second half of the 19th century the themes of folk life, various socio-political currents received a particularly vivid image. At this time, the flourishing of the work of outstanding Russian writers L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky, F. M. Dostoevsky. In the 1880-1890s. A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak, and N. G. Garin-Mikhailovsky stand out in Russian literature. The traditions of critical realism inherent in these writers found their continuation and development in the work of those who came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. writers of a new generation - A. M. Gorky, A. I. Kuprin, I. A. Bunin.
Along with this trend, especially in the pre-revolutionary decade and mainly in the poetic environment, various literary circles and associations arose, seeking to move away from traditional aesthetic norms and ideas. Symbolist associations (the creators and theoretician of Russian symbolism was the poet V. Ya. Bryusov) included K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub, D. S. Merezhkovsky, Z. N. Gippius, A. Bely, A. A. Block. The direction opposite to symbolism, acmeism, arose in Russian poetry in 1910 (N. S. Gumilyov, A. A. Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam). Representatives of another modernist trend in Russian literature and art - futurism - denied traditional culture, its moral and artistic values (V. V. Khlebnikov, Igor Severyanin, early V. V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).
The Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg and the Maly Theater in Moscow remained the main centers of Russian theater culture in the second half of the 19th century. - the beginning of the 20th century. The plays by A. N. Ostrovsky occupied the leading place in the repertoire of the Maly Theatre. Prov Sadovsky, Sergei Shumsky, Maria Yermolova, Alexander Sumbatov-Yuzhin and others stood out among the actors of the Maly Theater. Maria Savina, Vladimir Davydov, Polina Strepetova shone on the stage of the Alexandrinsky Theater.
In the 1860-1870s. private theaters and theater circles began to emerge. In 1898, K. S. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Art Theater in Moscow, and in 1904, V. F. Komissarzhevskaya created the Drama Theater in St. Petersburg.
Second half of the 19th century - flourishing time Russian musical art. An important role in the development and organization of music education was played by Anton and Nikolai Rubinstein. N. G. Rubinshtein became the initiator of the creation of the Moscow Conservatory (1866).
In 1862, the “Balakirev Circle” (or, in the words of V. Stasov, “The Mighty Handful”) was formed in St. Petersburg, which included M. A. Balakirev, Ts. A. Cui, A. P. Borodin, M. P. Mussorgsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. Mussorgsky's operas Khovanshchina and Boris Godunov, Rimsky-Korsakov's Sadko, The Maid of Pskov and The Tsar's Bride are masterpieces of Russian and world musical classics. The greatest composer of the era was P. I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), whose creativity flourished in the 1870-1880s. P. I. Tchaikovsky is the largest creator of symphonic, ballet and opera music (ballets Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty; operas Eugene Onegin, The Queen of Spades, Mazepa, Iolanta, etc. .). Tchaikovsky wrote over a hundred romances, mostly based on the works of Russian poets.
At the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries. A galaxy of talented composers appeared in Russian music: A. K. Glazunov, S. I. Taneev, A. S. Arensky, A. K. Lyadov, I. F. Stravinsky, A. N. Skryabin. With the help of wealthy patrons, private operas appear, among which the private opera of S. I. Mamontov in Moscow has become widely known. On her stage, the talent of F.I. Chaliapin was fully revealed.

AT Russian painting the dominant position was occupied by critical realism, the main theme of which was the depiction of the life of the common people, especially the peasantry. First of all, this theme was embodied in the work of the Wanderers (I. N. Kramskoy, N. N. Ge, V. N. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. E. Makovsky, G. G. Myasodoev, A. K. Savrasov, I. I. Shishkin, I. E. Repin, A. I. Kuindzhi, I. I. Levitan). An outstanding representative of Russian battle painting was V.V. Vereshchagin, the largest marine painter was I.K. Aivazovsky. In 1898, the creative association of artists “The World of Art” arose, which included A. N. Benois, D. S. Bakst, M. V. Dobuzhinsky, E. E. Lansere, B. M. Kustodiev, K. A. Korovin, N. K. Roerich, I. E. Grabar.
Implementation into architecture achievements of industrial progress and technical innovations contributed to the construction of structures characteristic of the industrial development of the country: factory buildings, railway stations, banks, shopping centers. Art Nouveau becomes the leading style, along with which buildings of the Old Russian and Byzantine styles were erected: the Upper Trading Rows (now GUM, architect A.N. Pomerantsev), the buildings of the Historical Museum in Moscow (architect V.O. Sherwood) and the Moscow City Duma ( architect D.N. Chichagov) and others.
A significant event in public and cultural life was the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow (1880, sculptor A. M. Opekushin). Among the outstanding sculptors of this time are: M. M. Antakolsky, A. S. Golubkina, S. T. Konenkov.

Successfully developed the science. The name of the great scientist D. I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) is associated with the discovery of the Periodic Table of Elements; I. M. Sechenov’s research in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity was continued by I. P. Pavlov; I. I. Mechnikov created the doctrine of the protective factors of the body, which formed the basis of modern microbiology and pathology.
The "father of Russian aviation" E. N. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of modern aerodynamics, invented the wind tunnel, and in 1904 founded the Aerodynamic Institute; K. E. Tsiolkovsky laid the foundation for the theory of the movement of rockets and jet instruments. Academician V. I. Vernadsky gave rise to many scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology, and ecology with his work. K. A. Timiryazev founded the Russian school of plant physiology.
Technical discoveries and inventions are associated with the development of the natural sciences: the creation of an electric incandescent bulb (A. N. Lodygin), an arc lamp (P. N. Yablochkov), and radio communications (A. S. Popov).
The outstanding scientist S. M. Solovyov developed the fundamental work “The History of Russia from Ancient Times”, in which he substantiated a new concept that explained Russian history by the natural and ethnic characteristics of the Russian people.

The abolition of serfdom, despite its incompleteness, created the conditions for the rapid development of capitalism. In 1861-1900. Russia has turned from an agricultural into an agrarian-industrial capitalist country, one of the great world powers. At the end of the XIX century. in industrial production, it took the fifth place, after the USA, England, Germany and France.
As a result of imperial policy, Russia annexed a huge space in Central Asia, stopping the expansion of England in this area and obtaining a raw material base for the textile industry. In the Far East, the Amur Region and Ussuri Primorye were annexed, and possession of Sakhalin was secured (in exchange for the cession of the Kuril Islands). Political rapprochement with France began.

The emerging revolutionary movement of the populists was unable to raise the peasants to revolt, the terror against the tsar and senior officials proved untenable. In the 1880s the spread of Marxism began, in 1892 - the revolutionary activity of Lenin, in 1898 the RSDLP was created.

The 19th century for Russian literature is rightfully called golden. He gave us a lot of talented writers who opened Russian classical literature to the whole world and become a trendsetter. The romanticism of the early 19th century was replaced by the era of realism. The founder of realism is A.S. Pushkin, or rather his later works, which marked the beginning of this era.

In the 1940s, a "natural school" appeared - which became the beginning of the development of the direction of realism in Russian literature. The new direction covers topics that have not been widely covered before. The object of study for the "sitters" was the life of the lower classes, their way of life and customs, problems and events.

Since the second half of the 19th century, realism has been called critical. In their works, poets and writers criticize reality, trying to find an answer to the question of who is to blame and what to do. Everyone was concerned about the question of how Russia would develop further. Society is divided into Slavophiles and Westerners. Despite the difference in views, these two trends are united by hatred of serfdom and the struggle for the liberation of the peasants. Literature becomes a means of struggle for freedom, shows the impossibility of further moral development of society without social equality. During this period, works were created that later became masterpieces of world literature, they reflect the truth of life, national identity, dissatisfaction with the existing autocratic-serf system, the truth of life makes the works of that time popular.

Russian realism in the second half of the 19th century has significant differences from Western European. Many writers of that time identified in their works the motifs that prepared the shift towards revolutionary romance and social realism that occurred in the 20th century. The most popular in Russia and abroad were novels and stories of the period of the second half of the 19th century, which showed the social nature of society and the laws with which its development takes place. The heroes in the works talk about the imperfection of society, about conscience and justice.

One of the most famous literary figures of that time is I. S. Turgenev. In his works, he raises important issues of that time (“fathers and children”, “on the eve”, etc.)

A great contribution to the education of revolutionary youth was made by Chernyshevsky's novel What Is To Be Done?

In the works of I. A. Goncharov, the morals of officials and landowners are shown.

Another major figure whose work influenced the minds and consciousness of people of that time was F. M. Dostoevsky, who made an invaluable contribution to the development of world literature. In his writings, the writer reveals the versatility of the human soul, the actions of his heroes can confuse the reader, make him show sympathy for the “humiliated and offended”.

Saltykov-Shchedrin in his works exposes officials and embezzlers of public funds, bribe-takers and hypocrites who rob the people.

L. N. Tolstoy in his work showed the complexity and inconsistency of human nature.

The experience of A.P. Chekhov for the fate of Russian society was reflected in his works, giving the writer, whose talent makes one admire to this day.

The literature of the late 19th century has a great influence on all spheres of culture; theater and music also enter the struggle for their ideals. The mood of the society of that time is also reflected in painting, introducing into the minds of people the idea of equality and good for the whole society.

The modern world is not complete without people who own the power and the right to be the first. For animals, the same. The lion is the king of beasts, the word is of course hackneyed, but still fair