Questions of school management in the history of Russian pedagogy. History of Pedagogy

The development of pedagogical consciousness during this period is characterized by the formation of classical and reformist pedagogy.
Russian pedagogical thought in the first half of the 19th century. represented by such names as M.M. Speransky (1772-1839) and M.N. Karamzin (1776-1826), V.A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852), A.P. Kunitsyn (1783-1841), N.I. Lobachevsky (1792-1856), T.N. Granovsky (1813-1855) and others. Special pedagogical works appeared at this time, for example, the work of I.P. Pnina (1773-1805) “The experience of enlightenment with regard to Russia.

In the 30s of the XIX century, there was a process of global understanding of Russian social life and education, as a result of which several directions of philosophical and pedagogical thought were formed.

The first - western-oriented direction - can rightfully be associated with P.Ya. Chaadaev (1794-1856), who proposed the development of Russia, and, accordingly, Russian education, on the path of their radical replacement with Western European culture, including the replacement of Orthodoxy with Catholicism.

V.G. Belinsky (1811-1848) became the founder of the revolutionary-democratic trend in Russian social thought and in Russian pedagogy. Its most important requirements are individual freedom, equality, and so on. The main opponents of individual freedom, the progress of the country, in his opinion, were the monarchy and Orthodoxy, which should be eliminated.

A.I. Herzen (1812-1870) in his numerous publications and works of art actively addressed the issues of education.

A.S. Pushkin (1799-1837) can be recognized as the founder of the nationally oriented trend in Russian culture. He not only acted as a defender of the traditional way of life of Russian society, but his views on Russian education changed significantly over time in favor of traditional foundations.

The true founders of the theory of traditional Russian society and Russian education can be considered A.S. Khomyakov (1804-1860), and I.V. Kireevsky (1806-1856). Realizing the insufficiency and one-sidedness of the Western European path of development of humanitarian thought, the dead end of one-sided rational philosophy, they proposed a different way of comprehending the truth, a different system of building knowledge. They consisted in a return to Christian philosophy and its highest manifestation - the patristic heritage. Based on the works of the holy fathers, they proposed ideas for the development of traditional Russian education.

N.V. Gogol (1814-1852). I also understood the futility for Russia of blind borrowing of Western European culture, Western European upbringing and pedagogy. Therefore, he proposed to develop Russian education, based on its historical, traditional cultural foundations. At the same time, he proposed not to close himself off from Western European culture, but to take from it what was necessary for Russian society and its successful development.

First half of the 19th century gave the world many great spiritual figures, among them the Monk Seraphim of Sarov (1759-1831), one of the greatest saints of the Russian land. His teaching on the spiritual development of man is the most important source of true spiritual and moral education.

Speaking about the main directions of development of pedagogical thought in Russia, it should be said about the actual pedagogical figures and their works.

In the 1930s, one of the remarkable teachers of Russia, O.E. Gugel (1804-1841). His textbooks for primary education are widely known. P.S. worked with him. Guriev (1807-1884). At the same time, the first pedagogy textbooks appeared in Russia. Their author was A.G. Obodovsky (1796-1852).

In the second half of the XIX century. many well-known figures worked in Russian pedagogy. Among them: N.F. Bunakov (1837-1904), V.I. Vodovozov (1825-1886), A.Ya. Gerd (1841-1888), N.A. Korf (1834-1883), P.F. Lesgaft (1837-1909), D.D. Semenov (1834-1902), V.Ya. Stoyunin (1826-1888), P.G. Redkin (1808-1891), P.D. Yurkevich (1826-1874) and others.

The greatest contribution to the development of pedagogy in the second half of the 19th century, which rightfully became a Russian pedagogical classic, was made by N.I. Pirogov, N.A. Dobrolyubov,
N.G. Chernyshevsky, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, K.D. Ushinsky, S.A. Rachinsky, K.P. Pobedonostsev and others.

N.I. Pirogov (1810-1891). Having published his article "Questions of Life", he raised one of the most important problems of Russian education and upbringing - the problem of the correlation between universal and special education. The article was a huge success and immediately made the name of Pirogov known throughout Russia, and put the problems of education at the center of public life.

After the publication of the article by N.I. Pirogov was actively involved in the pedagogical life of the country, becoming a trustee of the Odessa, and then the Kyiv educational districts. At the same time, he published many works on education, in which he proposed his own system of education for Russia.

According to Pirogov, the Russian education system was to consist of a universal two-year elementary school, a real or classical pro-gymnasium (4 years of study), real (3-4 years of study) and classical (3 years of study) gymnasiums, universities and other higher educational institutions.

From the point of view of Pirogov, the foundation of education was to be a universal principle, its embodiment in the content of education was classical culture. Therefore, in the development of the secondary school, he gave priority to the classical, rather than the real content of education.

N.I. Pirogov did a lot to develop education in Russia, improve the training and professional skills of teachers, and humanize relations at school.

L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910) entered Russian pedagogy both as a theoretician, who wrote a number of profound articles on upbringing and education, and as a practitioner, who devoted many years to the creation of a public school and prepared his wonderful educational books for it.

The most important idea of ​​Tolstoy is the natural and free formation of education, especially the public school. Proceeding from this theoretical attitude, Tolstoy insisted that the Russian folk school should be freely worked out in the course of its natural historical development by the people themselves. Following this idea, he opens his own school in Yasnaya Polyana, develops a new content of education for it. He also proposed a new organization of the school, which actually became a full-time school, new teaching methods that contributed to the development of the creative abilities of children, the formation of their activity. The work of the school soon gained wide popularity, many teachers, even foreign ones, sought to get acquainted with its activities.

After the closing of the school in Yasnaya Polyana, Tolstoy continued his studies in pedagogy: he wrote articles in which he outlined the ideas of free education, textbooks for elementary school, which were not only perfect in didactic terms, but also carried a huge moral potential, he constantly met with teachers.

N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) played a major role in the establishment and development of revolutionary democratic ideology and pedagogical thought.

As a follower of the ideas of the Enlightenment, he argued that the progress of society is determined by the degree of development of the mind, and therefore education is the most important engine of human progress. Therefore, according to Chernyshevsky, the most important task of philosophy, science, literature, and art is the mental and moral development of the people. Hence the special responsibility of the intelligentsia, enlightened people to their people for their education and upbringing (in general, the works of Chernyshevsky played a big role in rooting in Russia such concepts as duty, service to the Motherland and people), responsibility for the education of those who are deprived of it - the common people , women. Chernyshevsky is credited with substantiating the anthropological principle as the leading scientific principle of the social sciences, including pedagogy.

N.D. Dobrolyubov (1836-1861) had a noticeable influence on the development of pedagogical thought in Russia. He wrote a number of deep pedagogical articles in which he outlined his understanding of the nature of the child and his upbringing.

The original idea of ​​Dobrolyubov's pedagogy is the idea of ​​the rational nature of the child, which he put forward in the article "On the Importance of Authority in Education". Proper upbringing, Dobrolyubov argued, should be built in accordance with the rational nature of the child, should be guided by the "development of the inner person." Based on this idea, Dobrolyubov managed to review many aspects of the existing education and determine ways to improve it. Thus, he came out as a resolute opponent of the authoritarian concepts of education, which demanded the suppression of the will of the child and submission to his "reasonable will of an adult", against the unreasonable punishment of children, especially physical. And apparently thanks to the passionate and decisive position of Dobrolyubov, already in the 60s. physical punishment in the Russian school was officially abolished. Who can calculate how many millions of children Dobrolyubov preserved the health of his uncompromising position ... Dobrolyubov made a certain contribution to improving the content of schooling and children's reading.

The most prominent ideologists of the nationally oriented path of development of Russian education were: K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870); S.A. Rachinsky (1833-1902);
M.Ya. Danilevsky (1822-1885); A.A. Tikhomirov (1852-1890); K.V. Leontiev (1831-1891); F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881); K.P. Pobedonostsev (1827-1907); S.I. Miropolsky (1842-1907); N.I. Ilminsky (1822-1891).

K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870). His name is rightfully on a par with the great teachers of the world, and for the education and pedagogy of Russia, his activities are of the same importance as the activities of Lomonosov - for science, Pushkin - for literature, Glinka - for music.

K.D. Ushinsky played a decisive role in the development of public education in Russia, primary and secondary schools, women's and professional teacher education, pedagogy and teaching methods, developmental and educational psychology. His pedagogical heritage can be presented in the form of three parts: theoretical works, methodical works and educational books.

The first part - theoretical works - includes works from articles devoted to the analysis of education systems in different countries of the world, to the fundamental work "Man as an Object of Education, or the Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology".

The uniqueness of the pedagogical thinking of K.D. Ushinsky is that he analyzes education in all forms of theoretical pedagogical consciousness, based on theological, social (“the principle of nationality”) and anthropological principles.

The second part is the methodical works of K.D. Ushinsky. They set out the system of teaching and learning based on his educational books "Native Word" and "Children's World".

The third part is educational books by K.D. Ushinsky: "Native Word" (year one, two, three) and "Children's World" in two parts. Educational books "Native Word" were intended for the initial teaching of the Russian language to 7-10-year-old children; "Children's World" - for older children. It provided material for teaching the native language, native literature, natural science, geography, logic, and the history of Russia.

In building the system of Russian upbringing and education, Ushinsky assumed to proceed from the idea of ​​nationality, which underlies the education of any people.

Ushinsky developed the theory and methodology of teaching in elementary school and folk school. He advocated the organization of a public school, built on the basis of the people and led by the people.

At the end of K.D. Ushinsky came up with the idea of ​​organizing professional, handicraft training for children from the people.

Much attention to K.D. Ushinsky paid attention to the issues of building a secondary school. As an inspector of the Smolny Institute, he reorganizes the educational part of this educational institution, creating a modern secondary school. He also wrote a lot about the secondary school in Russia: gymnasiums, colleges, military gymnasiums, schools under the clergy; proposed an education system for the future heir to the Russian throne. Although these were different schools, in the works of Ushinsky they are united by the fact that he proposed to build their activities on the basis of nationality, science and Orthodoxy.

Analyzing the work of the university, K.D. Ushinsky wrote that of all the educational institutions in Russia, only its universities corresponded to the idea of ​​nationality. Therefore, he advocated the gradual improvement of their work, believing that universities should perform scientific, educational, educational and educational functions.

K.D. Ushinsky advocated the organization of higher education for women in Russia. On the basis of the Smolny Institute, he wanted to create a higher school, but his resignation did not allow him to implement this idea.

He developed a system of pedagogical education, which included pedagogical classes in women's gymnasiums and women's institutes such as Smolny, teachers' seminaries, and pedagogical faculties at universities. He also developed the foundations for the organization, content, forms and methods of work of these institutions.

Thus, in the works of K.D. Ushinsky, a unified system of upbringing and education is proposed, starting with family education and ending with university education, a system based on the principles of nationality, Orthodoxy and the anthropological principle. This system takes into account the age characteristics of students and the specific characteristics of each class of students.

F.M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881). Although his artistic work has been the subject of countless literary studies, his pedagogical legacy has so far been little systematically read.

F.M. Dostoevsky as a teacher appears, firstly, as an educator of the Grand Duke Konstantin Romanov; secondly, as a brilliant artist, in whose work many aspects of the development, formation and upbringing of the child's soul are reflected; thirdly, as a theoretician of pedagogy, who substantiated in his journalistic works the ways and forms of the development of Russian upbringing and education.

The most important pedagogical problems posed by F.M. Dostoevsky: the correlation of the universal and the national in Russian education (he argued that Russia would enter world civilization in no other way than by the maximum development of its national culture, therefore it should also underlie Russian upbringing and education); the role of science in education - it should be given priority attention; the nature of education - it must be serious and real work; the expansion of education, the inclusion of broad sections of the people in education, the granting of the right to receive education, including higher education, to women; the problem of freedom and moral responsibility - their unity; legal consciousness and its formation in the Russian person; preparation of a national teacher, etc.

S.A. Rachinsky (1833-1902) - a great Russian teacher, who devoted most of his life to public education. Author of many works on the organization of education in public schools.

K.P. Pobedonostsev (1827-1907) - the great thinker of Russia, the significance of whose social and pedagogical ideas is only just beginning to be understood, the creator of the system of parochial education in Russia.

S.I. Miropolsky (1842-1907) - one of the prominent theorists and figures of the parochial school. His theoretical and methodical works, textbooks were of great importance for the development of the parochial school.

A.A. Tikhomirov (1852-1890) substantiated the leading role of the Orthodox Church in spiritual and moral education. He wrote: “The Church is precisely the environment in which a world outlook is brought up, indicating to a person the absolute dominance in the world of the supreme moral principle.”

In the second half of the XIX century. the main activity of the greatest saints and thinkers of Russia is accounted for: Metropolitan Philaret (Drozdov), Bishop Ignatius Brianchaninov, Bishop Theophan the Recluse, St. Ambrose of Optina, and others.

Metropolitan Filaret (Drozdov) (1782-1867) - a great figure and educator of Russia, the author of many theological works and textbooks. He and his associates translated the Bible into Russian.

Bishop Theophan the Recluse (1815-1884) is one of the greatest thinkers in Russia. He wrote a number of religious and pedagogical works, which set out the fundamental ideas and principles of Orthodox pedagogy.

Bishop Ignatius (Bryanchaninov) (1807-1867) - formulated the most important principles of Orthodox understanding and education of a person.

The Monk Ambrose of Optina (1812-1891) is the greatest saint, to whom many great people of Russia turned for advice and guidance, including F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy and others. Practically embodied in his activities the principles of patristic pedagogy.

Late XIX - early XX century. in Russia - the time of the formation and development of reformist pedagogy, which, as in Western Europe, is characterized by the creation of new branches of psychological and pedagogical science, new directions of their development, along with the development of traditional pedagogy.

The most important directions in the development of pedagogical thought in Russia were:
philosophical direction. A number of philosophers address the issues of education at this time: V.S. Solovyov (1853-1990), V.V. Rozanov (1856-1919), N.A. Berdyaev (1874-1948), P.A. Florensky (1882-1937) and others.

In the field of general pedagogy, such figures as M.I. Demkov (1859-1939) - author of fundamental works on the history of education and general pedagogy; P.F. Kapterev (1849-1921) - a prominent historian and theorist of pedagogy; the activity of P.F. Lesgaft; widely known, especially among primary school teachers, are the works of V.P. Vakhterov (1853-1924) and others.

An important direction of this period was the pedagogy of free education. The experience of S.T. Shatsky (1878-1934), who created several children's communes, in which children received not only education, but also upbringing; K.N. Wentzel (1857-1947), author of books on free education and creator of a school based on these ideas;
IN AND. Farmakovskogo.

Since the beginning of the XX century. in Russia, a new pedagogical science is developing - pedology. Its most prominent representatives were N.E. Rumyantsev, S.A. Levitin and others.

During this period, the formation of general, pedagogical, developmental and special psychology takes place. The most prominent role in its development was played by: G.I. Chelpanov (1862-1936) - one of the founders of Russian psychology, the creator of the Institute of Psychology; A.F. Lazursky (1874-1917) - one of the founders of child and developmental psychology; A.P. Nechaev (1870-1948) - one of the founders of Russian experimental psychology; I.A. Sikorsky (1842-1919) - a prominent scientist in the field of child psychology; V.P. Kashchenko (1870-1943), known for his theoretical works and practical activities in the field of raising children with mental retardation.

At this time, representatives of the natural sciences also began to deal with issues of pedagogy. The most prominent representatives of this trend were V.M. Bekhterev (1857-1927), V.I. Vernadsky (1863-1945), D.I. Mendeleev (1834-1907) and others.

Of the figures of Orthodox pedagogy, the most famous is the name of John of Kronstadt (1829-1908). He taught for many years at the Kronstadt gymnasium. His pedagogical ideas: Christ-centeredness, living faith in God as the basis of spiritual and moral development and education of a person.

In general, the main merits of Russian pedagogy in the 19th - early 20th centuries. can be imagined like this. Its leaders not only mastered all forms of theoretical pedagogical consciousness, but also created works of world significance; formed the philosophy and ideology of Russian education; substantiated such principles as the principle of nationality and Orthodoxy in education, proved the need for the priority of education in education, the labor nature of the learning process, the personal-collective principle in education, etc.; developed different models and types of schools from primary to higher; laid the foundations for the modern content of education from primary (K.D. Ushinsky, L.N. Tolstoy, K.P. Pobedonostsev, S.A. Rachinsky and others) to higher education; wrote modern textbooks and teaching methods on them; developed successful forms and methods of teaching in all types of schools.

19th - early 20th centuries - the time of rapid development of Russian education. Already the beginning of the XIX century. characterized by major reforms in education. The most important role in reforming education during this period was played by M.M. Speransky. His name is associated with the reorganization of the entire education system, primarily higher and spiritual, the opening of fundamentally new educational institutions, including the lyceum in Tsarskoe Selo. In 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was established, which began to develop an education reform in Russia. In 1804, the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities” was approved, which determined the content and organization of Russian education.

According to the charter, a unified education system was established in Russia (unfortunately, this legislative decision was canceled a year later). The country was divided into six educational districts according to the number of universities, all educational institutions subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education passed into their subordination. According to this charter, four types of schools were established in Russia: parochial schools, county schools, gymnasiums and universities.

After the Patriotic War of 1812, conservatism began to increase in education, the growth in the number of educational institutions slowed down, and academic freedoms were limited. At the same time, attempts are being made to build education on truly Christian and popular principles. The development of this area of ​​educational policy is associated primarily with the activities of the Minister of Public Education A.S. Shishkov.

The development of Russian education in the second quarter of the 19th century was determined by the activities of Emperor Nicholas I. The Charter of 1828 quite severely isolated the different levels of education from each other, linking them to certain estates. The paradox of the reforms of this period lies in the fact that, on the one hand, there were restrictions on the activities of gymnasiums and universities, and on the other hand, educational institutions were created aimed at training specialists for industry and agriculture, various professional schools were opened: agricultural, technical, commercial, including higher ones, for example, the Institute of Technology, the Institute of Civil Engineers, etc. Much effort was made to organize public education, therefore, there was an increase in the number of public schools, the most prominent role in the organization of which was played by V.F. Odoevsky (1804-1869).

During this period, the most significant contribution to the development of the content and technologies of primary education was made by E.O. Gugel with his textbooks and V.F. Odoevsky - with his books, methodological developments.

The formation of the content of education in secondary school was extremely difficult. During the first half of the century, it changed many times. At the same time, its general trend can be defined as the formation of the neoclassical content of education, which, along with classical culture and languages, also included mathematics.

Mid-nineteenth century - the time of fundamental reforms in all spheres of life in Russia, including education. For several years after 1855, education was at the center of attention of society and the state. The result of their broad public and state discussion was the statutes of educational institutions adopted in the 60s, which determined the further development of the Russian school. In the same years, a powerful social and pedagogical movement took shape, which begins to play an ever-increasing role in the education of Russia.

Elementary School. The 1960s became the time for the creation of a fundamentally new system of public education. The best known are the ministerial, zemstvo, and parochial schools. From the 70s. 19th century In order to train teachers for public schools, teachers' seminaries began to open.

High school. In the 60s. in Russia, not only is the classical gymnasium being improved, but the real school is becoming a mass real school, although it does not receive the rights of a classical gymnasium, and secondary schools of various departments are being reformed: military, religious, etc.

60s became the time for the creation of a new system of women's education. Previously existing women's educational institutions, both secular and spiritual, are being completely reformed. The most striking example of this is the Smolny Institute. A new type of women's educational institution is being created - a women's gymnasium. The first women's gymnasium in Russia was opened in 1856 in St. Petersburg by V.I. Vyshnegradsky.

A noticeable rise in this period was experienced by national schools in all regions of Russia.

Graduate School. As a result of the reforms of the 60s. spending on higher education increased, the number of universities and institutes increased. The universities were given autonomy. The content of education has undergone major changes. The quality of Russian university education corresponded to the world level.

From the middle of the XIX century. the formation of modern content and teaching technologies began, which differed from those previously formed in the same way as the literature of the 19th century. from 18th century literature. An outstanding role in this process was played by K.D. Ushinsky, N.I. Pirogov and other teachers of this period.

Thus, the reforms of education in Russia in the 60-70s were expressed in the rapid expansion of the network of different schools, from primary to higher, including the mass opening of public schools and secondary schools for women.

The period of the reign of Alexander III was a period of slowdown in the development of Russian education, and at the same time, this period also had its own noticeable phenomena in education, in particular the creation of a full-fledged system of parochial schools.

Early 20th century - the time of rapid development of Russian education. In general, despite the diversity of schools, the main trend in education was the creation of a unified national education system. This was especially evident in the education reform project of Minister P.N. Ignatiev, who proposed three options for a single school: modern, classical and neoclassical. Ignatiev’s activity as minister was quite fruitful: despite the wartime, there is a rapid increase in the number of different schools, a transition to universal public education is underway, the combination of the efforts of the state and society in education is becoming more and more fruitful, a number of new curricula and teaching aids have been prepared .

The Provisional Government went even further in creating a unified school. Decrees, decisions, practical developments were supposed to create a single system of education, taking into account various conditions and modifications.

Let us briefly characterize the development of education during this period.

Elementary School. Different types of primary schools were created - at the beginning of the 20th century. there were 60 of them in Russia. Ministerial, zemstvo and parochial schools become the main ones. In 1912, higher public schools with a 3-year term of study were established in Russia, and teachers' institutes began to function to train teachers to work in them.

Early 20th century was especially fruitful for the development of the secondary school in Russia. During this period, a variety of schools functioned: state schools - gymnasiums, commercial schools, military schools (cadet corps), etc.; public - real gymnasiums, women's gymnasiums, etc.; private - gymnasiums, especially women's, schools, colleges. And practically all these educational institutions gave a high level of education.

Higher education, especially non-state education, developed rather quickly.

In general, the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX centuries. were, on the one hand, a time of rapid development of Russian education, and on the other, a time of great shocks. The trouble in education is already evidenced by the fact that during this period more than 10 ministers of education were replaced, and often the new minister pursued a policy directly opposite to that pursued by his predecessor, which feverishly the entire education system.

Thus, the historical period of the XIX - the beginning of the XX century. turned out to be a time of fairly rapid and fruitful development of Russian education, when the system of modern Russian education was basically formed.
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The history of the national school and pedagogy of the Soviet period turned out to be extremely dramatic and controversial. The upward movement of education, the increment of pedagogical knowledge took place in social conditions that made free ideological debate difficult, in an atmosphere of repression, dictatorship and censorship by official authorities, reduced contacts with the world school and pedagogy, poor use of the experience of Russian and foreign schools and pedagogy.

In the Soviet period, a system of education was formed that strictly subordinated the individual and his interests to society, putting the introduction of political and ideological doctrines into the minds of students in the foreground. The system of communist education proved to be powerful and effective. The vast majority of people formed by this system sincerely supported the existing political regime. Those who doubted were killed or silenced.

There are three major stages in the history of the national school and pedagogy of the Soviet period: 1917 - early 1930s, 1930s and 1945-1991. At these stages, with a certain continuity of school policy and pedagogical thought, important features and specific features appeared.

School and school policy

In 1917, at the beginning of the first stage in the development of the Soviet school, the Bolsheviks who came to power intended to govern Russia, using the school and teachers as instruments of their influence. "The fate of the Russian revolution directly depends on how soon the mass of teachers will take the side of the Soviet government," the documents of the VIII Congress of the Russian Communist Party (RKP) (1918) said.

Prominent figures of the RCP were put at the head of the school affairs: N.K. Krupskaya, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.N. Pokrovsky. The leaders of the Bolshevik Party got involved in solving the problems of education, considering them as decisive for the fate of the country.

Anatoly Vasilievich Lunacharsky(1875-1933), heading the People's Commissariat of Education until 1929, was engaged in the promotion of communist ideas of education and the implementation of the Bolshevik school reforms. He clearly emphasized the expediency of forming a person primarily in the interests of society.

The main ideologist of Narkompros was Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya(1869-1939). She was a conductor of the ideas of the communist education of the younger generation. Krupskaya is the author of numerous articles and brochures on labor training, polytechnic education, teacher education, preschool and out-of-school education, content and teaching methods.

Shortly after October 1917, the destruction of the existing education system began. The former structures of school management were destroyed, private educational institutions were closed, the teaching of ancient languages ​​and religion was prohibited. During 1918, a number of government documents were issued that were to become the legislative basis for the school reform: on the separation of the church from the state and the school from the church, on the right of non-Russian peoples to open educational institutions with teaching in their native language, on the introduction in all types of schools co-education, etc.

During the 1920s the pre-revolutionary structure of school education was virtually eliminated. "Regulations on a unified labor school" and "Declaration on a unified labor school"(October 1918) a unified system of joint and free general education was introduced with two stages: the 1st stage - 5 years of study and the 2nd stage - 4 years of study. The right of all citizens to education, regardless of race, nationality and social status, equality in the education of women and men, a school in their native language, unconditional secular education, education on the basis of connection with productive labor were proclaimed.

In the 1920s options for the structure of school education were tested, new curricula were prepared, labor training and school self-government were introduced. The state system of experimental educational institutions (OPU) was founded. At the same time, the Bolshevik politicization of education took place.

The first destructive actions of the Bolsheviks ran into the resistance of teachers and educators, primarily the All-Russian Teachers' Union, which numbered up to 75 thousand members. Local teachers often refused to submit to Soviet power. They accused the communists of terror and encroachment on democracy. In December 1917 - March 1918 there was a mass strike of teachers, the participants of which insisted on a democratic solution to the problems of education.

In response, the new authorities resorted to a policy of carrots and sticks. The All-Russian Teachers' Union was banned, and the strike was declared illegal. A new Union of Internationalist Teachers was created (later the All-Russian Union of Educational and Socialist Culture Workers), which was under the complete control of the Bolsheviks. At the same time, the government promised to raise the teacher to a height that he had never stood before. However, under the conditions of the civil war, these promises looked more like a way to win over teachers than a genuine change in school policy.

The optimistic promises of the Bolsheviks and school reality were in glaring contradiction. School buildings were in disrepair. Textbooks could only be obtained for a lot of money. There was not enough paper and ink for the students. There was a mass exodus of teachers from schools. The established network of educational institutions crumbled.

By 1917 Russia remained a country of mass illiteracy. On the outskirts, the literacy of the population was only 23%. Only in the capitals was the literacy rate relatively higher - about 50%.

In the first years after the civil war (1920-1925) a campaign was launched to eradicate illiteracy. In 1920, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy was created, headed by N.K. Krupskaya. The restoration of the network of educational institutions began. Gradually the number of secondary schools in rural areas grew (in the 1920-21 academic year there were over 2,000). But little success was achieved due to the most difficult economic conditions. Children and the school were victims of devastation and hunger. Only in the Volga region in 1921 about 3 million children and adolescents were starving. Many died. The share of education in the budget, which reached 10% in 1920, fell to 2-3% in 1922. During 1921-1925. the age of students in a general education school was reduced from 17 to 15 years, the school network was reduced, many educational institutions lost state support and existed at the expense of the local population (“contractual schools”), tuition fees were introduced in schools of the 1st and 2nd stages .

In the second half of the 1920s. school education gradually began to emerge from a deep crisis. In the 1927/28 academic year, the number of educational institutions increased by 10% compared to 1913, and the number of students by 43%. If in the 1922/23 academic year there were about 61.6 thousand schools on the territory of the RSFSR, then in the 1928/29 academic year their number reached 85.3 thousand. Over the same period, the number of 7-year schools increased by 5.3 times , and students in them - twice. The country has approached the introduction of universal primary education. In 1930 it was introduced as compulsory primary (four-year education).

In the 1920s continued their search experimental institutions, which were headed by the most qualified teachers: S.T. Shatsky(First experimental station), MM. Pistrak(school-commune), A.S. Tolstov(Gaginskaya station), N.I. Popova(Second Experimental Demonstration Station) and others. The OPU were the pioneers of a different organization of training. They retained the spirit of the experimental schools of pre-revolutionary Russia, initiated various innovations: integrated curricula, Western forms and methods of teaching ("Dalton Plan", "Method of Projects", etc.), labor training, etc.

The People's Commissariat of Education organized program and methodological work. The results of this work were the programs and plans of the general education school in 1921, 1922, 1923, 1925, 1927, 1929, compiled on the basis of the principles of the integrated construction of educational material (by topics and directions, and not by academic subjects and disciplines). Valuable in integrated programs there were attempts to link learning with the surrounding life, to resist the formalism and scholasticism of the traditional school, to encourage the cognitive activity of students through the so-called active methods ("active labor", "research", "laboratory", "excursion", etc.).

During the 1920s, several systems and types of educational institutions underwent experimental testing: a 9-year general education school (4 + 5 or 5 + 4), a 9-year school with biases (trade union centers), a 9-year factory school. When organizing them, they tried to take into account the conditions of the region, the characteristics of the contingent of students, etc.

But in general, a significant increase in the effectiveness of training in the 1920s. Did not happen. School institutions worked unsatisfactorily. The volume of knowledge acquired by students of a general education school was insufficient. The school formed a personality far from the ideals of domestic democratic pedagogy, who was little interested in literature, art, life relationships, and more in self-government, political events and other types of social activities. Collectivism and self-management in education degenerated into conformism and manipulation of children. Instead of children's activity, obedience was implanted.

Major changes in school education occurred in the 1930s. The leadership of the country and the CPSU (b) adopted a resolution About primary and secondary school(1931), which stated the poor preparation of students and planned the transfer of the school to subject programs.

Gradually the quality of education improved. This became possible primarily as a result of the creation of a stable school system with successive stages. Stable programs and a clear organization of education contributed to overcoming the education crisis. Strengths of the reforms of the 1930s - the emergence of a harmonious structure of successive subsystems (from elementary to higher), regular subject education, a single mode of study, the introduction of standard programs and textbooks. However, the new system harbored flaws that later had a negative impact on the school: there was no alternative and excessive unification of the principles, content and organization of the educational process, and the rejection of differentiation in education. In part, these shortcomings were compensated for by the efforts of ordinary teachers, spontaneous differentiation (when some students went to vocational schools, and the other to higher educational institutions), and the activities of educational institutions that provided models of learning on the basis of independence, activity, and the ability to navigate in the environment.

An important consequence of the policy of raising the educational level of the population was the organization by the end of the 1930s. in cities general 7-year education. However, illiteracy continued to be a major problem. So, in 1939, every 5th inhabitant over 10 years old could not read and write.

In the 1930s there was a departure from the expedient pedagogical innovations of the 20s. The spirit of the barracks was implanted in educational institutions, self-government was abolished. In the general education school, labor training was curtailed and a return to the conservative traditions of gymnasium education was outlined. The OPU system was abolished. At school, as well as in the whole society, Stalin's personality cult was intensively implanted.

The school found itself in an extremely difficult situation during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945). A lot of children were deprived of the opportunity to study. In the 1941/42 academic year in the RSFSR, 25% of students did not attend school. In the future, the situation improved somewhat: in the 1942/43 academic year, 17% of children of primary school age did not attend classes, in the 1943/44 academic year - 15%, in the 1944/45 academic year - 10-12%. During the war, only in the territory of the RSFSR, the Nazis destroyed about 20 thousand school buildings. For example, in the Moscow region by the summer of 1943, 91.8% of school buildings were actually destroyed or dilapidated, in the Leningrad region - 83.2%. Nearly all schools in the war zones were shut down. In the first military year of 1941/42, the number of students in the fourth grades decreased by a third. During the war, the number of secondary schools was reduced by a third. Many school buildings were occupied by barracks, hospitals, factories (in the RSFSR in November 1941 - up to 3 thousand). Classes were usually in 2-3 and 4 shifts.

During the war years, government decisions were made regarding school education: on the education of children from the age of 7 (1943), on the establishment of general education schools for working youth (1943), on the opening of evening schools in rural areas (1944), on the introduction of a five-point grading system progress and behavior of students (1944), on the establishment of final exams at the end of primary, seven-year and secondary schools (1944), on awarding gold and silver medals to distinguished secondary school students (1944), etc.

Curricula and programs were corrected. They have been partially reduced. At the same time, military-defense themes and military-physical training were introduced.

Many children and adolescents systematically took part in agricultural work and the construction of fortifications. In total, during the war years, about 20 million schoolchildren took part in agricultural work during the summer holidays. Adolescents - students of vocational and general education schools - worked at industrial enterprises. Thousands of teachers and school-age children participated in the fighting with weapons in their hands.

The priority of school policy in 1945-1950. became universal primary and seven-year education. During 1945-1950. the number of students in grades 5-8 in the RSFSR more than doubled and reached 7.4 million. The implementation of universal primary and seven-year education was accompanied by enormous difficulties. There were not enough school buildings, school stationery, textbooks. Gradually, however, the situation improved. In general, by the beginning of the 1950s. Russian school switched to general seven-year education.

The next step in school policy was the transition to eight years of general education. This reform was "The law on strengthening the connection of school with life and on the further development of the system of folk education in the USSR"(1958). The reform took place through the transformation of 7-year schools into 8-year ones. The transition to an eight-year universal education required the rationalization of the school system, in particular, the creation of boarding schools in rural areas, the training of additional teaching staff, and overcoming repetition. By the 1961/62 academic year, the reorganization of 7-year schools into 8-year schools was completed. By 1970, the implementation of eight years of compulsory education.

Next, it was planned to gradually introduce general ten-year education. By the end of the 1950s. the system of educational institutions of secondary education was determined: 1) three-year general education schools; 2) three-year evening schools; 3) technical schools and other educational institutions.

From the mid 1960s. the transition to universal secondary education was placed at the center of school policy. This problem was supposed to be solved by the mid-1970s. In 1975, throughout the USSR, 96% of graduates of the eight-year plan attended various educational institutions where a complete secondary education was given.

By the beginning of the 1980s. the creative potential of the existing school system was largely exhausted. Bureaucratization, unification, total ideological indoctrination, a line towards egalitarian (egalitarian) education turned the school into a closed institution cut off from life. The interests of the individual child and the initiative of the teachers were increasingly ignored. The statistics of the mass enrollment of children and adolescents in compulsory school education, the high percentages of academic achievement concealed the troubles that were becoming more and more painful: the lack of scientific and pedagogical justification for the educational process, the lack of the necessary financial, human and other resources, the actually low level of preparation of the mass of students, the growth of non-attendance.

In the USSR, it was not possible to eliminate illiteracy. In 1959, 33% of the population had a 1-2-grade education or was completely illiterate, in 1970 - 22%, in 1979 -11%. Particularly widespread was illiteracy and illiteracy among women in the countryside (50% in 1959).

An unsuccessful attempt to overcome the crisis was school reform 1984 The plans envisaged by the reform to merge general and vocational education, professionalize the general education school, strengthen uniformity in the system of vocational education through the establishment of a new link - a secondary vocational school (SPTU), turned out to be far-fetched and only exacerbated the education crisis.

During the collapse of the USSR in the second half of the 1980s - early 1990s. The school of Russia came into ever greater discrepancy with social and educational needs. The scissors between the proclaimed lofty goals of education and the results of schooling and upbringing increased. This was expressed in a decrease in the level of academic performance, a drop in interest in education, a deterioration in the health of students, and antisocial behavior of children and adolescents.

Development of pedagogical science

In the 1920s domestic pedagogical science experienced a noticeable rise. There were many reasons for this. Scientists were still working - bearers of the best pedagogical traditions of the pre-revolutionary period. Maintained links with the rest of the pedagogical world. The leaders of the People's Commissariat of Education were positively disposed to innovations, attracted large and original-minded teachers to cooperate.

The Scientific and Pedagogical Section of the State Academic Council (SUS) established in 1921, which included P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky, A.P. Pinkevich, A.G. Kalashnikov and other famous teachers. Scientists were engaged in theoretical and methodological substantiation of upbringing and education. They put forward as the fundamental principles of historicism and the connection of school with life, the connection of education with productive labor, the unity of education and upbringing, the comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual.

These and other questions were at the center of pedagogical discussions in the 1920s. "Basic principles of the unified labor school" and "Regulations on the unified labor school", other first documents of the Soviet government about the school declared democratic approaches. Documents permeated the idea of ​​a humane attitude towards the personality of the child. The child was declared the highest value. The tasks were set to promote the development of the will, character, internationalist feelings of the child, proceed from his interests and needs, from social instincts and inclinations. The school was supposed to direct these social instincts into the social channel, thereby educating a new person. The principle of individualization of education was proclaimed, taking into account the gender, age and living conditions of the child. It was proposed to create prerequisites for the disclosure of children's talents. It was argued that only socialism can guarantee the development of the most valuable social quality - collectivism, provide conditions for the education of solidarity, voluntary discipline, readiness to work for the benefit of the working people of the whole world. At the same time, it was announced that bourgeois society forms individualism and conformism, while socialism is the soil for cultivating natural abilities and the all-round development of each person. Communist ideology was called the guarantor of the achievement of high pedagogical ideals. It was emphasized that the more education becomes class, communist, the more humane it is.

In accordance with the democratic ideals of pre-revolutionary Russian pedagogy, the first Soviet school documents stated that a new school could only be created by the joint efforts of teachers, parents, and authorities. The centralized management of education was rejected and the creation of school self-government was envisaged.

For many teachers, the "Declaration ..." and "Regulations on a unified school" evoked a positive response. But there were many who saw in them a utopia and even falsehood and hypocrisy (S.I. Gessen, I.M. Grevs, V.V. Zenkovsky, I.A. Ilyin, N.I. Iordansky, N. O. Lossky and others).

So, V.V. Zenkovsky(1881 - 1962) pointed out the contradictions between high pedagogical declarations, official school policy and the essence of communist education. He argued that communist upbringing cannot be humane from the very beginning, since it divides children according to class. Communist education is far from humanism, since it is alien to pacifism, mutual assistance, sympathy for all living things, active idealism, love for the small motherland and the entire Russian fatherland. Love for humanity is replaced by service to the class, national - international, spiritual - material. Children are instilled with hatred and cruelty.

Scholars who opposed official pedagogy did not accept the task of educating a new man - a fighter for communism, considering them utopian. They saw the main goal of education in turning the child to the world of kindness and humanity, to spiritual self-improvement.

Some opponents of the "Declaration ..." and "Regulations on a unified school ..." (for example, Zenkovsky), being committed to the ideas of religious education, rejected the monopoly of atheism, since it could lead to subjectivity and lies, to limit the possibilities of mental and moral education , to the renunciation of the child from spirituality and truth.

Many of the critics believed that the ideas of labor education and training formulated in the "Declaration ..." and "Regulations on a Unified School ..." are unsuitable for achieving strategic pedagogical goals.

The concept of a labor school set out in the "Declaration ..." and "Regulations on a unified school ..." provided that children would receive education from the world of nature and society. The subject of study was to be encyclopedic knowledge complexes, selected according to the age, interests and needs of children. Schoolchildren had to master the products of production, get acquainted with the elements of culture (labor processes, tools, revolutionary holidays, etc.). The training program included information about the properties of material objects, social structures, and modern industry.

This approach had serious psychological, pedagogical and sociological justifications. It was based on the fact that the full development of the personality occurs with the active development of the world around, when the motor skills, sensory skills, emotions, feelings of the child are intensively involved. Scientifically justified were the assertions that mental and physical labor has a beneficial effect on the development of ingenuity and creativity. Confidence was expressed in the enormous pedagogical role of labor, as it develops the most important centers of the brain, reveals abilities and talents, forms attention, accuracy, and resourcefulness. Labor was to become the core of the curriculum (for example, children were supposed to study the soil not from a book, but by working in the school garden).

The concept of a labor school aroused serious objections from teachers of the traditional persuasion. They did not accept the thesis of placing labor at the center of the educational process, believing that in this case mental education recedes into the background. For example, THEM. Grevs did not mind that physical labor took an important place in the school, but believed that its role should be auxiliary, since the main task of the school is to give knowledge, develop concepts and ideas.

So, I.M. Grevs and some other scholars have regarded the concept of a labor school as narrowly utilitarian and pragmatic. In their opinion, the main goals of school education remain mental development, preparation for life, encouragement of the desire for knowledge of the truth, and the formation of creative abilities. There were fears that students would be deprived of a solid humanitarian education, which would lead to inferiority of thinking, impoverishment of fantasy and intuition.

The dialogue between the official pedagogy and the opposition did not take place.

The ideas of many scientists of the 1920-1930s, who took a non-Marxist position, were not taken into account when developing the theoretical foundations for the activities of the Soviet school. This, of course, caused great harm to the development of domestic education and pedagogy.

Throughout the 1920s. pedagogical discussions took place during which important and topical issues were discussed: the relationship between philosophy and pedagogy, the class approach in education, the subject of pedagogy, basic pedagogical concepts, the individual and the team in the process of education, the future of the school as a special institution, the content of education, teaching methods, etc. The discussions revealed differences in views on the issues discussed. So, P.P. Blonsky and A.P. Pinkevich objected to the primacy of philosophy as a source of pedagogical science, while their opponents, for example, B.B. Komarovsky, insisted that pedagogy is primarily a philosophical science. L.S. Vygotsky suggested avoiding extremes when considering the interaction between the biological and the social in personality development.

How great the spread of opinions was can be judged by the example of the views of active participants in pedagogical discussions V.N. Shulgin and A.K. Gastev.

In pedagogical creativity Viktor Nikolaevich Shulgin(1894-1965), as in a mirror, reflected the romantic-radicalist moods of a significant part of the teachers of the 1920s. Author school dying theories, he believed that pedagogy should study not only the organized influence on the individual, but also anything else. The rational grain of Shulgin's theory was to affirm the need to study the relationship between the education of the elements and organization, in the proposal to create a school open to society. In general, however, Shulgin assigned to pedagogy the utopian function of organizing the entire social environment for the purpose of education. He unjustifiably rejected the school as a center of social education, offering instead closed special institutions.

The opposite of abstract romantic-pedagogical doctrines were the ideas Alexey Kapitonovich Gastev(1882-1941). They were formulated in the early 1920s. and were animatedly discussed until the end of the 1930s. Gastev set out to develop industrial pedagogy. This pedagogy was supposed to be aimed at professional training, at the definition of social and labor pedagogical technology, opposing ideologized education ("It will be necessary to make cultural education more operational, more vital, and not as ideological and stylized labor as it is given by the modern school"). Gastev saw the purpose of education primarily in the preparation of a "mechanized generation" capable of adapting to the latest technology, infected with the "devil of invention."

In the early 1920s Many scientists who made up the flower of Russian pedagogical science were forced to leave Russia: V.V. Zenkovsky, S.I. Gessen, N.A. Berdyaev, I.A. Ilyin, S.L. Frank, I.O. Lossky and others.

A powerful source of development of Russian pedagogical thought arose in Abroad. In the 1920s almost every year emigrant congresses devoted to the issues of upbringing and education were held. In the 1920-1930s. in Prague, Berlin, Riga, Harbin, San Francisco, various émigré pedagogical journals were published. For some time, Russian scientific and pedagogical centers (departments, pedagogical societies, etc.) operated in the Abroad.

Russian emigrant pedagogical thought rejected the radicalism of official Soviet pedagogy and sought to rely on the experience of Russian and world science. In the theoretical pedagogy of the Russian Diaspora, two directions were especially clearly manifested: philosophical and humanistic (continuing the traditions of Western and Russian classical pedagogy of the 19th century), and religious and Christian. Among the representatives of the first direction, S.I. Hesse. A vivid exponent of the ideas of Russian religious pedagogy was V.V. Zenkovsky.

In the main work Sergei Iosifovich Gessen(1887-1950) "Fundamentals of Pedagogy" (1923) emphasized the leading role of philosophy as a source of pedagogical science ("pedagogy to a greater extent reflects the development of philosophical thought"). Hessen recognized education primarily as a culturological function: "The task of any education is to familiarize a person with the cultural values ​​of science, art, morality, law, economy, the transformation of a natural person into a cultural one." Following neo-Kantianism, he classified pedagogy as a normative science, that is, knowledge of what education and training should be.

Vasily Vasilyevich Zenkovsky(1881-1962), having become the ideologist of Orthodox pedagogy, he was especially engaged in psychological research. He insisted that human consciousness is the unity of the rational and the irrational. Education must reconcile in the human soul the "truth of individualism" and the "truth of universalism."

A tragic example of the denial of the achievements of domestic pedagogy by the official authorities is fate pedology. The first steps of this science in Soviet Russia were a continuation of previous research. Pedology drew arguments from various human sciences, primarily from psychology. In this regard, special mention should be made of the works L.S. Vygotsky(1896-1934).

In the 1920s pedologists have developed various methodological approaches. So, A.F. azure proposed a typology of personalities, on the basis of which pedagogical principles of interaction between a student and a teacher were put forward on the basis of humanism, recognition of a personality in a child.

I. A. Aryamov, A. A. Dernova-Ermolenko, Yu. F. Frolov and other scientists considered the child as a kind of machine reflecting on the external environment.

Biogenetic and sociogenetic concepts were formulated. Yes, biogenetic P.P. Blonsky argued that the child in his ontogenesis succinctly repeats the main stages of the biological and social evolution of mankind, which should be taken into account in education. sociogenetics A.B. Zal-kind, S.S. Youthful, A.S. Zaluzhny, on the contrary, they emphasized the role of external factors in the upbringing of the child.

The development of pedology was rudely interrupted. Decree "On pedological perversions in the system of Narkompros"(1936) marked the beginning of the defeat of pedologists. In essence, a blow was dealt to science, the banner of which was respect for the characteristics, interests and abilities of children.

The policy of eradicating dissent led to the fact that by the mid-1930s. pedagogical ideas of the 1920s were generally declared harmful and projectile. At the same time, the "Iron Curtain" descended, effectively cutting off domestic pedagogy from the rest of the pedagogical world.

The leading direction of research in the official Stalinist pedagogy was the translation into the language of education and training of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine, the policy of the Communist Party. The main principles of Stalinist pedagogy were communist party spirit, the cult of the leader. The Marxist-Leninist doctrine was proclaimed the only true methodology of pedagogy. Pluralism in pedagogical approaches and concepts was suppressed.

Of course, one cannot speak of the absolute paralysis of pedagogical science in the 1930s. It continued to develop despite the unfavorable conditions of the totalitarian regime. Domestic Pedagogy in the 1920s-1930s never turned into a monolith. Along with the official ones, other ideas of education and training were developed. Vivid examples are the work of P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky, A.S. Makarenko, who played an important role in the development of pedagogical science.

Pavel Petrovich Blonsky(1884-1941) had a noticeable impact on the development of domestic pedagogical science, especially in the first decade of Soviet power. His monograph Labor School (1919) was regarded as the most important theoretical guideline for the creation of a new school in the 1920s.

P.P. Blonsky is the author of more than 200 pedagogical, psychological, pedological and philosophical works. In the pre-revolutionary years, his works on preschool education, national education, the history of pedagogy, and psychology were published. In the 1920s the scientist was not limited to the creation of theoretical works and actively participated in the development of new school programs. He organized the Academy of Social Education (a higher pedagogical institution), carried out experimental work at the school. From the mid 1920s. Blonsky's theoretical interests concentrated on the problems of pedology. After the decision of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) "On pedological perversions ..." (1936), Blonsky began to be politically persecuted, and his name was forgotten for a long time.

P.P. Blonsky sought to turn pedagogy into a strictly normative science, far from ordinary reasoning and recipes. He believed that pedagogy as a science requires philosophical justification, reliance on the achievements of biology, genetics, physiology, sociology and other human sciences. It should study the cause-and-effect relationships in education and training (for example, what are the punishments, and why do they exist). The most important toolkit of scientific pedagogy and the guarantee of reliable pedagogical knowledge is objective statistical information about the child and childhood, obtained using various tests. At the same time, Blonsky warned against insufficient representativeness of diagnostic methods.

Blonsky sought to clothe the age-old humanistic idea of ​​turning the child into the center of the pedagogical process in strictly scientific forms, allowing one to move from beautiful souls to truly humane education. Genuine love and respect for the individual consists in deep knowledge and consideration in the upbringing of the sex, age, personal and typical characteristics of the child. Thus, discussing the typology of students, Blonsky proposed to conduct pedagogical work according to the scheme of strong and weak types of physical and mental development of the child. For example, a child of a weak type should not compete with a child of a strong type, he needs additional classes (“poor children must be developed”).

According to Blonsky, it is possible to successfully educate and educate if one knows the norms and values ​​of the social environment, in particular, the norms and values ​​of the school class. The school class is a complex system that performs integrative functions through public opinion, mood, and the dominant attitudes of leaders and members of the group.

According to labor school concept P.P. Blonsky, it was assumed that students should acquire knowledge not through individual academic disciplines, but through the working life and relationships of people, as well as the surrounding natural world. Education should be built in accordance with the various phases of child development (genetic method).

Blonsky paid special attention to the problem of the development of the intellect of children in the process of education. He considered the question-answer system and examinations to be archaic. Blonsky considered it expedient to exercise the child by solving various educational and moral problems (helping a friend, an adult, a parent).

Stanislav Teofilovich Shatsky(1878-1934) - a major figure in Russian pedagogy of the 20th century. Theorist and practitioner, he contributed to the development of the ideas of social education, the creation of experimental educational institutions: "Settlement" (together with A.U. Zelenko), "Cheerful Life", the First Experimental Station. In these institutions, the ideas of self-government of students, education as an organization of the life of children, leadership in the community of schoolchildren, etc. were tested. Shatsky was deeply interested in the problem of the child's entry into the sphere of cultural achievements of human civilization. The formation of his scientific views was influenced by the ideas of representatives of domestic and foreign pedagogy, especially L.N. Tolstoy, A.F. Fortunatova, D. Dewey.

S. T. Shatsky was one of the organizers of the strike of the All-Russian Teachers' Union in 1917-1918, which opposed the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks. In the future, Shatsky, striving to serve for the benefit of children and society, agreed to cooperate with the People's Commissariat for Education.

Shatsky saw the source of the development of pedagogical science in the analysis of the organized educational process and the circumstances lying outside such a process (the influence of the street, the family, etc.). He believed that the main influence on the development of the child is not genetic inclinations, but the socio-economic environment ("we should not consider the child in itself ... but should look at him as the bearer of those influences that are found in him as coming from the environment"). This approach contrasted sharply with the biologism of pedology. At the same time, Shatsky agreed that attempts to do without experimental and experimental research in pedagogy are doomed to failure. He expressed doubts about the legitimacy of creating pedology as a new branch of knowledge using mathematical methods. At the same time, Shatsky rejected the primitive sociological approach to the child, considering it madness to "break" the child's nature and "forge" a new person in the name of a beautiful tomorrow.

Shatsky formulated the important goals of training and education: compliance with the social order and simultaneous consideration of the individual characteristics of the individual; the formation in children of the ability to unite efforts in achieving a common goal (for example, through self-government); training of a teacher who has the ability to teach, encourage socially beneficial impact on the child, who owns the methods of researching children; taking into account the macro- and microsocial environment of the child.

Leaving the main role in the educational work with children to the school, Shatsky emphasized that the educational institution should be closely connected with life, be the center and coordinator of the educational impact of the environment. Shatsky called creativity and independence the main factors of the child's activity in the process of upbringing and education. The main goal of education is not the acquisition of knowledge, but the development of thinking, the education of the mind. Considering the question of the place of productive labor in education, Shatsky emphasized that one should not strive to make such labor a way to make up for the costs of education.

Outstanding national teacher Anton Semenovich Makarenko(1888-1939) creatively rethought the classical pedagogical heritage, took an active part in the pedagogical searches of the 1920s-1930s, identifying and developing a number of new problems of education. The spectrum of Makarenko's scientific interests extended to questions of the methodology of pedagogy, the theory of education, and the organization of education. In the most detailed way, he managed to present his views related to the methodology of the educational process.

In pedagogical science A.S. Makarenko came as a brilliant practitioner: in 1917-1919. he was in charge of a school in Kryukov; in 1920, he took over the leadership of the children's colony near Poltava (later the Gorky colony); in 1928-1935 worked in the children's commune named after Dzerzhinsky in Kharkov. Since the second half of the 1930s. Makarenko was actually removed from teaching practice and in the last years of his life was engaged in scientific and writing work. Pedagogical essays, which have already become classics, came out from under his pen: "Pedagogical Poem", "Flags on the Towers", "Book for Parents", etc.

A.S. Makarenko developed a coherent pedagogical system, the methodological basis of which is pedagogical logic, interpreting pedagogy as "first of all, a practically expedient science". This approach means the need to identify a regular correspondence between the goals, means and results of education. The key point of Makarenko's theory is the thesis parallel action, i.e., the organic unity of upbringing and the life of society, the collective and the individual. With parallel action, the "freedom and well-being of the pupil" are ensured, which acts as a creator, and not an object of pedagogical influence.

The quintessence of the methodology of the upbringing system, according to Makarenko, is the idea educational team. The essence of this idea lies in the need to form a single labor collective of teachers and pupils, the vital activity of which serves as a nutrient medium for the development of personality and individuality.

Makarenko's work came into conflict with Stalin's inhumane pedagogy, which propagated the idea of ​​educating a human cog in a gigantic social machine. Makarenko, on the other hand, professed the idea of ​​educating an independent and active member of society.

Official pedagogy in an odious-totalitarian ideologized form lasted until the second half of the 1950s. She did not recognize, for example, tests as an allegedly bourgeois method of pedagogical research; attempts to introduce new essential concepts into pedagogy (in particular, “development”, “universal human values”) were suppressed. Pedagogical science was under the strict control of the state and the communist party. The Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR, established in 1943 (since 1967, the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR), operated under the same control. This body was declared the main center for the development of public education, the popularization of pedagogical knowledge, the development of issues of general and special pedagogy, the history of pedagogy, school hygiene, psychology, methods of teaching basic disciplines in general education schools and pedagogical educational institutions, and the training of scientific pedagogical personnel.

In the 1960-1980s. party-ideological pressure on pedagogical science gradually weakened, but nevertheless continued to influence scientific and pedagogical ideas. Domestic scientists P.R. Atutov, Yu.K. Babansky, V.P. Bespalko, V.E. Gmurman, P.N. Gruzdev, M.A. Danilov, N.K. Goncharov, L.V. Zankov, B.P. Esipov, F.F. Korolev, V.V. Kraevsky, I.Ya. Lerner, E.I. Monoszon, I.T. Ogorodnikov, P.I. Stavsky, V.V. Sukhomlinsky, M.N. Skatkin, T.I. Shamova, B.C. Shubinsky, G.I. Schukina, D.E. Epstein and others) developed the problems of methodology (education as a social phenomenon; goal, social functions of education; biological and social in education), the content of general education, the theory of education, polytechnic education and labor education, the comprehensive development of the individual, etc. Important and fruitful ideas: system-structural approach to pedagogical phenomena; interaction of pedagogy with other sciences; unity of education and training; the unity of the biological and social factors of development with the leading importance of the social factor, the social functions of the school; the correlation of the team and the individual in education; integrity and purposefulness of the upbringing process; the transformation of learning into a decisive condition for the development of schoolchildren; relations between the theory of knowledge and the theory of learning; interdependence of learning principles; learning optimization; differentiation of training and career guidance; places of the lesson in the educational process; cognitive independence of the student, etc.

A noticeable increase in the volume of scientific knowledge occurred in the least ideologized branch of pedagogy - didactics. A holistic approach to the study of the educational process has been recognized. On a larger scale, the results of psychological research were used in understanding the issues of training and education. The actual pedagogical interpretation of the main didactic categories has deepened.

Russian scientists have developed original concepts of education. One of them is the concept of general secondary education (V.V. Kraevsky, I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin).

According to this concept, the global goal of education is the assimilation by the younger generation of the basics of social experience. The concept of social experience includes the following: 1) knowledge about nature, society, technology, man, methods of activity; 2) experience in the implementation of known methods of activity (development of skills and abilities); 3) experience of creative activity; 4) the experience of an emotional-valuable attitude to the world and activity.

The main thing in the content of education is the social order, which needs to be translated into the language of pedagogy. To do this, first a general theoretical idea of ​​the content of education is built, then an idea of ​​the level of the subject and, finally, an idea of ​​the level of educational material. Thus, the content of education really exists only in the learning process. This process requires conscious perception of information and its memorization. The interrelated activities of the teacher and students are proposed to be implemented using teaching methods. A single educational process has its own logic: students must certainly go through two levels of mastering knowledge and skills - conscious perception and memorization, application. In the real educational process, these levels alternate variably.

Fruitful ideas were also put forward regarding education. So, V.E. Gmurman proposed to talk about predisposition, and not about the predestination of the individual as a subject of education. In his opinion, certain types of reflection are inherent in a person by nature, which facilitate or hinder education as a process of socialization. V.E. Gmurman insisted that social education was of paramount importance. He considered education as a process directed from the collective to the individual.

As the scientist believed, the essential sociological ideas have not yet been translated into "pedagogical language". Nevertheless, he deduced a number of patterns of education: 1) education through other activities (denial of "pure" education); 2) self-change and self-education in the process of activity; 3) uneven development of the personality in the absence of specially organized educational efforts.

Questions and tasks

1. What are the main contradictions in the development of the national school and pedagogy of the Soviet period?

2. Describe the development of the Soviet school in the 1920s and 1930s. What were the differences in the activities of the school during these two stages?

3. Tell us about the problems and priorities of school policy in the USSR in the 1940s-1980s.

4. On what basis can one speak of a crisis in the Soviet school at the turn of the 1980s-1990s?

5. Tell us about the confrontation between Soviet official pedagogy and the views of a number of domestic scientists. What do you know about Russian Pedagogical Abroad?

6. Can we talk about the 1920s as a period of the rise of Russian pedagogy? What do you know about pedagogical discussions and the development of pedology during this period?

8. Analyze the main pedagogical ideas of P.P. Blonsky, S.T. Shatsky, A.S. Makarenko.

9. Name the main directions of scientific pedagogical research in the USSR in the 50-80s. Give examples of the results of such studies.

Literature

Blonsky P.P. Fav. ped. and psychological. cit.: In 2 volumes - M., 1979.

Vendrovskaya R.B. Essays on the history of Soviet didactics. - M., 1982.

Issues of the activities of experimental educational institutions in the USSR, Western Europe and the USA.: Sat. scientific works. - M., 1980.

Gessen S.I. Fundamentals of Pedagogy. Introduction to Applied Philosophy. - M., 1995.

Zenkovsky V.V. Problems of education in the light of Christian anthropology. - M., 1993.

History of Pedagogy. - M., 1998. - Part II. - Ch. eight.

Korolev F.F., Korneichik T.D., Ravkin Z.I. Essays on the history of Soviet Skoda and pedagogy. 1921-1931. - M., 1961.

Krupskaya N.K. Ped. Op.: In 11 volumes - M., 1957-1963.

Lenin V.I. On upbringing and education // Collection of articles. op. - M., 1978. - T. 12.

Lossky N.O. Favorites. - M., 1991.

Lunacharsky A.V. On upbringing and education. - M., 1976.

Makarenko A.S. Ped. cit.: In 8 volumes - M., 1983-1985.

Public education in the USSR. Secondary school: Collection of documents. 1917-1973. - M., 1974.

Essays on the history of pedagogical science in the USSR (1917-1980). - M., 1986.

Essays on the history of the school and the pedagogical thought of the peoples of the USSR. 1917-1941. - M., 1980.

Essays on the history of the school and the pedagogical thought of the peoples of the USSR. 1941-1961.- M., 1988.

Pedagogical heritage of the Russian diaspora. 20s. - M., 1993.

Development of experimental educational institutions in the USSR and abroad.: Sat. scientific works. - M., 1977.

Formation and development of the Soviet school and pedagogy (1917-1937): Sat. scientific works. - M., 1978.

Fradkin F.A., Plokhova M.G., Osovsky E.G. Lectures on the history of national pedagogy. - M., 1995.

Fradkin F.A. Pedology: myths and reality. - M., 1991.

Frolov A. A. A.S. Makarenko: foundations of the pedagogical system. - Gorky, 1990.

Reader. Pedagogy of the Russian Abroad. - M., 1996.

Shatsky S.T. Ped. cit.: In 4 volumes - M., 1962-1964.

Control- the process of influencing the system in order to transfer it to a new state based on the use of objective laws inherent in this system.

Fundamentals of School Management- this is the creation of conditions for the normal course of the educational process.

Head teacher must ensure a high level of planning, organization, control. The director is an accomplice in the pedagogical process, a co-respondent, he is directly involved in the work of the school team in the education and upbringing of children, he constantly works with people: teachers, students, parents of children.

Management methods- these are ways of influencing one or another link of the management system on other, lower links or managed objects to achieve the intended management goals. Leadership Methods- ways of influencing people who realize and implement these goals.

Leadership style depends on how objective factors(working conditions, the specifics of the tasks to be solved, the level of development of the team), and on factors subjective(features of the personality of the leader, the degree of his preparedness, etc.).

Allocate three main leadership styles: authoritarian, liberal and democratic.

Most consistent with management principles democratic leadership style, which is based on the right combination of collegiality and one-man management, involves the active participation of public organizations, all teachers in making managerial decisions at school.

The largest schools have linear system. The director exercises leadership through his assistants.

In universities and large complexes, there is functional system management.

To basic management functions include analysis and planning, organization and control, coordination and stimulation.

Analysis- this is the basis on which the entire system of planning and organization of the educational process rests.

Planning as one of the most important functions of management includes the determination of the most appropriate ways to achieve the goals. It is designed to generate plans, projects, programs, standards, standards, criteria, etc.

Organization there is the formation and establishment of relatively stable relations in the managed and managing systems, acting and developing as a whole.

Coordination implies high efficiency in establishing harmony between all links and areas of the educational process, between the control and managed systems, a change in relationships, motivation, involvement in work, and an increase in creative activity.

The control- this is the active stage of the management process, when the results achieved are compared with what was planned. The basis of the entire system of control measurements (quantitative and qualitative) is feedback.

Stimulation is a system of measures aimed at creating a creatively working teaching staff and active purposeful activity of students.

the most important pattern management is the unity of the ultimate goals and objectives of the administrative-pedagogical, family and social impact and the process of shaping the personality of schoolchildren.

For the manifestation of this pattern, coordination of the actions of the school, family and community is very important.

90. MAIN PROVISIONS OF THE LAW OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION "ON EDUCATION"

The Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" contains the basic principles and provisions on the basis of which both the strategy and the tactics of implementing legislatively enshrined ideas for the development of education in Russia will be built.

These provisions are addressed simultaneously to society, to the education system itself, to the individual and provide both external socio-pedagogical conditions development of the education system, and internal proper pedagogical conditions her full life.

These include:

– humanistic nature of education;

- priority of universal human values;

– free development of personality;

– public accessibility of education;

– free education;

– comprehensive protection of the consumer of education.

Special meaning in managing the functioning and development of schools, they maintain the unity of the federal, cultural and educational space; freedom and pluralism in education; openness of education, democratic, state-public nature of education management; the secular nature of education in state-municipal educational institutions; receiving education in their native language; connection of education with national and regional cultures and traditions; continuity of educational programs; variability of education; differentiation of competencies of the subjects of the system.

central link of the education system in the Russian Federation is general secondary education, including secondary general education schools, schools with in-depth study of individual subjects, gymnasiums, lyceums, evening schools, boarding schools, special schools for children with disabilities in physical and mental development, out-of-school educational institutions.

Main tasks general educational institutions are: creating favorable conditions for the mental, moral, emotional and physical development of the individual; development of scientific outlook; the development by students of a system of knowledge about nature, society, man, his work and methods of independent activity.

In accordance with the Law “On Education” (Articles 21–23), a new interpretation is the traditionally existing vocational and secondary specialized education, which are now considered as primary and secondary vocational education. Primary vocational education aims to train qualified workers in all main areas of socially useful activity, as a rule, on the basis of basic general education (basic school).

Secondary vocational education is focused on the training of mid-level specialists for all sectors of the national economy on the basis of basic general, secondary (complete) general or primary vocational education.

The modern school is developing in the conditions of the market, new economic relations. The law on education, specific conditions of material support require fundamentally new approaches to school management from school leaders.

First of all, the Law requires the establishment of educational standards. This is necessary in the conditions of multidisciplinary and multi-level secondary education in order to provide equivalent secondary education for graduates of all types of secondary educational institutions.

General view

The history of the national school and pedagogy of the Soviet period turned out to be extremely dramatic and controversial. The upward movement of education, the increment of pedagogical knowledge took place in social conditions that made free ideological debate difficult, in an atmosphere of repression, dictatorship and censorship by official authorities, reduced contacts with the world school and pedagogy, poor use of the experience of Russian and foreign schools and pedagogy.

In the Soviet period, a system of education was formed that strictly subordinated the individual and his interests to society, putting the introduction of political and ideological doctrines into the minds of students in the foreground. The system of communist education proved to be powerful and effective. The vast majority of people formed by this system sincerely supported the existing political regime. Those who doubted were killed or silenced.

There are three major stages in the history of the national school and pedagogy of the Soviet period: 1917 - early 1930s, 1930s and 1945-1991. At these stages, with a certain continuity of school policy and pedagogical thought, important features and specific features appeared.

School and school policy

In 1917, at the beginning of the first stage in the development of the Soviet school, the Bolsheviks who came to power intended to govern Russia, using the school and teachers as instruments of their influence. "The fate of the Russian revolution directly depends on how soon the mass of teachers will take the side of the Soviet government," the documents of the VIII Congress of the Russian Communist Party (RKP) (1918) said.

Prominent figures of the RCP were put at the head of the school affairs: N.K. Krupskaya, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.N. Pokrovsky. The leaders of the Bolshevik Party got involved in solving the problems of education, considering them as decisive for the fate of the country.

Anatoly Vasilievich Lunacharsky(1875-1933), heading the People's Commissariat of Education until 1929, was engaged in the promotion of communist ideas of education and the implementation of the Bolshevik school reforms. He clearly emphasized the expediency of forming a person primarily in the interests of society.

The main ideologist of Narkompros was Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya(1869-1939). She was a conductor of the ideas of the communist education of the younger generation. Krupskaya is the author of numerous articles and brochures on labor training, polytechnic education, teacher education, preschool and out-of-school education, content and teaching methods.

Shortly after October 1917, the destruction of the existing education system began. The former structures of school management were destroyed, private educational institutions were closed, the teaching of ancient languages ​​and religion was prohibited. During 1918, a number of government documents were issued that were to become the legislative basis for the school reform: on the separation of the church from the state and the school from the church, on the right of non-Russian peoples to open educational institutions with teaching in their native language, on the introduction in all types of schools co-education, etc.

During the 1920s the pre-revolutionary structure of school education was virtually eliminated. "Regulations on a unified labor school" and "Declaration on a unified labor school"(October 1918) a unified system of joint and free general education was introduced with two stages: the 1st stage - 5 years of study and the 2nd stage - 4 years of study. The right of all citizens to education, regardless of race, nationality and social status, equality in the education of women and men, a school in their native language, unconditional secular education, education on the basis of connection with productive labor were proclaimed.

In the 1920s options for the structure of school education were tested, new curricula were prepared, labor training and school self-government were introduced. The state system of experimental educational institutions (OPU) was founded. At the same time, the Bolshevik politicization of education took place.

The first destructive actions of the Bolsheviks ran into the resistance of teachers and educators, primarily the All-Russian Teachers' Union, which numbered up to 75 thousand members. Local teachers often refused to submit to Soviet power. They accused the communists of terror and encroachment on democracy. In December 1917 - March 1918 there was a mass strike of teachers, the participants of which insisted on a democratic solution to the problems of education.

In response, the new authorities resorted to a policy of carrots and sticks. The All-Russian Teachers' Union was banned, and the strike was declared illegal. A new Union of Internationalist Teachers was created (later the All-Russian Union of Educational and Socialist Culture Workers), which was under the complete control of the Bolsheviks. At the same time, the government promised to raise the teacher to a height that he had never stood before. However, under the conditions of the civil war, these promises looked more like a way to win over teachers than a genuine change in school policy.

The optimistic promises of the Bolsheviks and school reality were in glaring contradiction. School buildings were in disrepair. Textbooks could only be obtained for a lot of money. There was not enough paper and ink for the students. There was a mass exodus of teachers from schools. The established network of educational institutions crumbled.

By 1917 Russia remained a country of mass illiteracy. On the outskirts, the literacy of the population was only 23%. Only in the capitals was the literacy rate relatively higher - about 50%.

In the first years after the civil war (1920-1925) a campaign was launched to eradicate illiteracy. In 1920, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy was created, headed by N.K. Krupskaya. The restoration of the network of educational institutions began. Gradually the number of secondary schools in rural areas grew (in the 1920-21 academic year there were over 2,000). But little success was achieved due to the most difficult economic conditions. Children and the school were victims of devastation and hunger. Only in the Volga region in 1921 about 3 million children and adolescents were starving. Many died. The share of education in the budget, which reached 10% in 1920, fell to 2-3% in 1922. During 1921-1925. the age of students in a general education school was reduced from 17 to 15 years, the school network was reduced, many educational institutions lost state support and existed at the expense of the local population (“contractual schools”), tuition fees were introduced in schools of the 1st and 2nd stages .

In the second half of the 1920s. school education gradually began to emerge from a deep crisis. In the 1927/28 academic year, the number of educational institutions increased by 10% compared to 1913, and the number of students by 43%. If in the 1922/23 academic year there were about 61.6 thousand schools on the territory of the RSFSR, then in the 1928/29 academic year their number reached 85.3 thousand. Over the same period, the number of 7-year schools increased by 5.3 times , and students in them - twice. The country has approached the introduction of universal primary education. In 1930 it was introduced as compulsory primary (four-year education).

In the 1920s continued their search experimental institutions, which were headed by the most qualified teachers: S.T. Shatsky(First experimental station), MM. Pistrak(school-commune), A.S. Tolstov(Gaginskaya station), N.I. Popova(Second Experimental Demonstration Station) and others. The OPU were the pioneers of a different organization of training. They retained the spirit of the experimental schools of pre-revolutionary Russia, initiated various innovations: integrated curricula, Western forms and methods of teaching ("Dalton Plan", "Method of Projects", etc.), labor training, etc.

The People's Commissariat of Education organized program and methodological work. The results of this work were the programs and plans of the general education school in 1921, 1922, 1923, 1925, 1927, 1929, compiled on the basis of the principles of the integrated construction of educational material (by topics and directions, and not by academic subjects and disciplines). Valuable in integrated programs there were attempts to link learning with the surrounding life, to resist the formalism and scholasticism of the traditional school, to encourage the cognitive activity of students through the so-called active methods ("active labor", "research", "laboratory", "excursion", etc.).

During the 1920s, several systems and types of educational institutions underwent experimental testing: a 9-year general education school (4 + 5 or 5 + 4), a 9-year school with biases (trade union centers), a 9-year factory school. When organizing them, they tried to take into account the conditions of the region, the characteristics of the contingent of students, etc.

But in general, a significant increase in the effectiveness of training in the 1920s. Did not happen. School institutions worked unsatisfactorily. The volume of knowledge acquired by students of a general education school was insufficient. The school formed a personality far from the ideals of domestic democratic pedagogy, who was little interested in literature, art, life relationships, and more in self-government, political events and other types of social activities. Collectivism and self-management in education degenerated into conformism and manipulation of children. Instead of children's activity, obedience was implanted.

Major changes in school education occurred in the 1930s. The leadership of the country and the CPSU (b) adopted a resolution About primary and secondary school(1931), which stated the poor preparation of students and planned the transfer of the school to subject programs.

Gradually the quality of education improved. This became possible primarily as a result of the creation of a stable school system with successive stages. Stable programs and a clear organization of education contributed to overcoming the education crisis. Strengths of the reforms of the 1930s - the emergence of a harmonious structure of successive subsystems (from elementary to higher), regular subject education, a single mode of study, the introduction of standard programs and textbooks. However, the new system harbored flaws that later had a negative impact on the school: there was no alternative and excessive unification of the principles, content and organization of the educational process, and the rejection of differentiation in education. In part, these shortcomings were compensated for by the efforts of ordinary teachers, spontaneous differentiation (when some students went to vocational schools, and the other to higher educational institutions), and the activities of educational institutions that provided models of learning on the basis of independence, activity, and the ability to navigate in the environment.

An important consequence of the policy of raising the educational level of the population was the organization by the end of the 1930s. in cities general 7-year education. However, illiteracy continued to be a major problem. So, in 1939, every 5th inhabitant over 10 years old could not read and write.

In the 1930s there was a departure from the expedient pedagogical innovations of the 20s. The spirit of the barracks was implanted in educational institutions, self-government was abolished. In the general education school, labor training was curtailed and a return to the conservative traditions of gymnasium education was outlined. The OPU system was abolished. At school, as well as in the whole society, Stalin's personality cult was intensively implanted.

The school found itself in an extremely difficult situation during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945). A lot of children were deprived of the opportunity to study. In the 1941/42 academic year in the RSFSR, 25% of students did not attend school. In the future, the situation improved somewhat: in the 1942/43 academic year, 17% of children of primary school age did not attend classes, in the 1943/44 academic year - 15%, in the 1944/45 academic year - 10-12%. During the war, only in the territory of the RSFSR, the Nazis destroyed about 20 thousand school buildings. For example, in the Moscow region by the summer of 1943, 91.8% of school buildings were actually destroyed or dilapidated, in the Leningrad region - 83.2%. Nearly all schools in the war zones were shut down. In the first military year of 1941/42, the number of students in the fourth grades decreased by a third. During the war, the number of secondary schools was reduced by a third. Many school buildings were occupied by barracks, hospitals, factories (in the RSFSR in November 1941 - up to 3 thousand). Classes were usually in 2-3 and 4 shifts.

During the war years, government decisions were made regarding school education: on the education of children from the age of 7 (1943), on the establishment of general education schools for working youth (1943), on the opening of evening schools in rural areas (1944), on the introduction of a five-point grading system progress and behavior of students (1944), on the establishment of final exams at the end of primary, seven-year and secondary schools (1944), on awarding gold and silver medals to distinguished secondary school students (1944), etc.

Curricula and programs were corrected. They have been partially reduced. At the same time, military-defense themes and military-physical training were introduced.

Many children and adolescents systematically took part in agricultural work and the construction of fortifications. In total, during the war years, about 20 million schoolchildren took part in agricultural work during the summer holidays. Adolescents - students of vocational and general education schools - worked at industrial enterprises. Thousands of teachers and school-age children participated in the fighting with weapons in their hands.

The priority of school policy in 1945-1950. became universal primary and seven-year education. During 1945-1950. the number of students in grades 5-8 in the RSFSR more than doubled and reached 7.4 million. The implementation of universal primary and seven-year education was accompanied by enormous difficulties. There were not enough school buildings, school stationery, textbooks. Gradually, however, the situation improved. In general, by the beginning of the 1950s. Russian school switched to general seven-year education.

The next step in school policy was the transition to eight years of general education. This reform was "Law on strengthening the connection between school and life and on the further development of the system of public education in the USSR"(1958). The reform took place through the transformation of 7-year schools into 8-year ones. The transition to an eight-year universal education required the rationalization of the school system, in particular, the creation of boarding schools in rural areas, the training of additional teaching staff, and overcoming repetition. By the 1961/62 academic year, the reorganization of 7-year schools into 8-year schools was completed. By 1970, the implementation of eight years of compulsory education.

Next, it was planned to gradually introduce general ten-year education. By the end of the 1950s. the system of educational institutions of secondary education was determined: 1) three-year general education schools; 2) three-year evening schools; 3) technical schools and other educational institutions.

From the mid 1960s. the transition to universal secondary education was placed at the center of school policy. This problem was supposed to be solved by the mid-1970s. In 1975, throughout the USSR, 96% of graduates of the eight-year plan attended various educational institutions where a complete secondary education was given.

By the beginning of the 1980s. the creative potential of the existing school system was largely exhausted. Bureaucratization, unification, total ideological indoctrination, a line towards egalitarian (egalitarian) education turned the school into a closed institution cut off from life. The interests of the individual child and the initiative of the teachers were increasingly ignored. The statistics of the mass enrollment of children and adolescents in compulsory school education, the high percentages of academic achievement concealed the troubles that were becoming more and more painful: the lack of scientific and pedagogical justification for the educational process, the lack of the necessary financial, human and other resources, the actually low level of preparation of the mass of students, the growth of non-attendance.

In the USSR, it was not possible to eliminate illiteracy. In 1959, 33% of the population had a 1-2-grade education or was completely illiterate, in 1970 - 22%, in 1979 -11%. Particularly widespread was illiteracy and illiteracy among women in the countryside (50% in 1959).

An unsuccessful attempt to overcome the crisis was school reform 1984 The plans envisaged by the reform to merge general and vocational education, professionalize the general education school, strengthen uniformity in the system of vocational education through the establishment of a new link - a secondary vocational school (SPTU), turned out to be far-fetched and only exacerbated the education crisis.

During the collapse of the USSR in the second half of the 1980s - early 1990s. The school of Russia came into ever greater discrepancy with social and educational needs. The scissors between the proclaimed lofty goals of education and the results of schooling and upbringing increased. This was expressed in a decrease in the level of academic performance, a drop in interest in education, a deterioration in the health of students, and antisocial behavior of children and adolescents.

Similar information.

School and Pedagogy in Russia after the Great Patriotic War. The development of a comprehensive school in the late 40s - 50s. Organization of industrial training, labor education and vocational guidance of students in a general education school in the late 50s - 60s. Transition to universal secondary education in the second half of the 60s - early 70s.

Development of pedagogical science. Expansion of the scope of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences. Strengthening since the beginning of the 60s attention to the development of theoretical problems of school education and training. Study of the relationship between learning and development, the essence of learning processes, ways to improve the structure of the lesson, the activation of teaching methods, the relationship of reproductive and creative cognitive activity. The problem of programmed learning. Theory and practice of problem learning. Problems of polytechnic and vocational education. Continuation of active work in the field of correctional pedagogy (I.A. Sokolyansky, A.I. Meshcheryakov, A.I. Dyachkov, etc.).

A.P. Pinkevich - the most prominent teacher of the first half of the 30s. One of the first Soviet theorists. He graduated from Kazan University, a capable biologist. After university, he teaches, engages in literary activities (Gorky's assistant). In the first half of the 20s. first headed the Ural University, then the Petrograd Pedagogical Institute, since 1924 the rector of the 2nd Moscow State University. Since 1926, at the same time, director of the Institute of Scientific Pedagogy, since 1930 he has been head of the Department of Pedagogy at the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute. In 1924-1925 he published Pedagogy, one of the first Soviet textbooks, in 2 parts. His works were criticized by P. P. Blonsky; V. N. Shulgin, according to M. V. Boguslavsky, waged a “war of annihilation” against Pinkevich, accusing him of anti-Marxism. Later, he was arrested along with other educators on charges of creating a terrorist group. Shot. . P. Blonsky - an outstanding teacher and psychologist, "Soviet Pestalozzi". He had the greatest influence on post-revolutionary Russian pedagogy, his legacy has not yet been fully studied. He made demands on pedagogy as an exact science, which should establish patterns between the facts of education, studying them depending on various reasons (“Education is not created by the will of an individual ... but is a function of certain economic and political conditions ...”)” One of the main developers of pedology, understood it as a science that "studies the development of a person in childhood", while pedagogy "studies the factors that favor this development." He gave great influence to objective methods of pedagogical research, primarily statistical testing, although he always noted that one cannot make a cult out of diagnostics. Carefully worked out the research procedure. The center of the pedagogical process, according to Blonsky, is the child; everything should be aimed at “opening and enriching” the child (“Love not the school, but the children who come to school”). Love is manifested in the knowledge of the characteristics of the student (gender, age, etc.) and in the ability to build work based on this knowledge. The success of the work is determined by empathy (in a modern way, empathy). One of the first Blonsky drew attention to the role of informal relations in the formation of personality (norms and values ​​of the social environment, leadership, management). Developed a typology of students on the basis of "strong - weak". This is manifested in physical, mental, psychological development. The weak type (mental development) deserves special attention; a child of this type becomes a winner only in fiction (dreams). "Dreams" hinder development, Blonsky developed ways to work with such children. Thus, according to Blonsky, the goals of education depend on the type of child. In the concept of a labor school created by Blonsky, students should study the world as a whole, as life-work, the relationship of people, phenomena and objects. To activate the educational process, Blonsky proposed a genetic method, which involved learning according to the phases of a child's development, organized in stages - this is the only way to develop what is laid down by nature. It is necessary to gradually expand the "boundaries of experience" (from the microenvironment to the macro). By activating thinking, the teacher makes the student's work creative, therefore (like Shatsky) Blonsky condemned learning, when the teacher asks what he has learned, the student answers. In order to bring learning closer to “life itself”, Blonsky suggested in practice to study the tools of labor, to practice in solving social situations (he included them in the real educational process). After the decision of 1936 "On pedological perversions in the system of Narkompros". Blonsky is hounded, his publications are stopped, he is forbidden to perform. Both of his sons are arrested. Forgotten and lonely, he died in the district hospital. For 20 years his name and works were banned. 44

The development of pedagogical thought in the conditions of emigration was fed, on the one hand, by the ineradicable need of Russian scientists to comprehend the philosophical, psychological, cultural, religious problems of the formation and development of personality, education and culture; on the other hand, the presence of children's and youth emigration in need of social and pedagogical protection and education. The Russian intelligentsia was united by concern and anxiety about the fate of the rising generation of Russia. It became, using the words of I.A. Bunin, "the mission of the Russian emigration".

We can talk about the formed scientific and pedagogical space of the Russian Diaspora, which created a single field of intellectual attraction and allowed the development of the theory and practice of schooling.

First of all, the basis of this space was the social and pedagogical movement of the Russian emigration, which involved the intelligentsia in the creative process. It was organized by two centers of pedagogical emigration: the Pedagogical Bureau for the Affairs of the Middle and Lower Russian Schools Abroad, which was headed by V.V. Zenkovsky, and the Association of Russian Teachers' Organizations Abroad (ORUOZ), whose chairman was A.V. Zhekulina. They not only performed organizational and pedagogical functions, but also contributed to the revitalization of scientific life in the field of education, enjoying great prestige in the circles of pedagogical emigration.

The general emigre pedagogical congresses in 1923, 1925 and 1926, as well as on the problems of preschool education (1927), out-of-school education (1928), education of school youth (1929), a number of meetings on religious -moral education and upbringing, gathering the best pedagogical forces to discuss pressing problems. Congresses and meetings were held in individual countries or groups of countries. Through the Russian academic groups, which held their congresses, venerable scientists were involved in understanding the problems of youth education.

ZENKOVSKY Vasily Vasilievich

Actually Zenkovsky's philosophical system consists of three sections: epistemology, metaphysics and the doctrine of man (anthropology). In the field of epistemology, Zenkovsky stands on the point of view, which he calls the "Christocentric understanding of knowledge." Building his concepts, Zenkovsky follows the path of criticism of views that are opposite and close to him, exposing the first and clarifying the second, then gives his own understanding of the problem, after which he once again justifies the positive solution to the problem obtained in this way with the help of Christian dogma. Thus, in epistemology, having overcome the one-sidedness of S. N. Trubetskoy’s teaching about the “cathedral nature of human knowledge” and German transcendental idealism, Zenkovsky comes to the concept of “church reason”, according to which the metaphysical support of knowledge must be sought in the concept of the Church. “This interpretation of knowledge resolutely rejects the principle of “autonomy” of the mind, which requires a revision of all the principles of modern science” (History of Russian Philosophy, vol. 2, part 2. L., 1991. p. 252). In metaphysics, Zenkovsky, abandoning the constructions of Vl. S. Solovyov, comes to the "rejection" of all forms of Neoplatonism. His ontology is, first of all, the doctrine of the createdness of being, an original version of sophiology (although in a number of points Zenkovsky follows S. N. Bulgakov); he also developed his own version of cosmism and the doctrine of the world Soul. In the doctrine of man, Zenkovsky gives a general formulation of those psychological and pedagogical ideas that he developed throughout his life. “The path of a person,” he believes, “on earth stands under the sign of the“ cross ”(each person, according to the teachings of the Lord, has“ his own ”cross, which ensures the incomparability and originality of each person), that is, the internal law, according to which he can the lost (albeit basically not destroyed) wholeness in a person can be restored. Hence the centrality of his moral life is clear; liberation from the power of "spiritual" movements, the spiritualization of the entire composition of man is, at the same time, our preparation for the triumph of eternal life in man. All pedagogical efforts, which are generally feasible, should be aimed at ensuring that the young being can “find himself” and creatively transform his composition, which he finds in himself, as an interaction of heredity, social and spiritual influences ”(ibid., p. 253 ). Zenkovsky’s theological views are set forth in the book “Apologetics” (Paris, 1957), in which he aims “at all those points where there is a real or imaginary divergence of knowledge and culture with the Church, to show that the truth of Christianity remains unshakable” (“Apologetics” . Riga, 1992.p.11). A special place in the creative heritage of Zenkovsky is occupied by the "History of Russian Philosophy" - a fundamental two-volume study published in Paris in 1948-50 and translated into French and English in 1953. In terms of material coverage and depth of interpretation, this study is still unsurpassed.

Ivan Alexandrovich Ilyin

Russian philosopher, jurist, political thinker, as well as a subtle theorist and historian of religion and culture.

From 1923 to 1934 the Russian philosopher was dean and professor at the Russian Scientific Institute in Berlin. During these years, he actively participated in the political life of the Russian emigration, adjoining its right. He became one of the ideologists of the white movement, for several years he published the Russian Bell. A Journal of a Strong-willed Idea. During this period of time, he wrote a number of books on philosophy, politics, religion and culture: The Religious Meaning of Philosophy, On Resistance to Evil by Force (1925), The Way of Spiritual Renewal (1935), Fundamentals of Art. in art (1937), etc. However, Ilyin's more active work was interrupted due to the Nazis coming to power in Germany, for already in 1934 he was fired from the Russian Scientific Institute, and two years later he was banned from any public activity. And in 1938 he was forced to emigrate from Germany to Switzerland. Largely thanks to S. V. Rachmaninoff and many of his other friends, he settled with his wife near Zurich. Fearing the reaction of Germany, the Swiss authorities limited the activities of the Russian philosopher. But gradually his position was strengthened and he was already able to actively engage in creative activity.In addition to a large number of articles and essays published in various publications, in particular, which later compiled the collection Our Tasks ohmah in 1956), Ivan Alexandrovich also published in German three books of philosophical and artistic prose, united by the common idea "The Singing Heart. The Book of Quiet Contemplations", as well as the fundamental study "Axioms of Religious Experience" (published in 2 volumes in 1953) and the book "The Path to Evidence" (1957) was being prepared for publication. All this suggests that Ilyin's range of interests was very broad: he was interested in both religious and legal, socio-political, philosophical, as well as ethical, aesthetic, anthropological, literary and poetic problems and areas of knowledge.

The Russian thinker also made an outstanding contribution to the formation and development of the national ideology. So, in his report "The Creative Idea of ​​Our Future", made in Belgrade and Prague in 1934, he formulates the emerging problems of Russian national life, which are still relevant to this day. “We must tell the rest of the world,” he boldly declared, “that Russia is alive, that burying her is short-sighted and stupid; that we are not human dust and dirt, but living people with a Russian heart, with a Russian mind and Russian talent, which is in vain they think that we have "quarreled" with each other and are in irreconcilable disagreement, that we are narrow-minded reactionaries who only think about their personal scores with a commoner or "foreigner."

The system of public education in the USSR is an education system that began to take shape in the Soviet era (Soviet Russia, USSR).

Education in the Soviet Union was closely connected with the upbringing and formation of personality traits. The Soviet school was called upon not only to solve general educational problems, teaching students knowledge of the laws of development of nature, society and thinking, labor skills and abilities, but also to form communist views and beliefs of students on this basis, to educate students in the spirit of high morality, Soviet patriotism and socialist internationalism.

The basic principles of education in the Soviet Union were formulated as early as 1903 in the Program of the RSDLP, announced at the II Congress of the RSDLP: universal free compulsory education for children of both sexes up to 16 years of age; liquidation of class schools and restrictions in education on national grounds; separation of the school from the church; teaching in one's native language, etc.

Since the establishment of the Soviet state, education has been given priority attention. On November 9, 1917 (the day after the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets was held on October 26 (November 8), 1917), the State Commission on Education was established by a joint Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars, which was entrusted with the task of managing the entire system of public education and culture.

In October 1918, the regulation "On the unified labor school of the RSFSR" was introduced, which introduced free and joint education of school-age children. On December 26, 1919, a decree was signed stating that the entire population of the country aged 8 to 50 years old, who could not read or write, was obliged to learn to read and write in their native or Russian language - if desired. ]

A serious problem was the illiteracy of a significant part of the population, especially the peasantry, while in Europe, this problem was solved back in the 19th century. The Soviet leadership considered the achievement of universal literacy one of the priorities. As Vladimir Lenin said - “We need a huge increase in culture. it is necessary to ensure that the ability to read and write serves to improve culture, so that the peasant gets the opportunity to apply this ability to read and write to improve his economy and his state..

In total, by 1920, 3 million people had been taught to read and write. The 1920 census on the territory of Soviet Russia recorded the ability to read in 41.7% of the population aged 8 years and older. At the same time, this census was not universal and did not cover such territories of the country as Belarus, Volyn, Podolsk provinces, Crimea, Transcaucasia, the mountainous regions of the North Caucasus, part of Turkestan and Kyrgyzstan, the Far East, as well as some areas of European Russia and Ukraine, Khiva and Bukhara .

Based on the decrees of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR, adopted in 1918-19, the education system was radically changed: the existence of private schools was prohibited; introduced free education, joint education of children of both sexes; the school was separated from the church, and the church from the state; teaching in educational institutions of any creed and the performance of religious rites was prohibited; physical punishment of children was abolished; all nationalities received the right to study in their native language; the foundation was laid for the creation of a system of public preschool education; new rules for admission to universities have been developed and put into effect.

Modern researchers note: “The communist attack on the system of distributing scientific statuses began in 1918. The point was not so much in the “re-education of the bourgeois professors”, but in establishing equal access to education and the destruction of class privileges, which included the privilege of being educated.

New industrial technologies, new industries, new professions, etc. influenced the development of the content of education. In all countries, there was a desire to improve the education system, although this happened in different ways. For Western countries as a whole, it was characteristic, first of all, the desire to create unified education systems and improve the overall intellectual level of education. At the same time, the new states of the socialist camp were restructuring all forms of social and political life in accordance with the socialist political and ideological system imposed on them after the war in the field of education, which meant the creation of school systems close to that which had developed in the Soviet Union.

The strengthening of state influence on the school is characteristic of all Western European countries. In Great Britain, before the end of the Second World War, the Butler Act was passed. This law democratized and streamlined school life, expanding the rights of trustees and parents' committees, and increased the period of compulsory education for children up to 15 years. At the same time, three types of secondary educational institutions were legalized: modern school, grammar school and secondary technical school. It should be noted that graduates of the modern school, who accounted for two-thirds of all graduates, were deprived of the right to enter higher educational institutions. The autonomy of the counties in the field of decision-making regarding the education system complicated the management of the school, hindered the establishment of a single content of education, which affected the level of general education of students in general.

In the 60s. the so-called unified comprehensive schools were established, the graduates of which received the right to enter higher educational institutions. It is currently the most massive type of secondary school in the UK.

Under the education reform of 1988, the "Unified National Curriculum" was introduced for schools of all types, which formed the basis for the unification of the education system in the UK.

The development of the American school in the postwar period took place in line with the process of centralization of education management. By the end of the war, only slightly more than 10% of schools remained private. But the problem was that, by tradition, each state had the right to independently and independently draw up the curriculum and form its own school policy. This state of affairs remained until the passage of the National Defense Education Act in 1958, which, together with a number of subsequent federal acts, significantly coordinated educational activities in the United States.

In the mid 60s. In the United States, a large-scale movement began to eliminate the remnants of racial and religious segregation in the school. Discrimination against certain groups of people was recognized as a relic of the slave-owning past, a phenomenon unworthy of modern civilization. This process took place gradually, over a period of almost ten years. The ideas of humanization and democratization of education became very relevant during this period.

In the second half of the 70s. there was a noticeable decrease in the level of general education provided by the mass school. It was also noted that one third of the country's adult population did not have a secondary education. This was explained by the lack of demand for workers with such a level of education at this stage of economic development. Following the logic of solving long-term strategic tasks, contrary to the temporary requirements of the economy, in 1981 the law on the unification and improvement of educational programs came into force in the United States, which marked the beginning of the standardization of the content of school education. Natural sciences and mathematics were recognized as priority areas. The next promising task of the American school began to be considered teaching computer literacy from the elementary grades of the school.