The age of modern psychology is. Age psychology and psychological age
Traditionally, periods of personality development are considered in psychology in connection with a change in its age. But the answer to the question “what is age in psychology?” not so simple. In psychological science, there are different points of view about age and age periodization criteria. Most often, age is defined as the duration of the existence of a particular body, material system, etc. The age of an individual organism is considered one of its integral characteristics, measured by the scale of the average life span of individuals of a given species. But the concept of age is not limited to the duration of an individual's existence. B.G. Ananiev singled out another property of age: its one-pointedness, one-dimensionality, irreversibility.
So, the concept of "age of the individual" is a complex concept and combines at least two properties of time: the duration of existence (calculated from the moment of birth) and the certainty of the phase of formation - the period of development of the individual. D.S. Vygotsky defined age as a relatively closed period of development that has its own content and dynamics; therefore, it is customary to single out chronological age and psychological age as two different, non-coinciding concepts.
In psychological science, until recently, there has been a discussion regarding metric characteristics, estimates of the duration of life spans, and phases of a person's life. When constructing various periodizations of age development, the greatest disputes have always concerned the criteria for distinguishing various age phases. The reason for this was the fact that often the criteria for distinguishing age phases in the same periodization in some cases were biological signs, and in others - socio-cultural or socio-pedagogical. For example, in the widespread classification of J. Birrenoma (1964), the duration of each of the segments of a person's life path is taken into account. It includes the following phases: 1) infancy (0-2 years); 2) pre-preschool (2-5 years); 3) childhood (5-12 years); 4) youth (12-17 years old); 5) early maturity (17-25 years); 6) maturity (25-50 years); 7) late maturity (50-75 years); 8) old age (75-... years). In this and similar classifications, some age stages are distinguished on the basis of signs of the biological maturation of the organism, and others, for example, the preschool period, on the basis of socio-pedagogical, cultural criteria.
A more fundamental classification of ages, which has become a classic in the West, was proposed by D. Bromley (1966). She based her classification on the results of a comparative study of the age characteristics of the development of the intellect, the emotional-volitional sphere, motivation and social dynamics of the individual. In her classification, age itself is the duration of one or another stage of life, of which she has sixteen. In turn, the stages are the main points of the general cycles of human life, to which she refers embryogenesis (intrauterine development), childhood, adolescence, adulthood, aging, old age. Metrically, she evaluates not these general cycles, but the stages that make them up. The first cycle includes four stages: the intrauterine period with a change in successive states (zygote - embryo - embryo - birth). The second cycle is childhood; it has three stages: infancy (up to 18 months), pre-preschool childhood (up to 5 years), early childhood (up to 11 - 13 years). The third cycle is youth; it consists of two stages: puberty, or senior school childhood, early youth (15-21 years). The fourth cycle is defined as adulthood; it includes three stages: early adulthood (21-25 years old), middle adulthood (25-40 years old), late adulthood (40-55 years old). The pre-retirement age (55-60 years) stands out as a special transitional stage. The fifth cycle, called aging, has three stages: retirement (up to 70 years), old age (over 70 years), final age (illness and death). Each of the stages of Bromley gives a certain social and psychophysiological characteristics.
The above classifications do not take into account the role of specific historical features of development. Today, no one doubts that the periods of childhood have a historical origin. This has been repeatedly proved by both foreign and domestic researchers, for example, D.B. Elkonin used ethnographic materials for this purpose. The same ontogenetic properties, including age ones, function at different rates depending on the generation to which the individual belongs. Thus, a person is subject not only to the laws of biological time.
Man relates to time. Such an attitude gives time a personal status and turns it into a person's own time. It consists of the interconnection of past, present and future events. The structure of a person's own time includes both a reflection of objective temporal relations (biological and social) and a subjective perception of changes, events, experiences. Based on the subjective and objective reflections of time, a holistic attitude of the individual to the time of her life is formed. The subjective reflection of time on the scale of significant events in a person's life is called the psychological time of the individual. This is a complex formation that has its own structure. It includes: situational time, biographical time and historical time. Situational time reflects the perception and experience of short time intervals (in some cases, time “flies”, in others it “stretches”). The biographical time scale is set by the life time of the individual as a whole and is a system of certain temporal representations, the concept of personality time. The sphere of temporal representations of a person also includes events that took place before his life, and those that will be after his death. This time scale is called the historical time of the individual. There is also a “social time of the individual”, which is associated with the development by an individual of practical activities, social experience.
Thus, the age of a person is a function of biological and historical time, and the person as a whole, and the temporal characteristics of his life, his age, is the interpenetration of nature and history, biological, psychological and social.
Along with such a concept as age, the following concepts are discussed and widely used in psychology: “mental development”, “mental development”, “personal development”, “development of activities”, etc., which is understood as a natural change of some periods of development by others. . The concept of age is associated with the concept of mental and personal development, since it is the allocation of age boundaries, within which the formation of various neoplasms of the psyche and personality, that serves as one of the criteria for age development in various concepts of periodization.
There are several generally accepted concepts of the development of the psyche and personality, which are based one way or another on certain indicators of age. The concepts of “age” and “personality development” are conjugated in them (although in modern psychology there is no single point of view regarding what is the age of a person and what is personality development - due to the complexity and uniqueness of this phenomenon).
LITERATURE
1. Ananiev BG, Dvoryashina MD, Kudryavtseva NA. Individual human development and constancy of perception. M., 1968. S. 40-57.
2. Bozhovich LI. Personality and its formation in childhood. M., 1968. S. 143153.
3. Golovakha EM, Kronik AA. Psychological time of personality. Kyiv, 1984 S. 6076
4. Obukhova L.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems. M., 1995. S. 13-22.
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abstracton thetopic:
"Psychologicalage"
Introduction
1.1 Developmental psychology
Conclusion
Literature
Introduction
age psychology disease mental
Age (in psychology) is a category that serves to designate the temporal characteristics of individual development. Chronological age expresses the duration of the existence of an individual from the moment of his birth, and the concept of psychological age denotes a certain, qualitatively peculiar stage of ontogenetic development (the formation of the basic structures of the individual's psyche during his childhood), determined by the laws of formation of the organism, the criteria of life, upbringing and training and having a specific historical occurrence. http://psychology.net.ru/dictionaries/psy.html?word=148
Psychological age is the physical age to which a person corresponds in terms of his own psychological development.
This topic is very relevant, because. many scientists are currently paying attention to the importance of psychological age, the dependence of the incidence rate on the state of the psyche, how a person feels.
1. Age psychology and psychological age
1.1 Developmental psychology
Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the ontogenetic development of the psyche, its qualitative stages and patterns of transition from one stage to another. Each age stage is characterized by those age-specific tasks of mastering the surrounding world and culture, which are solved with the help of the formation of new types of behavior and activity. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/psihologic/342
The components of the subject of developmental psychology are:
Changes that occur in the psyche and behavior of a person during the transition from one age to another; while the changes can be different:
a) quantitative (increase in memory and vocabulary);
b) evolutionary - gradually accumulate, slowly, smoothly;
c) qualitative (complication of grammatical constructs in speech - from situational speech to a monologue, from involuntary to voluntary attention);
d) revolutionary - deeper, occur quickly (leap in development), appear at the turn of periods;
e) situational - associated with a specific social environment, its impact on the child. They are unstable, reversible and need to be fixed;
The concept of age is defined as a specific combination of the psyche and behavior of a person.
Age or age period is a cycle of child development that has its own structure and dynamics. Psychological age (Lev Semenovich Vygotsky) is a qualitatively peculiar period of mental development, characterized by the appearance of a neoplasm, which is prepared by the entire course of previous development.
Psychological age may not correspond with the chronological age of an individual child, indicated in his birth certificate, and then in his passport. The age period has some boundaries. But these chronological boundaries can shift, and one child will enter a new age period earlier than another. The boundaries of adolescence associated with the puberty of children “float” especially strongly:
regularities, mechanisms and driving forces of mental development;
Childhood - the subject of developmental psychology according to Obukhova - is a period of enhanced development, change and learning.
Age psychology in most sources is defined as the science of the facts and patterns of mental development of a healthy person.
Problems of modern developmental psychology:
· The problem of organic and environmental conditioning of the psyche and human behavior;
· The problem of the influence of spontaneous and organized education and upbringing on the development of children (which influences more: family, street, school?);
· The problem of correlation and identification of inclinations and abilities;
· The problem of the correlation of intellectual and personal changes in the mental development of the child.
Developmental psychology studies the process of development of mental functions and personality throughout a person's life.
There are 3 sections of developmental psychology:
child psychology (from birth to 17 years);
Psychology of adults, mature ages;
· gerontology or psychology of old age.
1.2 The concept of age in psychology
The concept of age includes a number of aspects:
1) Chronological age, determined by the life expectancy of a person (age according to the passport);
2) Biological age - a set of biological indicators, the functioning of the body as a whole (respiratory, circulatory, digestive systems, etc.);
3) Psychological age - a certain level of development of the psyche, which includes:
a) mental age
To determine the mental age of children from 4 to 16 years old, the Wechsler test is used, which includes verbal and data in a visual (figurative) form of the task. When it is applied, a total "general intellectual indicator" is obtained. Psychologist calculates IQ - intellectual coefficient:
mental age x 100%
IQ = chronological age
b) social maturity - SQ - social intelligence (a person must be adapted to the environment that surrounds him).
c) emotional maturity: arbitrariness of emotions, balance, personal maturity.
In real life, the individual components of age do not always coincide.
1.3 Periodization of development in domestic and foreign psychology
There are various age periods of development. They distinguish different periods, these periods are called differently, the age limits are different, since their authors laid the foundation for different criteria.
L.S. Vygotsky singled out 3 groups of periodizations:
I. The first group is characterized by the construction of periodization on the basis of an external, but related to the very process of development, criterion. Periodizations created according to the biogenetic principle can serve as an example.
1) Periodization by Rene Zazzo (the systems of education and training coincide with the stages of childhood):
0-3 years early childhood
3-5 years old preschool age
6-12 years of primary school education
12-16 years old secondary school education
· 17 and older higher or university education.
2) Pavel Petrovich Blonsky chose an objective, easily accessible to observation, associated with the essential features of the constitution of a growing organism, a sign - the appearance and change of teeth.
0-8 months - 2.5 years - toothless childhood
2.5 - 6.5. years - childhood milk teeth
6.5 and older - childhood permanent teeth (before the appearance of a wisdom tooth).
II. For the second group, they are characteristically built on the basis of one internal criterion, arbitrarily chosen by the author.
1) Sigmund Freud considered the unconscious, saturated with sexual energy, to be the main source, the engine of human behavior. Children's sexuality is understood 3. Freud broadly, as everything that brings bodily pleasure - stroking, sucking, emptying the intestines, etc.
0 - 1 year oral stage (erogenous zone - mucous membrane of the mouth and lips). The child enjoys when he sucks milk, and in the absence of writing - his own finger or some object. People begin to divide into optimists and pessimists, gluttony and greed can form. In addition to the unconscious "It" is formed "I").
· 1 - 3 years anal stage (erogenous zone shifts to the intestinal mucosa). Neatness, accuracy, secrecy, aggressiveness are formed. There are many requirements and prohibitions, as a result of which the last, third instance begins to form in the child's personality - the "Super-I" as the embodiment of social norms, internal censorship, conscience).
· 3 - 5 years phallic stage (the highest stage of childhood sexuality). The genitals become the leading erogenous zone. If until now children's sexuality was directed at themselves, now children begin to experience sexual attachment to adults, boys to their mother (Oedipus complex), girls to their father (Electra complex). This is the time of the most strict prohibitions and the intensive formation of the "Super-I".
· 5 - 12 years latent stage, as it were, temporarily interrupts the child's sexual development. The impulses emanating from "It" are well controlled. Childhood sexual experiences are repressed, and the child's interests are channeled into socializing with friends, schooling, and so on.
· 12 - 18 years the genital stage corresponds to the actual sexual development of the child. All erogenous zones unite, there is a desire for normal sexual intercourse.
2) Stages of development of the intellect according to J. Piaget. The process of development of the intellect is a change of three large periods, during which the formation of the three main intellectual structures takes place. First, sensory-motor structures are formed - systems of successively performed material actions. Then structures of specific operations arise - systems of actions performed in the mind, but based on external, visual data. Even later, the formation of formal-logical operations takes place.
The main criterion is intelligence.
· from 0 to 1.5-2 years - sensorimotor stage. The child begins to separate himself from the outside world, there is an understanding of the constancy, stability of external objects. At this time, speech is not developed and there are no ideas, and behavior is based on the coordination of perception and movement (hence the name "sensory-motor").
· from 2 to 7 years - preoperational stage - thinking with the help of representations. A strong figurative beginning with insufficient development of verbal thinking leads to a kind of childish logic. At the stage of preoperative representations, the child is not capable of proof, reasoning. Thinking is guided by the external signs of the subject. The child does not see things in their internal relations, he considers them as they are given by direct perception. (He thinks the wind is blowing because the trees are swaying).
· from 7 to 12 years the stage of specific operations - the emergence of elementary logical reasoning.
· from 12 years old - the stage of formal operations - the formation of the ability to think logically, use abstract concepts, perform operations in the mind.
4) Periodization of Kohlberg, based on the study of the level of moral development of a person.
The 3 levels and 6 stages of moral development identified in Kohlberg's studies correspond to the biblical ideas about a person's orientation to fear, shame and conscience when choosing an act.
Level I: Fear of punishment (up to 7 years).
1. Fear of the right of force.
2. Fear of being deceived and not receiving benefits.
Level II: Shame in front of other people (13 years old).
3. Shame in front of comrades, inner circle.
4. Shame of public condemnation, negative assessment of large social groups.
III level: Conscience (after 16 years).
5. The desire to comply with their moral principles.
6. The desire to conform to their system of moral values.
There are other periods of development.
2. Psychological age and personality
2.1 Psychological age and self-awareness
Time has always seemed to man much more mysterious than space, and the most ancient layers of mythology already testify to this. Depending on the open and time-driven account of gains and losses of an individual and the human race, it was awarded a variety of “honors”, including thanksgiving for its impartial prudence, and constant complaints about the dirty trick hidden in it. A person constantly feels outside himself, and most importantly - in himself, the inexorable flow of time.
A strictly theoretical, philosophical understanding of duration began with attempts to transform it from experienced into conceivable, although in a number of cases the usual appeal to sensory experience still remained in force. However, it is the subjective perception of time that remains the prerogative of psychological knowledge. And, as often happens, psychology operates with some concepts and patterns that were originally presented in philosophical knowledge. Thus, the zeal of man to determine the movement of time came into view - a psychological justification for the steady thrust of the human mind to reduce time to space and temporal movement to spatial.
Assumptions about the presence in the structure of the self-concept of certain temporary "modes" are, in fact, traditional for psychological studies of personality. Starting with the classic works of W. James, the concept of the self-concept included not only the actual self-representation, but also how the individual himself assesses the possibilities of his development in the future, for it was the idea of actualizing the ideal self (which, by definition, is referred to the future) that was put into the basis of self-esteem as one of the fundamental components of the self-concept.
The attainment of age, the assimilation of age, in the final analysis, there is only a moment of development, which will be replaced by a new stage - the transition to a new age state, and this transition is already laid down in the previous age as a tendency to go beyond it. In this regard, life at a certain age is both an experience and an outliving of this age. At the same time, “finding-out-being”, acquiring a certain form and going beyond its limits can be based not only on the future, but also on the past. Sometimes (especially at a certain age) a person idealizes the stages already passed and, based on his experience and observed current trends, seeks to return to an earlier age. Moving from the language of the mechanisms of psychological time to the language of its phenomenology, we can assume that the realization of psychological time is realized by a person in the form of a special experience of his “internal” age, which can be called the psychological age of the personality.
F.T. Mikhailov says that the essence of a person is not in what he is at the present time, who or what he was or has become, but in his eternal inequality to himself, in the constant need to correlate himself (his capabilities, abilities, knowledge, etc.) n.) with objective circumstances and conditions of cooperation with other people, the need to relate to yourself, present yourself and not only as you were in the past or as you see yourself in the present, but also as you can, and in certain cases should become in the future: already achieved its goal, completed its work, changed conditions and circumstances, i.e. changed. But this attitude towards oneself "from outside", the attitude towards one's past, present and future violates the identity of oneself by no means only in representation. It is not at all a speculative way beyond the limits of its present existence. To imagine yourself in all three time dimensions at once means to evaluate your role in past events, to see yourself as their “judge” in the present, and this is possible only by projecting an image of your future onto your biography, aiming at this future, applying its measure to the past and current time. But the whole point is that in the genesis of any idea of the future, the activity of goal-setting (or, what is the same, any purposeful activity) is based not on some ability of pure contemplation (inherent in the brain, soul, psyche), but precisely external vital necessity to resolve objective contradictions by expedient actions in the conditions of one or another task that confronts him.
Therefore, a person’s violation of “self-identity” is determined by the type of his life activity: it is always and above all a real (existential) discrepancy between his formed needs, abilities, skills, knowledge, etc., i.e. throughout his subjectively experienced biography, with its own objective world, with the needs and abilities of other people, requiring new knowledge, new abilities and skills designed to resolve the contradictions of this world. To be a human means quite realistically and permanently to be not equal to oneself, evaluating oneself as a generally significant measure of the tasks of the zone of one's proximal development. To be human means to be the subject of one's self-change.
E.I. Golovakh and A.A. Kronik define the following main characteristics of psychological age as a phenomenon of self-awareness.
First, it is a characteristic of a person as an individual and is measured in its “internal frame of reference” (as an intra-individual variable), and not through inter-individual comparisons. In order to determine the psychological age of a person, it is enough to know only his own characteristics of psychological time. The concept of age is derived from the concept of "time" and cannot be defined without understanding what time it is and what is the unit of measurement of this time. If, in relation to the chronological age of 30 years, this means only that during his life a person made 30 revolutions around the Sun together with the Earth. But it is no longer possible to determine the same intellectual (psychological) age as a truly temporal characteristic, because it is completely incomprehensible what time we are talking about, what measure of the past this age is. But at the same time, the authors define the psychological age of a person as a measure of the psychological past of a person, just as chronological age is a measure of his chronological past.
The authors do not unambiguously determine how to diagnose the psychological past, and through it the psychological age. However, in their opinion, the relative measure of the psychological past could be the realization of psychological time. A variety of indicators can be a measure of psychological age. Many describe the stages of their lives, focusing on the social ideas that exist in society about what stages life should be divided into (childhood, adolescence, youth). With such a division, according to T.N. Berezina, they also rely on socially given external guidelines, mainly of an active nature (childhood before school; school, army, admission to a technical school-university - this is youth; work after a university - mature years). But at the same time, some identify stages of their lives, focusing on the events of social, emotional life (meeting with a significant other, parting; friendship, marriage, birth of children). Others divide their lives into stages, focusing on their personal growth (“I learned to read at the age of 5, and wrote my first poem at 12”), on moving from city to city (“until the age of 10 we lived in one city, then moved to another ”) or not divided at all.
Secondly, psychological age is fundamentally reversible (in this the authors are similar to the concept of A.V. Tolstykh), that is, a person not only grows old in psychological time, but can also become younger in it due to an increase in the psychological future or a decrease in the past. (It should be noted that A.V. Tolstykh proposed a different mechanism of “rejuvenation”).
Thirdly, psychological age is multidimensional. It may not coincide in different areas of life. For example, a person may feel almost fully fulfilled in the family sphere and at the same time feel unfulfilled in the professional sphere.
2.2 Distortions of psychological age
The psychological reversibility of age is described. The increase in their age has also long been known. Thus, a little girl, almost a baby, may insist that "I am not a little girl", although she is still a little girl, and she herself knows this very well. A teenager is ready to “lay down his soul to the devil” to be recognized and called an “adult”. But the elders, and even more so the long-livers, are trying in every possible way to add a few lived years to themselves, and some "record holders" manage to add twenty or forty years to their already considerable life experience.
What causes these distortions? After all, the age of the body is obvious so that it can be ignored. Yu.I. Filimonenko sees here a psychological mechanism for overcoming the fear of death, the struggle of the subconscious for subjective immortality. As we move away from the period of adolescence, signs of a gradual withering of the body should have caused an increase in neuropsychic tension. In contrast, the age of the soul does not have objective external criteria, it relies purely on subjective self-esteem. Identification of the “I” only with the spiritual principle allows the subconscious, on the eve of impending old age, to calm the mind with pleasant illusions of eternal youth (to be more precise, eternal adulthood). According to the author's data, the average group assessments of the passport (body) and self-assessment of the subjective (soul) age coincide at the age of 25 years. In the future, the subjective age of the “soul” lags behind the passport age by an average of 5 years for each subsequent decade of life. Although Yu.G. Ovchinnikova notes that during identity crises, diffusion of the time perspective is possible, which is especially noticeable in youth. A young man feels like a child, or a “worn out” wise old man.
Another aspect of the problem is to answer the question of how "normal" this is; not in terms of the prevalence of the phenomenon, but in terms of psychological health. Or, in other words, what is considered a normal temporal identity, how much can the passport age be ahead of (lagging behind) the psychological one?
Analyzing the answers of psychologists from leading schools, E.P. Belinskaya says that the idea of temporary I-representations, and especially their consistency, a certain connection, is today considered the most important indicator of a person's mental health. Achieving a certain critical degree of mismatch between the images of the "I-past", "I-present" and "I-future" is assessed either as the main factor in socio-psychological maladaptation (K. Horney), or as the root cause of personality disorders (K. Rogers), or as one of the parameters of low self-actualization of the personality (A. Maslow), or as a source of specific mental disorders - depression and anxiety (T. Higgins).
Finally, one more aspect of the problem is raised by A.V. Tolstykh, who speaks not only about the physiological, psychological, social, but also the historical characteristics of age. The latter are defined as generations or age cohorts. The "generational" section of the consciousness of a modern person demonstrates the historical processes that form the attitude to the environment. In modern Russia, A.V. Tolstykh distinguishes five groups of cohorts: The youngest - the age group actually combines two subgroups: young (from 20 to 24 years old) and adolescents (under 20 years old). Since they make up the majority of the subjects in our study, we give a brief description of them, primarily in terms of self-awareness.
More often than others, they emphasize the ability not to lose one's own, to strike first, to be more cunning than others, to occupy a prominent position (but also the accepted public option is to be yourself, to say what you think). The joys of this generation are television, delicious food, music, feelings for your team, sexual pleasures (but also a publicly approved desire to learn new things). This consciousness opposes itself to the state, although it is connected with it: the youngest believe that they do not owe it anything, the older ones believe that they can demand more from it. The collective, family, society (public) are a source of danger and dissatisfaction for this generation: they force them to be dishonest, they threaten them with humiliation. More often than others, young people perceive themselves as just people, representatives of their generation, members of their circle, residents of the city, children of their parents. Not religious (except for the Muslim part of the population), children of non-religious parents are not going to baptize children. They are afraid of death, public insults, national conflicts, the death of mankind.
Such a psychological symptom complex is sometimes referred to as a single psychological matrix of the era, or a vision of the world. The vision of the world, according to V.A. Shkuratov, should not be confused with a worldview or ideology. The picture of the world is not framed anywhere, it is contained in general attitudes towards the environment and ideas about it, which permeate the life of contemporaries, regardless of their position and conscious views. The generalized features of the worldview are immersed in an even more amorphous mass of emotions, ideas and images, which is called mentality.
Summing up the consideration of theoretical approaches to the problem of psychological time, it should be noted once again that the main lines of research - psychological age (temporal identity) and psychological time - are not identical. Awareness of the time of one's existence is an important addition to the awareness of one's own identity, and being realized through a person's comprehension of his psychological time in conjunction with social time, the time of the era, it gives rise to a certain "concept of time" inherent in each individual. But still the concept of time, not the concept of I.
2.3 Features of the perception of the disease by patients of different ages
Preschool children:
Lack of awareness of the disease in general;
Inability to formulate complaints;
Strong emotional reactions to individual symptoms of the disease;
Perception of medical and diagnostic procedures as frightening measures;
Strengthening character defects, raising a child during the period of illness;
Feeling of fear, longing, loneliness within the walls of a medical institution, away from parents;
Deontological tactics: emotionally warm attitude (to be both a nurse and an educator and a mother), distraction from illness, organization of quiet games, reading, carrying out procedures with persuasion. Professional communication with relatives of the child.
Patients of working age.
It is necessary, first of all, to know the personality of the patient, his individuality. Find out the attitude to the disease, to the medical staff, the position on the interaction of the patient with the medical staff.
Deontological tactics: Focus on labor and social rehabilitation, the choice of communication tactics should be carried out depending on the internal map of the disease, attitudes, psychotherapy of anxious and suspicious patients.
Patients of elderly and senile age.
They are characterized by the mental dominant of age - "the passing of life", "the approach of death", a feeling of melancholy, loneliness. Increasing helplessness. Purely age-related changes: hearing loss, vision loss, memory loss, narrowing of the range of interests, increased touchiness, vulnerability, reduced self-service ability. The interpretation of the disease, therefore, goes through age, lack of motivation for treatment and recovery.
Deontological tactics: Maintaining the patient's self-importance, emphasized delicate respect, tactful attitude, without familiarity, commanding tone, moralizing. Orientation to physical activity. Motivation for recovery.
Conclusion
The age of a person is one of the main criteria of his mental life and character traits. Depending on age, a person perceives various life situations, including illness, differently.
Age is usually divided into different periods. In general, the following age periods can be distinguished in a person's life: childhood, youth, maturity and old age. Each of these periods can be divided into smaller and more precise age stages. Age is of particular importance in childhood, because. at this moment, the main personality traits are laid.
Developmental psychology deals with the study of the age characteristics of the human psyche and the distortions of psychological age.
Each person perceives his age in his own way and relates to it, also a person perceives the disease and its manifestations differently.
Age is subject to diagnosis, both biological and psychological. This issue was also addressed in the work. Many scientists have been engaged in research on human age, thanks to which we have a rich scientific heritage in this area.
Literature
1. Abramova G.S. Age-related psychology. M., 1997.
2. Belinskaya E.P. Temporal aspects of self-concept and identity // World of Psychology. 1999. No. 3. S. 141.
3. Developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1979.
4. Golovakha E.I., Kronik A.A. Psychological time of personality. K.: Naukova Dumka, 1984. S. 173-175.
5. Ivanov V. P. Human activity - knowledge - art. K.: Naukova Dumka, 1977. 251 p.
6. Kulagina I.Yu. Age-related psychology. M., 1997.
7. Nemov R.S. General foundations of psychology. T.2. M., 1994.
8. Obukhova L.F. Child psychology. M., 1996.
9. Mukhina V.S. Age-related psychology. M., 1998.
10. Reader on developmental and pedagogical psychology. M., 1980.
11. Reader on child psychology / Comp. G.V. Burmenskaya. M., 1996.
12. http://psychology.net.ru/dictionaries/psy.html?word=148.
13. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/psihologic/342.
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The problem of age and age periodization. Mental development: conditions, sources, prerequisites, factors, characteristics, mechanisms. Basic concepts of mental development. Crisis of seven years. Adolescent self-awareness.
book, added 06/14/2007
Tasks, methods of developmental psychology. Genetic theory of J. Piaget. Cultural-historical theory of L. Vygotsky. Factors and principles of mental development. Periodization of mental development D. Elkonin. Uneven mental development, its causes.
course of lectures, added 10/13/2010
Method and categories of animal therapy. The history of its origin and development in foreign and domestic psychology. Features of the interaction of elderly, young and children with animals. Gender differences in relation to your pet.
thesis, added 06/15/2013
The concept of psychological age as a qualitatively unique period of mental development. Tipping points on the curve of child development, separating one age from another, or crises. Manifestations of crises. Motivational presentations of the child.
abstract, added 02/13/2009
The social situation of the development of the child at an early age. Features of the leading activity, its role in the development of the child and the change depending on age. Psychological neoplasms of the studied age. The crisis of three years, its characteristics and significance.
control work, added 07/15/2012
The history of the development of developmental psychology, its basic concepts. Methods of development of this science. Periodization of the mental formation of a person, its factors and prerequisites. Age characteristics of Elkonin. Description of each of the periods of a person's life.
presentation, added 02/15/2015
Features of developmental psychology as a science that studies the regularities of the stages of mental development and personality formation throughout a person's life. The subject of study of developmental psychology, its main sections. The main tasks of developmental psychology.
Topic 1. Developmental psychology as a science
1. The subject of developmental psychology.
2. The main problems of developmental psychology.
3. Research methods in developmental psychology.
1. The subject of developmental psychology
Age-related psychology- a branch of psychological science that studies the dynamics of the human psyche, the ontogeny of mental processes and psychological qualities of a person.
Object of developmental psychology- age-related changes in the psyche, behavior, life and personality of a person.
The subject of developmental psychology- laws, patterns, tendencies of change in the psyche, behavior, life and personality of a person during his life. The central scientific category of developmental psychology is mental development.
Development - qualitative changes, the emergence of neoplasms, new mechanisms, processes, structures.
In general, developmental changes can be:
Quantitative / qualitative,
Continuous / discrete (jumping),
universal / individual,
Reversible / irreversible
isolated / integrated,
Purposeful / undirected,
Progressive (evolutionary) / regressive (involutionary). However, development is characterized, first of all, by qualitative changes. Sections of developmental psychology are: child psychology, adolescent psychology, youth psychology, adult psychology, gerontopsychology.
Developmental psychology studies the process of development of mental functions and personality, age-related features of mental processes, the possibility of acquiring knowledge, the leading factors of development throughout a person’s life, etc. Developmental psychology differs from other areas of psychology in that it emphasizes developmental dynamics. Therefore, it is called genetic psychology (from the Greek "genesis" - origin, formation). However, developmental psychology is closely related to other areas of psychology: general psychology, personality psychology, social, pedagogical and differential psychology. As is known, in general psychology mental functions are studied - perception, thinking, speech, memory, imagination. In developmental psychology, the process of development of each mental function and the change in interfunctional relationships at different age stages can be traced. AT personality psychology such personal formations as motivation, self-esteem and the level of development of claims, value orientations, worldview, etc. are considered, and developmental psychology answers the questions when these formations appear in a child, what are their characteristics at a certain age. Relationship of developmental psychology with social makes it possible to trace the dependence of the development and behavior of the child on the specifics of the groups to which he is included: on the family, kindergarten group, school class, teenage companies. Each age is its own, special influence of the people around the child, adults and peers. The purposeful influence of adults raising and teaching a child is studied within the framework of educational psychology. Developmental and pedagogical psychology, as it were, look at the process of interaction between a child and an adult from different angles: developmental psychology from the point of view of the child, pedagogical - from the point of view of the educator, teacher. The subject of educational psychology- study of the psychological patterns of training and education. The unity of developmental and educational psychology is that they have common objects of study - a child, a teenager, a young man, an adult, who are the objects of study of developmental psychology. If they are studied in terms of the dynamics of age development, and the objects of study of educational psychology, if they are considered as students and educators in the process of purposeful influences of the teacher.
In addition to age-related patterns of development, there are also individual differences that differential psychology: children of the same age may have different levels of intelligence and different personality traits. In developmental psychology, age-related patterns that are common to all children are studied. But at the same time, possible deviations in one direction or another from the main lines of development are also stipulated.
Developmental psychology is closely related to developmental psychology. Developmental psychology is a field of knowledge that focuses on the psychological characteristics of a person of different ages. While developmental psychology is a field of knowledge containing information mainly about the laws of age-related transformation of human psychology. Developmental psychology cannot be imagined outside of development as something unchanging. In the same way, development is unthinkable without highlighting its age characteristics.
Developmental psychology, or the psychology of age development, is concerned with the study and presentation in the form of scientific facts and relevant theories of the main features of a person’s mental development during his transition from one age to another, including detailed versatile meaningful psychological characteristics of people belonging to different age groups.
Age psychology notes the fundamental quantitative and qualitative changes that occur in the psyche and behavior of a person during his transition from one age group to another. Typically, these changes span significant periods of life, from a few months for infants to several years for older people. These changes depend on the so-called "permanent" factors: biological maturation and the psycho-physiological state of the human body, its place in the system of human social relations, the level of intellectual and personal development achieved.
Age-related changes in psychology and behavior of this type are called evolutionary since they are associated with relatively slow quantitative and qualitative transformations. They should be distinguished from revolutionary which, being deeper, occur quickly and in a relatively short time. These changes are usually associated with crises of age development, arising at the turn of ages between relatively calm periods of evolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior.
Age crises- these are special, relatively short in time (up to a year) periods of ontogeny, characterized by sharp psychological changes. Age crises are among the normative processes necessary for the normal, progressive course of personal development. Age crises can occur during a person's transition from one age stage to another and are associated with systemic qualitative transformations in the sphere of his social relations, activity and consciousness.
Another type of change that can be considered as a sign of development is related to the influence of a particular social situation. Such changes can be called situational. They include what happens in the psyche and behavior of a person under the influence of organized or unorganized training and education. Age-related evolutionary and revolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior are usually stable, irreversible and do not require systematic reinforcement. Situational changes in the psyche and behavior of the individual are unstable, reversible and require their consolidation in subsequent exercises.
Another component of the subject of developmental psychology is a specific combination of psychology and individual behavior, which is indicated by concept of age. It is assumed that at each age a person has a unique combination of psychological and behavioral characteristics that is characteristic only for him, which, beyond this age, will never be repeated.
The concept of "age" in psychology, it is associated not with the number of years a person has lived, but with the characteristics of his psychology and behavior. The child may appear precocious in his judgments and actions; a teenager or a young man in many ways can behave like children. Cognitive processes of a person, his perception, memory, thinking, speech and others have their own age features. To an even greater extent, the age of a person is manifested in the characteristics of his personality, in interests, judgments, views, motives of behavior.
Age- a specific, relatively time-limited stage of mental development. It is characterized by a set of regular physiological and psychological changes that are not associated with individual differences that are common to all normally developing people (therefore they are called typological). Age-related psychological characteristics are determined by the specific historical conditions in which a person develops, heredity and, to some extent, the nature of upbringing, the characteristics of the activity and communication of the individual, which mainly only affect the time periods for the transition from one age to another.
Each age has its own specific social development situation, those. a certain correlation between the conditions of the social sphere and the internal conditions for the formation of personality. The interaction of external and internal factors generates typical psychological characteristics common to people of the same age.
The third component of the subject of developmental psychology and at the same time the psychology of age development are driving forces, conditions and laws of mental and behavioral development of a person. Under the driving forces of mental development are understood those factors that determine the progressive development of a person, are its causes, direct it, contain energy and incentive sources of development. Personality develops due to the emergence of internal contradictions in its life. They are determined by its relationship to the environment, successes and failures, imbalances between the individual and society. Contradictions are resolved through activities that lead to the formation of new properties and qualities of the individual. If the contradictions do not find their resolution, there are delays in mental development, and in cases where they relate to the motivational sphere of the personality, and painful disorders, psychoneuroses.
Development conditions determine those internal and external constantly operating factors that, while not acting as the driving forces of development, nevertheless influence it, directing the course of development, shaping its dynamics and determining the final results.
Laws of mental development determine those general and particular laws with the help of which it is possible to describe the mental development of a person and, based on which, this development can be controlled.
2. The main problems of developmental psychology
In developmental psychology, it is possible to identify the main problems that correlate with the main subject areas of research. As you know, a problem is a question containing a contradiction and, as a result, a question that is difficult to resolve in science, to which it is currently impossible to obtain an unambiguous and indisputable answer.
One of such problems the question is what determines the mental development of a person more: maturation and the anatomical and physiological state of the body or the influence of the external environment. This problem can be defined as the problem of organic (organismic) and environmental conditioning of the mental and behavioral development of a person. (Why is this problem difficult to solve?)
Second problem concerns the relative influence of spontaneous and organized education and upbringing on human development. Under spontaneous is understood as training and education that is carried out without consciously set goals, specific content and thoughtful methods, under the influence of a person’s stay in society among people and randomly developing relationships with them that do not pursue educational goals. Organized is called such training and education, which is purposefully carried out by special private and public education systems, starting with the family and ending with higher educational institutions. Here, development goals are more or less clearly defined and consistently implemented. Under them, programs are drawn up and methods of training and education of a person are selected.
Third problem: the ratio of inclinations and abilities. It can be presented as a series of particular questions, each of which is quite difficult to solve, and all of them taken together constitute a real psychological and pedagogical problem.
Fourth problem concerns the comparative influence on the development of evolutionary, revolutionary and situational changes in the human psyche.
Fifth problem is to clarify the correlation of intellectual and personal changes in the overall psychological development of a person.
3. Methods for the study of developmental psychology
Almost all general psychological methods of theoretical and practical research have been included in the methodological arsenal of developmental psychology.
From general psychology all the methods that are used to study cognitive processes and human personality have come into age. These methods are mostly adapted to age and are aimed at studying perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking and speech. With the help of these methods in developmental psychology, the same tasks are solved as in general psychology: information is extracted about the age-related characteristics of cognitive processes that occur during its transition from one age group to another.
differential psychology provides the psychology of age development with methods that are used to study individual and age differences in people. A special place among this group of methods is occupied by twin method. With this method similarities and differences between homozygous and heterozygous twins are examined, which provide important scientific material for understanding the role of heredity and environment in shaping the development of the human psyche and personality. Interesting facts were obtained by T. Bouchard in the study of 48 pairs of monozygotic twins separated after birth. The scientists compared them to a small group of heterozygous twins raised apart, as well as a large group of mono- and heterozygous twins raised together. Monozygotic twins reared separately showed great similarities in a range of personality traits, such as sense of well-being, social activity, response to stress, aggression, and restraint. Heterozygous twins, whether raised together or apart, showed significantly less similarity in all of these traits. With the help of the twin method, a lot of evidence has been obtained that emotionality, the level of activity and sociability of a person can be genetically determined, although the question of the “weightiness” of the contribution of heredity and environment to mental development at all stages of ontogenesis remains open.
Their social psychology a group of methods has come into the psychology of age development, through which interpersonal relations in various age groups are studied, as well as the relationship between children and adults. In this case, socio-psychological methods of research, as a rule, are adapted to the age of people. This is observation, survey, interview, sociometric methods, socio-psychological experiment.
Observation allows you to get quite diverse and reliable information about people. Observation is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of a person's external behavior for the purpose of its subsequent analysis and explanation. Any observation must be carried out according to a specific program or plan. When properly organized, this method gives an objective picture of human behavior, because. the observed does not know that the researcher fixes the facts of his life, and behaves naturally. Observing the behavior of a preschooler in game situations, a schoolchild in training sessions, an adult in professional activities, etc., a psychologist receives data about a person as a whole person in connection with his statements, deeds, and actions.
Hence, observation allows you to systematically analyze the psychology of a developing person, which is the advantage of this method. The facts obtained by the method of observation are very valuable. V. Stern, as a result of observing the development of his daughters, prepared two volumes of research on the development of speech. In 1925 in Leningrad under the leadership of N.M. Shchelovanova, a clinic for the normal development of children was created. There, the child was observed 24 hours a day, and it was there that all the main facts characterizing the first year of a child's life were discovered. It is well known that the concept of the development of sensorimotor intelligence was built by J. Piaget on the basis of observations of his three children. A long-term (for three years) study of adolescents of the same class allowed D.B. Elkonin and T.V. Dragunova to give a psychological description of adolescence.
Observations there are solid, when the psychologist is interested in all the features of the child's behavior, but more often selective, when only some of them are fixed. Observations should be made regularly. The intervals at which observation should be made depend on the age of the person being observed.
Observation can be carried out using technical means and methods of data recording (photo, audio, and video equipment, observation cards, etc.).
With the help of observation, one can detect phenomena that occur in ordinary, "normal" conditions, and in order to know the essential properties of an object, it is necessary to create special conditions that are different from "normal".
The limitation of using the observation method is due to several reasons. Firstly, the confluence of social, physical, physiological and psychological processes in human behavior makes it difficult to understand each of them separately and prevents the isolation of the main, essential. Secondly, observation limits the intervention of the researcher and does not allow him to establish whether the subject could perform this or that action better, faster, more successfully than he did. When observing, the psychologist should not make adjustments to the phenomenon being studied. Thirdly, when observing, it is impossible to ensure the repetition of the same fact without changes. Fourthly, observation allows only fixing, but not forming mental manifestations in a child. In child psychology, the process of observation is further complicated by the fact that any recording equipment affects the naturalness of the child's behavior, so the analysis and generalization of data are difficult (which is why the need to develop and use hidden equipment, similar to the famous "Gesell mirror"), arises as a separate issue. The most serious drawback of the method is the difficult to overcome subjectivity. Observation to a large extent depends on the personality of the observer, his individual psychological characteristics, attitudes and attitudes towards the observed, as well as on his observation and attentiveness. Fifth, observation can never be a single fact, it must be carried out systematically, with repetition and a large sample of subjects. Usually observation is combined with experiment.
In psychology, experimental methods have been used for more than 100 years, they involve the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions in which the desired psychological fact is revealed.
Experiment is different from observation. the following features:
In an experiment, the researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying, and the observer cannot interfere in the observed situations;
The experimenter can vary, change the conditions for the flow and manifestation of the process under study;
In the experiment, it is possible to alternately exclude individual conditions (variables) in order to establish regular relationships that determine the process under study;
The experiment allows you to vary the quantitative ratio of conditions, and also allows mathematical processing of the data obtained in the study.
An experiment in working with children allows you to get the best results when it is organized and carried out in the form of a game that expresses the direct interests and actual needs of the child. The last two circumstances are especially important, since the child's lack of direct interest in what he is offered to do in a psychological and pedagogical experiment does not allow him to show his intellectual abilities and the psychological qualities of interest to the researcher. As a result, the child may appear to the researcher to be less developed than he actually is. In addition, it should be taken into account that the motives for the participation of children in a psychological and pedagogical experiment are simpler than the motives for the participation of adults in similar studies. Involving in the experiment, the child usually acts more momentarily and spontaneously than an adult, therefore, throughout the entire study, it is necessary to constantly maintain the child's interest in the experiment.
In developmental psychology, such types of experiment as ascertaining and forming are widely used. In the ascertaining experiment, the level and characteristics of the development of children inherent in them at the present time are determined. This applies to both personal development and the relationship of the child with others, as well as intellectual development. Each direction of experimental research involves its own set of more specific methods. Choosing this or that method, the psychologist proceeds from the task facing him, the age of the children (different methods are designed for different ages) and the conditions for the experiment that he can provide.
One of the leading methods in developmental psychology is a formative experiment. Formative experiment involves purposeful influence on the subject in order to create, develop certain qualities, skills. In other words, it is a developing method in the conditions of a specially organized pedagogical process. To illustrate, let us give two examples of formative experiments carried out according to different methodological procedures.
Example 1. V.Ya. Laudis and I. P. Negure developed a special program for teaching students in the second grade of elementary school writing. At the beginning of the 35-hour formative experiment, the children composed their own texts and then worked on their design. According to the authors, the development of written language occurs in the process of forming the ability to freely use the native language in solving creative problems. The second-graders were motivated by the fact that they composed fairy tales for younger children. The teacher reported that the pupils of the nearest kindergarten asked them to compose fairy tales, since all the books that they had in the library had already been read, and the children had nothing to read. To teach the writing of texts, various techniques borrowed from J. Rodari, as well as developed by the authors themselves, were used.
After teaching children according to the experimental program, their ability to use written speech was compared with the ability of children from other classes (stating experiment), where writing was taught according to ordinary school programs. According to all the tested characteristics, the children of the experimental classes showed a higher level of mastery of this skill.
Example 2. One of the important indicators of a child's psychological readiness for schooling is the level of his mental development. In particular, by the time the child enters school, he must have formed the ability to use sign-symbolic means. Modeling is one of the types of sign-symbolic activity that needs to be specially formed. The process of learning the activity of modeling is substantiated by N.G. Salmina with employees. Preliminary studies (stating experiment) showed that elementary school students do not fully master this activity.
At the initial stage of the formative experiment, the authors used techniques that provide motivation. In particular, learning took place in the form of a game, the essence of which was as follows: the child conceives a picture, builds its model, and the teacher (or another student) guesses the picture. Also, the children were shown incorrectly built models, while focusing on the factors that make it impossible to guess the pictures.
Then pictures were given with the rules of modeling in a visual form. At the same time, the teacher formulated these rules in an accessible form, explaining with several examples how to build a model. After that, the children were offered tasks, where the number of parts in the replaced situations varied from 2 to 10. The teacher posed questions, gave instructions to help students identify all the necessary actions in the right sequence. To maintain motivation, the teacher gave out chips for each correct answer.
Gradually, the children memorized the contents of the card and performed simulations without referring to it. The modeling process now proceeded in the form of reasoning. At the same time, the teacher set a condition: the explanations should be understandable to the children of the younger group of the kindergarten. This technique helped to get more detailed answers. After passing through all the stages of assimilation, the children were offered control tasks (stating experiment). Their results showed that children learned the action of modeling, while learning to choose convenient substitutes and structure them.
Often used in developmental psychology slice method: in sufficiently large groups of children, with the help of specific methods, a certain aspect of development is studied, for example, the level of development of the intellect. As a result, data are obtained that are typical for this group of children - children of the same age or schoolchildren studying according to the same curriculum. When several cuts are made, connect comparative method: the data of each group are compared with each other and conclusions are drawn about what development trends are observed here and what causes them. In the intelligence example, we can identify age-related trends by comparing the thinking patterns of preschoolers in the kindergarten group (5 years old), elementary school juniors (9 years old), and middle school teenagers (13 years old).
When selecting a group according to some criterion for conducting cross-sections, psychologists try to “equalize” other significant differences between children - they make sure that the groups have the same number of boys and girls, so that the children are healthy, without significant deviations in mental development, etc. Those data that are obtained through the method of slices are averages or statistical averages.
Longitudinal (longitudinal) method research is often called "longitudinal research". With the help of this method, the development of the same subject is studied for a long time. This type of study makes it possible to identify more subtle development trends, small changes occurring in intervals that are not covered by "cross" slices.
In the history of psychology, such long-term longitudinal studies are known as A. Gesell's observations of 165 children over 12 years. Of similar value are the diary entries of parents, which record the daily development of the child, and historical memoirs, which allow a deeper understanding of the psychological characteristics of people of different ages and generations.
Personal development is studied with the help of conversations, written surveys, indirect methods. The latter include the so-called projective methods. They are based on the principle of projection - transferring one's own needs, attitudes, qualities onto other people. A person, looking at a picture with figures vaguely depicted on it (a children's version of the thematic apperception test), talks about them, based on his experience, endowing the characters with his worries and experiences. For example, a younger student whose main problem is academic performance often imagines these situations as learning; an unsuccessful student composes a story about how a lazy boy is scolded by his father for another “deuce”, and a neat excellent student gives the same character exactly the opposite properties. The same mechanism is manifested in the endings of stories that children come up with (the method of completing the story), in the continuation of phrases (the method of unfinished sentences), etc.
Relationships between people in a group are determined by sociometric method.
Intellectual development is studied using a variety of methods, but mainly standardized tests. These include the Binet-Simon test, the Stanford-Binet test, the Wechsler test, and others.
Questionnaire- a method for identifying biographical data, opinions, value orientations, attitudes and personality traits of the respondent.
Method of conversation (survey) conducts a trained researcher, and use it to study children of preschool, school age, adolescents and young men. For the study of preschool children, the method is used to a limited extent. Until the age of four, the survey is usually conducted in such a way that children answer by pointing to objects or images. An example is a picture survey, the purpose of which is to find out how children evaluate the size of the depicted objects and the distance between them. In several pictures, two Christmas trees were drawn, each of equal size and located at different distances from each other. The children were asked: “Where are the big Christmas trees drawn? Where are the little Christmas trees? What Christmas trees are close? What Christmas trees are far away? Where are the same Christmas trees painted? The answer was the child's pointing to one or another image.
After the age of four, a survey also becomes possible, which involves verbal responses of children, i.e. conversation in the proper sense of the word. Questions must be chosen so that they are interesting and understandable to the child, they should not contain hints, since children are very suggestible and answer in the affirmative to questions like: “Can you play chess?”.
Questions are either completely prepared in advance and asked to all children in the same sequence, or outlined in general terms and changed depending on the child's answer to the previous question. A conversation with changing questions is much more productive, since it makes it possible to take into account the individual characteristics of the child, but conducting such a conversation requires a deep understanding of children, flexibility and resourcefulness from the researcher.
The researcher must remember that the child's answers depend not only on the content of the questions, but also on his attitude towards the researcher. Tact, friendliness, the ability to feel the individuality of the child under study decide the success of the conversation.
The child's responses are recorded literally. When processing the materials of the conversation, children's statements are comprehended and correlated with data obtained using other methods.
biographical method- a method of research, diagnosis, correction and design of the life path of a person. Initially, the biographical method was used as a description of the past stages of a person's life, later it began to include an analysis of current and future events, as well as a study of the subject's social circle. The modern biographical method is based on the study of a personality in the context of the history and prospects of its life activity and relationships with a significant environment, it is aimed at the formation and correction of life programs and scenarios of its development in ontogenesis.
Most of the listed methods are research. They allow you to get something new as a result (facts, patterns, mechanisms of mental processes, etc.). In addition to the methods described in developmental psychology, there are many methods aimed at studying: bodily development and the image of the body associated with it; personality - the emotional sphere of the child (frustration, fears, emotional reflection, etc.); his will, motives; pictures of the world; moral standards, etc. Each method for a particular study requires description, justification, design, testing for reliability, validity, and standardization.
In conclusion, it should be said about the need to comply with the ethical standards of the work of a psychologist. The psychologist bears moral responsibility for those children with whom he works; the fate of the child may depend on him. He, like a physician, must, above all, be guided by the principle of "do no harm."
Assignment for independent work
1. Answer the following questions:
a) what is meant by development? what are the development criteria; Can any change in the psyche and behavior of a person be considered his development?
b) what determines the mental development of a person to a greater extent: age-related changes in the psyche or intellectual growth?
2. Compose the text of the conversation. The topic, the purpose of the conversation, the sequence of questions, the age of the children, you choose arbitrarily;
3. Mark the main steps of the formative experiment in Example 2.
1. Kulagina I.Yu. Age-related psychology. Child development from birth to 17 years: Textbook. - M.: Publishing House of ROU, 1996. - 180s.
2. Mukhina V.S. Psychology of childhood and adolescence: A textbook for students of psychological and pedagogical faculties of universities. - M.: Institute of Practical Psychology, 1998. - 488s.
3. Kulagina I.Yu., Kolyutsky V.N. Developmental psychology: The complete life cycle of human development: A textbook for students of higher educational institutions. - M.: TC "Sphere", 2001.- 464 p.
4. Mukhina V.S. Developmental psychology: Phenomenology of development, childhood, adolescence: A textbook for university students. - 2nd ed. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 1998.
Section 1. The subject and tasks of psychology as a science
1. The subject of modern scientific psychology is ...:
a) behavior;
c) psyche;
d) consciousness;
e) personality.
2. The age of modern scientific psychology is:
a) more than a thousand years;
b) about three hundred years;
c) a hundred years with a little;
d) three or four decades.
3. In accordance with the reductionist (simplified) dialectical-materialistic ideas, the psyche is understood as:
a) inner experience;
b) reflective activity of the brain;
c) mental substance;
d) section of the brain;
e) the form of existence of the spirit.
4. Under the psyche in modern psychology is understood ...
a) a subjective image of the real world - both objective, external, and subjective, internal, existing in relationships and interaction, in the unity of bodily and spiritual, physiological and social, subject and object;
b) a system of processes and results of semantic reflection by the subject of the world in the process of its development through various forms of activity.
c) the invisible inner world of consciousness, which has a visible basis in objectively given behavior;
d) an internal picture of the world, which is inseparable from the human body and is the cumulative result of the functioning of his body, primarily the central nervous system, and ensures the possibility of human existence and development in the world;
e) the function of the activity of a subject with a brain.
5. In accordance with the ideas of A.N. Leontiev, the subject of psychology is (yut) ...
6. In accordance with the ideas of A.R. Luria, the subject of psychology is (yut) ...
a) the generation, functioning and structure of a mental reflection of reality, which mediates the life of individuals, or a reflection of reality in the processes of activity of individuals;
b) human mental activity, its basic laws, development paths, underlying mechanisms; changes that occur in this activity in pathological conditions;
c) orientation of behavior (performed or planned) on the basis of the image as a specific "side" of human and animal activity;
d) a holistic psychophysical process of behavior;
7. In accordance with the early ideas of L.S. Vygotsky, the subject of psychology is (yut) ...
a) the generation, functioning and structure of a mental reflection of reality, which mediates the life of individuals, or a reflection of reality in the processes of activity of individuals;
b) human mental activity, its basic laws, development paths, underlying mechanisms; changes that occur in this activity in pathological conditions;
c) orientation of behavior (performed or planned) on the basis of the image as a specific "side" of human and animal activity;
d) a holistic psychophysical process of behavior;
8. In accordance with the ideas of P.Ya. Galperin, the subject of psychology is (yut) ...
a) the generation, functioning and structure of a mental reflection of reality, which mediates the life of individuals, or a reflection of reality in the processes of activity of individuals;
b) human mental activity, its basic laws, development paths, underlying mechanisms; changes that occur in this activity in pathological conditions;
c) orientation of behavior (performed or planned) on the basis of the image as a specific "side" of human and animal activity;
d) a holistic psychophysical process of behavior;
9. The activity of mental reflection means that ...
a) mental reflection is active in its origin, in the sense that it is generated by life (when a person needs to find in the dark some object lying on his table and distinguish it from other objects, he must run his hand along the contour of this object, to discover it, how to “take a mold” from this object;
b) in the course of evolution, the organs of mental reflection develop and become more complex, its forms change, that is, the forms of the psyche change;
c) mental phenomena perform a special function - they participate in the implementation of life, regulate it, orienting the subject - an animal or a person - in the world in which he lives, in the reality in which he exists;
d) the psyche is the result, the function of the brain, bodily organs of animals and humans.
10. Psychic Reflection…
a) is an exact copy, a "photo" of reality;
b) is selective;
c) does not depend on the characteristics of the subject of reflection;
d) has no physiological basis.
11. It is not true that the subjective is ...
a) the complete opposite of objective reality, the world of "direct" experience;
b) something that is not amenable to objective research.
c) "distorted", "biased", "incomplete" reflection of the objective world, which is understood as "true", "impartial", "complete", etc.
d) that which belongs to the subject, performs specific functions in his life, has completely objective forms of existence;
12. A mental phenomenon is ...
a) nerve impulse;
b) age;
d) rapid heartbeat;
d) need.
13. It is not true that the mental reflection ...
a) active;
b) mirror;
c) develops, improves;
d) may be outpacing.
14. Psychic reflection does not have the following property: ...
a) perfect shape
b) subjective content;
c) procedural nature;
d) focus only on the present.
15. The main characteristic of a mental image is not ...
a) subjectivity;
b) selectivity;
c) ideality;
d) stability;
e) partiality.
16. Psychic reflection…
a) characteristic only of living beings - humans and animals;
b) arises, is formed only in the course of the development of life, in the course of the evolution of living beings, living organisms;
c) is a product of the process of development of life;
e) mediates (serves as a means) life processes, activities of living beings.
e) All answers are correct.
17. In accordance with modern ideas, the psyche is ...
a) the functional body of the activity;
b) the property of the brain to reflect objective reality;
c) indicative function of activity;
d) carries out the regulation of activities;
e) the image of the world, built on the basis of the orienting activity of man in the world.
18. The psyche has two hypostases (facets) - the psyche-process and the psyche-image, which are interconnected as follows:
a) in the genetic plan, the psyche as a process is the primary formation, and the psyche as an image is secondary;
b) in the genetic plan, the psyche as an image is a primary formation, and the psyche as a secondary process;
c) in functional terms, the psyche as a process is a primary formation, and the psyche as an image is a secondary one;
d) in functional terms, the psyche as an image is a primary formation, and the psyche as a secondary process;
19. Modern domestic psychology - ...
a) the science of the natural connections of the subject with the natural and socio-cultural world, captured in the system of sensory and mental images of this world, the motives that encourage action, as well as in the actions themselves, experiences of one's attitude to other people and oneself, in the properties of the individual as the core of this systems;
b) the science of the direct experience of a person, represented in his mind;
c) the science of the psyche as a functional organ of activity that performs the functions of orienting the subject in the world and regulating activity in it on the basis of the image of this world built as a result of orientation;
d) a science that studies the personality of a person, his behavior in the objective and social world, relationships with other people;
e) the science of unconscious mental phenomena;
f) the science of cognitive mental processes, properties and states.
20. Establish a correspondence between the direction of psychology and the subject of research
|
Directions of psychology |
Subject of study |
||
|
Structuralism, functionalism |
|||
|
Behaviorism |
cognitive processes |
||
|
Psychoanalysis |
Unique and inimitable personality, individuality |
||
|
Gestalt psychology |
Consciousness |
||
|
Humanistic psychology |
Behavior |
||
|
cognitive psychology |
Holistic structures of the psyche |
||
|
Domestic psychology |
Unconscious |
21. In accordance with the idealistic interpretation ...
a) the psyche is the subjective world of human inner experiences, which is a function of the surrounding reality;
b) mental life should be understood as a manifestation of a special subjective world, which is revealed only in self-observation and is not available either for objective scientific analysis or for causal explanation;
c) the existence of a person in the world, the activities that he performs - determine his consciousness;
d) complex processes of mental life should be considered as complex reflexes.
22. In accordance with the dualistic ideas of ____________, all physical processes, including the behavior of an animal, are subject to the laws of mechanics, while mental phenomena should be considered as forms of the spirit, the source of knowledge of which can only be reason or intuition.
a) Aristotle
b) Spinoza;
c) Descartes;
d) Hegel;
e) K. Marx.
23. As ________________ was the first to point out, the attempt to approach the psyche as a direct function of the brain and to look for its sources in the depths of the brain is just as hopeless as the attempt to consider the psyche as a form of existence of the spirit.
a) K. Levin;
b) L.S. Vygotsky;
c) Z. Freud;
d) J. Watson.
24. According to _______________, the crisis in psychology in the 30s of the twentieth century was caused by the fact that psychology began to develop in two directions: 1) one, which continued the traditions of the natural-scientific approach to phenomena, set itself the task of explaining mental processes, in fact the most elementary psycho-physiological processes and refusing to consider complex, human-specific phenomena of conscious life; 2) the second made the object of its consideration precisely these external, human-specific phenomena of conscious life, but limited itself to describing their subjective manifestations, considering them as manifestations of the spirit and refusing their scientific, causal analysis.
a) B. Skinner;
b) K. Rogers;
c) A. Maslow;
d) L.S. Vygotsky;
e) Z. Freud.
25. The main task of overcoming the crisis experienced by psychology at the beginning of the twentieth century, L.S. Vygotsky saw that:
a) approach the objective, physiological foundations of mental activity and substantiate the possibility of an objective, naturally scientific psychology;
b) consider the most complex processes of mental life materialistically, as complex reflexes: for example, thought is the same reflex, but inhibited, left without its external motor end;
c) the phenomena of mental life must be studied by the natural scientist in the same ways in which other phenomena of nature are studied;
d) make the higher, human-specific forms of conscious activity the subject of research and approach them from the point of view of scientific analysis, causally explain their origin and establish the objective laws to which they are subject.
26. According to L.S. Vygotsky:
a) an attempt to approach the psyche as a direct function of the brain and look for its sources in the depths of the brain is just as hopeless as an attempt to consider the psyche as a form of existence of the spirit.
b) the mental life of animals arises in the process of their activity and is a form of reflection of reality, carried out by the brain, but which can only be explained by the objective laws of this reflective activity;
c) those higher forms of conscious activity, active attention, voluntary memorization and logical thinking, which are specific to humans, cannot be considered as a natural product of the evolution of their brain, but are the result of that special, social form of life that is characteristic of humans;
d) in order to explain the higher mental functions of a person, it is necessary to go beyond the limits of the organism and look for their origins not in the depths of the spirit or in the features of the brain, but in the social history of mankind, in those forms of social labor and language that have developed in the history of society and brought to life the most perfect types of communication and new forms of conscious activity;
e) the most important principle of psychology is the principle of historicism, or development (it is impossible to understand the "become" psychological functions without tracing the history of their development in detail);
e) All options are correct.
27. L.S. Vygotsky:
a) the “alpha and omega” of his scientific work (according to A.N. Leontiev) was the problem of consciousness: traditional psychological science, calling itself the “psychology of consciousness”, was never it, since consciousness acted in it as the subject of direct (introspective) experiences, not scientific knowledge;
b) noted that scientific knowledge is always mediated and “direct experience”, for example, of the feeling of love does not at all mean scientific knowledge of this complex feeling; consciousness requires the same objective scientific mediated study as any other entity, and is not reduced to the phenomenon (experience) introspectively given to us by the subject of any of its content;
c) defined the psyche as an active and biased form of the subject's reflection of the world, a kind of "organ of selection, a sieve that filters the world and changes it so that one can act";
d) mental reflection is distinguished by its non-mirror nature: a mirror reflects the world more fully, more accurately, but mental reflection is more adequate for the subject's lifestyle - the psyche is a subjective distortion of reality in favor of the organism;
e) the features of mental reflection should be explained by the lifestyle of the subject in his the world. The properties of consciousness (as a specifically human form of the psyche) should be explained by the peculiarities of a person's lifestyle in his human world.
e) All options are correct.
28. The main provisions of cultural-historical psychology L.S. Vygotsky are:
a) the system-forming factor of human life in the human world is, first of all, labor activity, mediated by tools of various kinds. Mental processes are transformed in a person in the same way as the processes of his practical activity, that is, they also become mediated only by special "psychological tools", "tools of spiritual production";
b) psychological tools that transform the mental processes of a person are various sign systems (language, mathematical signs, mnemonic techniques, etc.);
c) a sign is a means developed by mankind in the process of communication between people. It is a means (instrument) of influence, on the one hand, on another person, and on the other hand, on oneself (first, an adult ties a memory knot for a child, and then the child himself ties a memory knot for himself);
d) through mediation, the child masters his mental processes, that is, they become arbitrary;
e) at first (in the school of L.S. Vygotsky) the instrumental function of the sign was studied, and later the research was devoted to the study of the inner side of the sign - its meaning;
e) All answers are correct.
29. The main provisions of cultural-historical psychology L.S. Vygotsky are:
a) The original form of existence of a sign is always external. Then the sign turns into an internal means of organizing mental processes, which arises as a result of a complex step-by-step process of "growing" - the internalization of the sign;
b) not only and so much the sign is rotated, but the whole system of operations of mediation; at the same time, this also means the rotation of relations between people: if earlier the order (for example, to remember something) and the execution (memorization itself) were divided between two people, now both actions were performed by the same person;
c) it is necessary to single out two lines of the mental development of the child - natural and cultural development. In the process of mastering the systems of signs by the subject (“the line of cultural development”), natural mental functions are transformed into new ones - higher mental functions (HMF);
d) the natural mental functions of an individual are direct and involuntary in nature, due primarily to biological, or natural (according to A.N. Leontiev - organic), factors - organic maturation and functioning of the brain;
e) higher mental functions are characterized by three main properties. They are: 1) social (by origin), 2) indirect (by structure), 3) arbitrary (by the nature of regulation);
e) All options are correct.
30. The main provisions of cultural-historical psychology L.S. Vygotsky are:
a) in the process of cultural development, not only individual functions change - new systems of higher mental functions (HMF) arise that are qualitatively different from each other at different stages of ontogenesis: for example, as the child develops, the perception of the child is freed from its initial dependence on the affective-need sphere of a person and begins to enter into close ties with memory, and later with thinking;
b) the primary connections between the functions that have developed in the course of evolution are replaced by secondary connections built artificially - as a result of a person's mastery of sign systems, including language, as the main sign system;
c) the most important principle of psychology is the principle of historicism, or development (it is impossible to understand the "become" psychological functions without tracing the history of their development in detail);
d) the main method for studying HMF is the method of their formation (genetic modeling experiment);
e) all options are correct.
31. When some external stimulus acts on a living being, on a living organism, then the activity of the organism is necessary in order for these influences to give rise to their reflection (in order to see, one must look, and in order to hear, one must listen). What property of the psyche are we talking about in this case?
a) subjectivity;
b) subjectivity;
c) activity;
d) ideality;
e) reactivity.
32. Psyche-image - ...
a) "picture" of the surrounding reality (image of the world);
b) the "trace" of the psyche-process, a folded process, its "simultaneous cast", "accumulated movement", "folded activity";
c) functionally precedes the actually unfolding psyche-process (when the subject starts a new activity, he already has a more or less adequate image of the reality in which he is to act);
d) appears simultaneously with the activity and the subject as the carrier of this activity;
e) All answers are correct.
33. Mind-process - ...
a) active reflection of the world through various forms of external and internal activity of the subject;
b) is leading in the genetic plan (the image that the subject has is the result of the previous activity of the subject);
c) appears simultaneously with the activity and the subject as the carrier of this activity;
d) all answers are correct.
34. In accordance with the hypothesis of A.N. Leontiev, the criterion for the appearance of the rudiments of mental reflection in living organisms is ...
a) the ability to conscious activity;
b) the presence of sensitivity;
c) the presence of irritability;
d) the ability to play actions "in the mind."
35. Mental image...
a) subjective in content and mechanism of formation;
b) objective in content and mechanism of formation;
c) objective in content and subjective in terms of the mechanism of formation;
d) subjective in content and objective in terms of the mechanism of formation.
36. The concept of internalization means:
a) deepening a person into himself;
b) the transfer of the material to the plane of reflection;
c) mental substance;
d) a special property of the individual.
37. The concepts of "brain" and "material" are in the same relationship,
as "psyche" and ...
a) physiological;
b) real;
c) ideal;
d) conscious.
38. Monkeys lack (yut) ...
a) psyche;
b) self-consciousness;
c) instincts;
d) intelligence;
e) there is no correct answer.
39. The psyche of animals ...
a) absent;
b) the same as the human psyche;
c) exists only in monkeys, dolphins, dogs and cats.
d) All animals with a nervous system have it.
40. The most stable are mental (psychological) ...
a) processes;
b) states;
c) properties;
d) education.
41. Of all mental phenomena, the most short-lived are mental (psychological) ...
a) processes;
b) states;
c) properties;
d) education.
42. According to J. Piaget, in the system of sciences ...
a) psychology is of paramount importance, is in the center of the "triangle of sciences" and determines their development;
b) psychology occupies a central place not only as a product of all other sciences, but also as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development;
c) psychology does not yet occupy the central position to which it really claimed throughout the entire history of its existence;
d) psychology should be placed closer to the natural sciences.
43. In accordance with the classification of sciences of academician B.M. Kedrova, psychology is classified as ...
a) humanities;
b) natural sciences;
c) social sciences;
d) independent science.
44. According to Academician F.V. Konstantinov, psychology ranks among the sciences ...
a) the main link;
b) subordinate position;
c) dominant position;
d) adjacent position.
45. In the “triangle of sciences” of Academician B.M. Kedrov psychology
a) classified as social sciences;
b) attributed to the natural sciences;
c) is located in the very center of psychology;
d) attributed to the humanities.
46. A branch of psychology that studies the creation and perception of works of art, as well as the works themselves from the point of view of the methods and means of influencing the reader, viewer, etc. presented (objectified) in their structure.
a) general psychology;
b) developmental psychology;
c) gender psychology;
d) psychology of art;
e) social psychology;
47. The branch of psychological science that studies the patterns of psychology of perception and generation of linguistic statements and other aspects of the use of language as the most important "psychological tool" of a person
a) mathematical psychology;
b) psycholinguistics;
c) gender psychology;
d) legal psychology;
e) psychodiagnostics;
f) labor psychology.
48. A branch of psychology that studies the differences in the psyche of people - individual, typological, ethnic, etc.
a) personality psychology;
b) developmental psychology;
c) gender psychology;
d) comparative psychology;
e) social psychology;
f) differential psychology.
49. The branch of psychology that studies the psyche in conditions of illness - mental or bodily ...
a) psychiatry;
b) clinical psychology;
c) gender psychology;
d) psychoanalysis;
e) neuropathology;
f) differential psychology.
50. A branch of psychology that deals with psychological issues related to the implementation of the legal system.
a) victimology;
b) criminalistics;
c) economic psychology;
d) legal psychology;
e) social psychology;
e) criminology.
51. A branch of legal psychology that deals with the psychological problems of behavior and the formation or deformation of the personality of a criminal, the motives of a crime, etc.
a) forensic psychology;
b) criminal psychology;
c) penitentiary psychology;
d) victimology;
52. A branch of legal psychology that studies the mental characteristics of the behavior of participants in a criminal process (psychology of testimonies, psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.)
a) forensic psychology;
b) criminal psychology;
c) penitentiary psychology;
d) victimology;
e) psychology of deviant behavior.
53. The branch of psychology, the subject of which is the study of the human psyche in the conditions of training and education ...
a) general psychology;
b) developmental psychology;
c) educational psychology;
d) psychophysiology;
e) social psychology;
f) experimental psychology.
54. Another name for comparative psychology is ...
b) developmental psychology;
c) gender psychology;
d) pathopsychology;
e) social psychology;
f) zoopsychology.
55. The branch of psychology that studies mental phenomena that arise in the process of interaction between people in various organized and unorganized social groups - ...
a) differential psychology;
b) developmental psychology;
c) trading psychology;
d) labor psychology;
e) social psychology;
f) comparative psychology.
56. It is not true that the psyche ...
a) is an indicative function of activity;
b) and activity are ontologically identical;
c) mirrors the world;
d) has two hypostases (forms): psyche-image and psyche-process;
e) reflects the world with distortions;
f) is an internal activity resulting from the internalization of external activity.
57. The structure of the psyche includes:
a) mental processes;
b) psychological properties;
c) mental phenomena;
d) mental formations;
e) mental functions;
e) mental states.
58. Knowledge, skills, abilities are referred to ...
a) mental processes;
b) psychological properties;
c) mental states;
d) mental formations.
59. Memory, thinking, imagination are referred to ...
a) mental processes;
b) psychological properties;
c) mental states;
d) mental formations.
60. Apathy, affect and elation are attributed to ...
a) mental processes;
b) psychological properties;
c) mental states;
d) mental formations;
61. The first subject of psychology when it is separated into an independent science is ...
a) psyche;
c) phenomena of consciousness;
d) behavior;
e) the inner world of a person.
Section 2. Methodological foundations of psychology
1. Psychology has emerged as an independent science through the use of the method ...
a) observations;
b) experiment;
c) testing;
d) questioning;
2. The research method is ...
a) a way of knowing the subject;
b) a collection of legalized rules;
c) specific methodology;
d) a set of tests.
3. Experimental method in psychology:
a) not allowed
b) is used as an auxiliary;
c) cancels all others;
d) is the main one.
4. The system of principles for constructing and organizing scientific research is called ...
a) research methodology;
b) research method;
c) scientific worldview;
d) research methodology;
e) philosophical outlook.
5. The highest level of a consciously reflected and theoretically formulated worldview, stated in a systematic form - ...
a) research methodology;
b) research method;
c) worldview;
d) methodology;
e) philosophy.
6. A discipline that studies the organizational specifics of scientific activity and its institutions, carrying out a comprehensive analysis of scientific work, activities for the production of scientific knowledge - ...
a) philosophy;
b) research method;
c) worldview;
d) methodology;
e) science.
7. A generalized system of a person’s views on the world as a whole, on his place in it, a person’s understanding and emotional assessment of the meaning of his activity and the fate of mankind, a set of scientific, philosophical, political, legal, moral, religious, aesthetic beliefs and ideals of people.
a) philosophy;
b) science of science;
c) worldview;
d) methodology;
d) persuasion.
8. The structure of methodological knowledge (“vertically”) does not include ...
a) the level of specific scientific methodology;
b) the level of methodology and research technique
c) philosophical methodology;
d) the level of research organization principles;
e) the level of general scientific principles and forms of research;
9. The method of psychology of direct study of reality, aimed at identifying, naming, comparing, describing and classifying private phenomena and their totality is ...
a) oral questioning;
b) questioning;
c) an interview;
d) observation;
e) experiment.
10. It does not apply to the main types of observation ...
a) participant observation;
b) standardized observation;
c) non-standardized observation;
d) laboratory observation;
e) targeted observation.
11. It does not apply to the main types of observation ...
a) external observation;
b) open observation;
c) closed observation;
d) longitudinal observation;
e) field observation.
12. The main types of observation include ...
a) closed observation;
b) targeted observation;
c) objective observation;
d) subjective observation;
e) one-time observation.
13. A standardized test, as a rule, limited in time and aimed at studying the individual psychological, personal characteristics of the subjects - ...
a) questioning;
b) testing;
c) experiment;
14. The property of the test to give, when it is repeated after a short period of time, close results - ...
a) standardization;
b) stability;
c) validity;
d) reliability;
e) accuracy.
15. The property of a test to measure exactly the characteristic for which it was created is ...
a) reliability;
b) stability;
c) validity;
d) accuracy;
e) standardization.
16. The main characteristics of psychological tests are - ...
a) reliability;
b) objectivity;
c) accuracy;
d) stability;
e) validity.
17. The main types of tests in psychology are:
a) test questionnaire;
b) test task;
c) projective test;
d) knowledge test;
e) intelligence test.
18. The method of psychology aimed at testing the hypothesis of a causal relationship between phenomena is called ...
b) observation;
c) analysis of products of activity;
d) experiment;
e) sociometry.
19. A research method aimed at testing the hypothesis about the presence of a connection between the studied phenomena - ...
a) experiment;
b) quasi-experiment;
c) correlation study;
d) observation;
e) testing.
20. The active position of the researcher is typical for ...
a) observations;
b) testing;
c) an interview;
d) experiment;
e) questioning.
21. According to the method of organization, an experiment happens ...
22. According to the purpose of the study, the experiment happens ...
a) laboratory, natural, field;
b) ascertaining, forming;
c) search, confirmation, pilotage;
d) ideal, real, full compliance experiment.
23. By the nature of the influence, the experiment happens ...
a) laboratory, natural, field;
b) ascertaining, forming;
c) search, confirmation, pilotage;
d) ideal, real, full compliance experiment.
24. According to the correspondence of the studied reality, the experiment happens ...
a) laboratory, natural, field;
b) ascertaining, forming;
c) search, confirmation, pilotage;
d) ideal, real, full compliance experiment.
25. An experiment organized in such a way that only one condition changes, and all the others are controlled is ...
a) full compliance experiment;
b) real experiment;
c) an ideal experiment;
d) laboratory experiment;
e) search experiment.
26. An experiment aimed at establishing the type of functional quantitative relationship between the studied phenomena - ...
a) pilot experiment;
b) real experiment;
c) an ideal experiment;
d) confirmatory experiment;
e) search experiment.
27. The structural units of the experiment are ...
a) dependent variable;
b) independent variable;
c) research hypothesis;
d) external variables;
e) internal variables.
28. Experimental condition manipulated by the researcher - ...
a) dependent variable;
b) independent variable;
c) the identity of the subject;
d) external variables;
e) internal variables.
29. The subject of research, a psychological phenomenon that changes as a result of experimental manipulations - ...
a) dependent variable;
b) independent variable;
c) research hypothesis;
d) the purpose of the study;
e) internal variables.
30. The term introspection means:
a) a consequence of internalization;
b) self-observation;
c) internal state;
d) the result of the study.
31. Modern psychology exists as ...
a) free description of subjective phenomena;
b) faith in human spirituality;
c) a set of methods of psychological influences;
d) objective science with its own methodology.
32. Natural experiment…
a) by its design, it must exclude the tension that arises in a laboratory experiment in a subject who knows that he is being experimented on;
b) first proposed by A.F. Lazursky in 1910;
c) solving the problems of psychological and pedagogical research, called a psychological and pedagogical experiment;
d) aimed at testing the hypothesis of causal relationships;
e) suggests the possibility of active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject;
e) All answers are correct.
33. Scientific psychological observation ...
a) in contrast to everyday life, it implies a necessary transition from an external description of an observed fact of behavior to an explanation of its internal psychological essence;
b) involves the existence of a plan, as well as fixing the results obtained in a special protocol;
c) is a subjective method of psychological research;
d) is the main research method in psychology;
e) makes it possible to judge the causal relationships between the observed phenomena;
f) is an objective method of research in psychology.
34. The main methods of psychology include:
a) observation and experiment;
c) observation and testing;
e) observation, testing, experiment and questioning.
35. The auxiliary methods of psychology include:
a) observation and experiment;
b) testing and questioning;
c) observation and testing;
d) observation, testing and experiment;
e) experiment, testing and questioning (oral and written).
1. The world's first laboratory of experimental psychology was created ...
a) W. Wundt;
b) in 1732;
c) to study the functions of consciousness;
d) all answers are correct.
2. The functionalist approach is not...
a) originates from the work of W. James in America;
b) has a date of birth of 1881;
c) rejects the use of introspection;
d) emphasizes the adaptive role of consciousness;
e) denies the existence of consciousness.
3. The S-R scheme focuses on…
a) an objective description of behavior;
b) the uselessness of the concept of consciousness;
c) correspondence between the reaction and the given stimulus;
d) all answers are correct.
4. Ethology deals with...
a) the biological study of behavior;
b) strategies used for gene transfer;
c) animal behavior, but not human behavior;
d) all answers are wrong.
5. The cognitive approach insists that...
a) a person reacts to external stimuli like a machine;
b) the human mind has more information than that which it receives from the outside;
c) human behavior is controlled by repressed desires;
d) the brain functions by associating ideas.
6. According to J. Piaget, all children ...
a) go through the same stages of development of thinking;
b) go through all stages of development of thinking;
c) are born smart;
d) all answers are correct.
7. According to the theory of Z. Freud, libido is energy ...
a) the corresponding need for self-realization of the individual;
b) resulting from the suppression of sexual desire;
c) underlying life drives;
d) underlying the interaction between people.
8. Humanistic approach in psychology…
a) is deterministic in nature;
b) aimed at the dawn of a person's potential;
c) is based on the study of acceptable forms of behavior;
d) all answers are correct.
9. The introversion-extroversion parameter was first described…
a) Z. Freud;
b) K.G. Jung;
c) G. Eysenck;
a) V. Frankl;
b) A. Adler;
c) E. Kretschmer;
d) G. Allport.
11. V. Frankl is a representative of:
a) cognitive direction;
b) behavioral;
c) psychoanalysis;
d) Gestalt psychology;
e) existential direction.
12. The goal of George Kelly's theory of personality constructs:
a) explain how people interpret and predict their life experiences;
b) replication of "effective models" of behavior;
c) explain from the standpoint of science why people behave in a certain way;
d) explain how people build their relationships with other people.
13. For which of the directions of psychology was radical subjectivity, namely, a person's experience of his own life, the original and genuine phenomenon: “I suffer, therefore I exist. This is truer and deeper than the Cartesian cogito" ( ON THE. Berdyaev):
a) behaviorism;
b) Gestalt psychology;
c) cognitive psychology;
d) existential psychology.
14. The founder of behaviorism is
a) I.P. Pavlov;
b) V.M. Bekhterev;
c) J. Watson;
d) E. Thorndike;
e) B. Skinner.
15. This direction of psychology was called "psychology without the psyche":
a) structuralism;
b) functionalism;
c) behaviorism;
d) psychoanalysis;
e) Gestalt psychology.
16. The main thesis of this direction of psychology is the position that the area of the mental extends beyond the limits of those phenomena experienced by the subject, of which he is able to give an account:
a) humanistic psychology;
c) behaviorism;
d) psychoanalysis;
e) activity approach.
17. The subject of psychoanalysis is:
a) phenomena of consciousness;
b) psyche;
c) the unconscious;
d) activity;
e) supraconscious mental processes.
18. The main method of studying direct experience, according to W. Wundt, is:
a) psychological testing;
b) analysis of dreams;
c) experimental introspection;
d) method of free associations;
e) meditation.
19. The main methods of psychoanalysis by Z. Freud do not apply (are):
a) the method of free associations;
b) conversation;
c) analysis of dreams;
d) analysis of errors, reservations, slips of the pen, etc.
e) analysis of the transfer.
20. According to A. Adler, a factor in the development of personality is ...
a) social environment;
b) heredity;
c) human activity as a subject of activity;
d) a feeling of inferiority generated by bodily or mental defects;
e) convergence of the innate, biological and acquired, social.
21. This direction of psychology proceeded from the fact that, in contrast to the interpretation of consciousness as “a structure of bricks (sensations) and cement (associations),” the priority of an integral structure was affirmed, on the general organization of which its individual elements depend:
a) behaviorism;
b) cultural-historical psychology;
c) activity theory;
d) Gestalt psychology;
e) structuralism.
22. In this direction of psychology, consciousness was presented as an integrity created by the dynamics of cognitive structures that are transformed according to psychological laws:
a) structuralism;
b) functionalism;
c) Gestalt psychology;
d) cognitive psychology;
e) general psychological theory of activity.
23. Radical Behaviorism Formula:
Symbols: S - external stimulus (situation), R - reaction (observed behavior), I - individual (person, personality), s - stimulus trace, r - efferent (motor) nervous reaction, O - organism, P - personality.
24. According to E. Tolman, the formula of behavior as intermediate variables should include:
a) motivation;
b) expectations, attitudes, knowledge;
c) the need of the body (food, sexual, need for sleep, etc.);
d) cognitive mental processes;
e) personal values.
25. According to K. Hull, the formula of behavior as intermediate variables should include:
a) expectations, attitudes, knowledge;
b) the need of the organism;
c) motivation;
d) personal values;
e) cognitive mental processes.
26. It is not true that E. Tolman ...
a) was the first to question the classical postulate of behaviorism S-R;
b) believed that the S-R behavior formula should not consist of two members, but also contain intermediate, invisible to direct observation, mental moments (variables, mediators);
c) experimented on rats looking for a way out of the maze;
d) called his theory cognitive behaviorism;
e) called the conditioned reflex an operant reaction.
27. It is not true that B. Skinner ...
a) questioned the classical postulate of behaviorism S-R;
b) rejected the concept of "consciousness" as a category of scientific psychology;
c) advocated the orthodox behaviorism of J. Watson;
d) designed an experimental box - a device for studying animal learning;
e) called the conditioned reflex an operant reaction;
f) invented a series of learning machines and developed the concept of programmed learning.
28. The main difference between neo-Freudianism and classical psychoanalysis lies in the fact that the decisive role in the development of personality was given ...
a) early childhood experience;
b) influences of the socio-cultural environment and its values;
c) the biology of the body, inherent in it drives (libido, thanatos)
d) the activity of the person himself;
e) the relationship of the child with parents of the opposite sex.
29. According to K. Horney, neurotic motivation acquires the following directions:
a) movement towards the values of society;
b) movement towards people as a need for love;
c) movement away from people as a need for independence;
d) movement towards the objective world;
e) movement against people, as a need for power.
30. According to representatives of this area of psychology, the subject of psychology should be the study of the dependence of the subject's behavior on cognitive structures, through the prism of which he perceives his living space and acts in it:
a) cognitive psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) Gestalt psychology;
e) psychology of activity.
31. This direction has proclaimed itself the "third force" in psychology:
a) Gestalt psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) existential psychology;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) cultural-historical psychology.
32. At the center of the research interests of representatives of this area of psychology were the problems of a person experiencing his specific experience, which is not reducible to general rational schemes and ideas:
a) cognitive psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) Gestalt psychology;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) psychology of activity;
f) individual psychology.
33. According to representatives of this area of psychology, the true nature of a person comes off in the so-called borderline situation, when a person finds himself between existence and non-existence.
a) cognitive psychology;
b) existential psychology;
c) Gestalt psychology;
d) behaviorism;
e) analytical psychology.
34. In this direction of psychology, the decisive role was assigned to the future, as a factor in the determination of the psyche
a) cognitive psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) Gestalt psychology;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) psychoanalysis.
35. In this direction of psychology, the decisive role was assigned to the present, as a factor in the determination of the psyche
a) individual psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) analytical psychology;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) psychoanalysis.
36. In this direction of psychology, the decisive role was assigned to the past, as a factor in the determination of the psyche
a) cognitive psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) Gestalt psychology;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) psychoanalysis.
37. One of the key provisions of this area of psychology is the thesis that freedom of choice and openness to the future are the signs that the concepts of personality should be guided by.
a) cognitive psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) Gestalt psychology;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) psychoanalysis.
38. This direction of psychology rejected conformism as “balancing with the environment”, adaptation to the existing order of things, and determinism as the belief in the causation of behavior by external biological and (or) social factors. Conformism was opposed to the independence and responsibility of the subject, while determinism was opposed to self-determination.
a) functionalism;
b) behaviorism;
c) Gestalt psychology;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) psychoanalysis.
39. According to representatives of this area of psychology, activity, responsibility for one's life, self-determination are qualities that distinguish a person from all other living beings. These qualities are not acquired, but are embedded in human biology.
a) cognitive psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) Gestalt psychology;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) psychoanalysis.
40. Representatives of this area of psychology proceeded from the fact that human biology is distinguished by resistance to balance, the need to maintain a non-equilibrium state, a certain level of tension (heterostasis).
a) cognitive psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) Gestalt psychology;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) psychoanalysis.
41. The development of this area of psychology had a social background. It protested against the deformation of a person in modern Western culture, depriving him of his "personality", imposing the idea of behavior regulated either by unconscious drives, or by the well-coordinated work of the "social machine"
a) cognitive psychology;
b) behaviorism;
c) structuralism;
d) humanistic psychology;
e) psychoanalysis.
42. According to _____________, the patient (client) should be interpreted as capable of independently developing his own system of values and implementing his own constructed life plan. The main setting of psychotherapy should not be focused on the individual symptoms of the patient, but on him as a unique person.
a) W. James;
b) J. Watson;
c) A. Adler;
d) K. Rogers;
e) Z. Freud.
43. According to _____________, the therapist should treat the person who turned to him not as a patient, but as a client who came for advice, and the psychologist is called upon to focus not on the problem that worries the client, but on him as a person, in order to the client rebuilt his phenomenological world and the system of needs, and most importantly, he actualized the most important of them - the primary need for self-actualization.
a) W. Wundt;
b) J. Watson;
c) A. Adler;
d) K. Rogers;
e) Z. Freud.
44. According to __________, each person has a special instinct for self-actualization, the highest expression of which is a special experience, similar to a mystical revelation, ecstasy.
a) Z. Freud;
b) J. Watson;
c) A. Maslow;
d) K. Levin;
e) W. James.
45. According to ___________, neuroses and mental disorders arise not from sexual traumas, but from the suppression of the vital need for self-actualization. The transformation of a flawed personality into a full-fledged one should be considered from the point of view of the restoration and development of higher forms of motivation inherent in human nature.
a) Z. Freud;
b) J. Watson;
c) A. Maslow;
d) K. Levin;
a) Z. Freud;
b) V. Frankl;
c) A. Maslow;
d) W. James;
e) K. Rogers.
47. According to _____________, a person has freedom in relation to his needs and is able to "go beyond himself" in search of meaning.
a) Z. Freud;
b) J. Watson;
c) V. Frankl;
d) K. Levin;
e) W. James.
48. According to __________, the truly human beginning of behavior is the principle of pleasure
a) Z. Freud;
b) J. Watson;
c) A. Maslow;
d) V. Frankl;
e) W. James.
49. According to __________, the truly human beginning of behavior is the will to power
a) Z. Freud;
b) J. Watson;
c) A. Maslow;
d) V. Frankl;
e) A. Adler.
50. According to __________, the truly human beginning of behavior is the will to meaning
a) Z. Freud;
b) A. Adler;
c) A. Maslow;
d) V. Frankl;
e) K.G. Cabin boy.
51. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the embodiment of integrity and harmony, the regulating center of the personality - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self
52. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the social role of a person, arising from social expectations and learning at an early age - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self
53. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the unconscious opposite of what the individual persistently asserts in consciousness - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self
54. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the unconscious, masculine side of a woman's personality - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self
55. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the unconscious, feminine side of a man's personality - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self.
56. In the theory of Z. Freud, the current experiences and sensations of a person belong to the area ...
a) unconscious;
b) preconscious;
c) consciousness;
d) superconsciousness.
57. According to Z. Freud, to realize means ...
a) worry
b) take action
c) verbalize;
d) store in memory;
e) perceive stimuli.
58. In accordance with the topological model proposed by Z. Freud, the following levels can be distinguished in mental life:
a) personal unconscious;
c) consciousness;
d) preconscious;
e) superconsciousness.
59. In accordance with the structural model of mental life proposed by Z. Freud, the following instances (components) can be distinguished in a person’s personality:
c) Super-Id;
d) Super-ego;
e) The instincts of life and death.
60. According to Z. Freud, all manifestations of cruelty, aggression, murders, suicides are based on ...
a) libido;
c) thanatos;
d) cathexis;
e) catharsis;
e) the power of the situation.
61. According to Z. Freud, all defense mechanisms of the Ego have the following properties:
62. As a result of the action of this protective mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person “motivatedly forgets”, removes from consciousness thoughts and feelings that cause suffering ...
a) denial
b) rationalization;
c) projection;
d) displacement;
e) substitution.
63. As a result of this defense mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person attributes his own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, properties and behavior to other people or the environment ...
a) denial
b) transfer;
c) projection;
d) displacement;
e) substitution.
64. As a result of this protective mechanism (according to Z. Freud), the instinctive impulse is redirected from a more threatening object or person to a less threatening one ...
a) denial
b) transfer;
c) identification;
d) sublimation;
e) substitution.
65. As a result of this defense mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person uses false argumentation, thanks to which irrational behavior is presented in such a way that it looks quite reasonable and therefore justified in the eyes of others ...
a) denial
b) rationalization;
c) argumentation;
d) interpretation;
e) resistance.
66. As a result of this protective mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person transfers his aggressive and sexual impulses that are unacceptable in society to a socially acceptable channel ...
a) sublimation;
b) regression;
c) projection;
d) denial;
e) substitution.
67. As a result of this defense mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person refuses to admit that an unpleasant event has occurred ...
a) regression;
b) rationalization;
c) projection;
d) denial;
e) displacement.
68. As a result of this protective mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person returns to childish, childish forms of behavior ...
a) reactive formations;
b) regression;
c) projection;
d) displacement;
e) infantilism.
69. The most constructive mechanism of psychological defense of the Ego from those listed below is ...
a) denial
b) rationalization;
c) projection;
d) displacement;
e) substitution;
e) sublimation.
70. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the embodiment of integrity and harmony, the regulating center of the personality - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self
71. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the social role of a person, arising from social expectations and learning at an early age - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self
72. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the unconscious opposite of what the individual persistently asserts in consciousness - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self
73. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the unconscious, masculine side of a woman's personality - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self
74. In the theory of K.G. Jung, the unconscious, feminine side of a man's personality - ...
b) animus;
c) a person;
e) self.
75. In the theory of Z. Freud, the current experiences and sensations of a person belong to the area ...
a) unconscious;
b) preconscious;
c) consciousness;
d) superconsciousness.
76. According to Z. Freud, to realize means ...
a) worry
b) take action
c) verbalize;
d) store in memory;
e) perceive stimuli.
77. In accordance with the topological model proposed by Z. Freud, the following levels can be distinguished in mental life:
a) personal unconscious;
b) collective unconscious;
c) consciousness;
d) preconscious;
e) superconsciousness.
78. In accordance with the structural model of mental life proposed by Z. Freud, the following instances (components) can be distinguished in a person’s personality:
c) Super-Id;
d) Super-ego;
e) The instincts of life and death.
79. According to Z. Freud, all manifestations of cruelty, aggression, murders, suicides are based on ...
a) libido;
b) the influence of the social environment;
c) thanatos;
d) cathexis;
e) catharsis;
e) the power of the situation.
80. According to Z. Freud, all defense mechanisms of the Ego have the following properties:
a) operate at an unconscious level;
b) are means of self-deception;
c) distort, deny or falsify the perception of reality;
d) reduce the anxiety experienced by a person;
e) do not lead to the resolution of internal and external conflicts.
81. As a result of the action of this protective mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person “motivatedly forgets”, removes from consciousness thoughts and feelings that cause suffering ...
a) denial
b) rationalization;
c) projection;
d) displacement;
e) substitution.
82. As a result of this defense mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person attributes his own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, properties and behavior to other people or the environment ...
a) denial
b) transfer;
c) projection;
d) displacement;
e) substitution.
83. As a result of this defense mechanism (according to Z. Freud), the instinctive impulse is redirected from a more threatening object or person to a less threatening one ...
a) denial
b) transfer;
c) identification;
d) sublimation;
e) substitution.
84. As a result of this defense mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person uses false argumentation, thanks to which irrational behavior is presented in such a way that it looks quite reasonable and therefore justified in the eyes of others ...
a) denial
b) rationalization;
c) argumentation;
d) interpretation;
e) resistance.
85. As a result of this protective mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person transfers his aggressive and sexual impulses that are unacceptable in society into a socially acceptable channel ...
a) sublimation;
b) regression;
c) projection;
d) denial;
e) substitution.
86. As a result of this defense mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person refuses to admit that an unpleasant event has occurred ...
a) regression;
b) rationalization;
c) projection;
d) denial;
e) displacement.
87. As a result of this protective mechanism (according to Z. Freud), a person returns to childish, childish forms of behavior ...
a) repression;
b) regression;
c) projection;
d) displacement;
e) infantilism.
88. The most constructive mechanism of psychological defense of the Ego from those listed below is ...
a) denial
b) rationalization;
c) projection;
d) displacement;
e) substitution;
e) sublimation.
To be continued (addition)...
Psychology, as a science that studies a person, cannot ignore one of its most important characteristics - age. On the other hand, none of the aspects of applied psychology is unthinkable without knowledge of the age characteristics of a person, sensitive and critical periods of his development, specific problems that arise at each of the age stages. In addition, the most important principle of all psychological science - the principle of development, which involves the study of any phenomenon in the process of its origin, formation and development, found its most complete expression precisely in the psychology of age.
The very development of a person is considered in psychology as a unity of the processes of ontogenetic evolution and the life path. Traditionally, developmental psychology uses an integrated approach, which outlines the contours of developmental psychology as a unified system of knowledge, covering all stages of human development - from birth to the last moments of life - and studying every moment of development in the unity and interweaving of the properties of a person as an individual, personality, subject of activity. and individuality. This allows us to understand the physical, mental, personal development of a person in social, historical, cultural contexts.
For modern psychology, which studies the age characteristics of a person in the context of development, practical aspects are very important, allowing to analyze the factors of mental development, given their significance and debatability. In recent years, the factor of social and emotional deprivation has been singled out as one of the specific factors of this kind.
Modern psychology presents the age-related development of a person as a process that has a stage-by-stage character, passing through certain periods, crises. At the same time, the problem of periodization has not been sufficiently developed; the approaches proposed today and the grounds for identifying stages, periods and phases are debatable. (V.A. Ganzen, L.A. Golovey, 2001; 1968). One of the areas of age research is the search for and description of the characteristics of the main periods of development at each stage of human life.
The most complete system of developmental psychology is reflected in the works of B. G. Ananiev, who considers the problem of individual human development as one of the fundamental problems of natural science and psychology. The author proposes to study age characteristics in conjunction with gender, typological and individual characteristics, from which they can be separated only relatively relatively. All this makes it difficult to identify age features for a special study. The only exceptions are the earliest stages of human life, when age-related features appear in a more particular form, and typological and individual modifications of development are still poorly expressed.
One of the main issues of human development is the question of the relationship between age, typological and individual characteristics and the changing and contradictory relationships between them. It has been established that individual development acquires an increasingly peculiar individualized character with age. Exploring age dynamics, the characteristics of individual periods and the relationship between them, one cannot abstract from the life path of a person, the history of his individual development in various social relations and mediations. The age periods of life common to all people (from infancy to old age) are characterized by signs of somatic and neuropsychic development. (B. G. Ananiev, 1957).
The problem of transition from one age stage of development to another is the most poorly developed in psychological science. This is due, in our opinion, to the fact that the differentiation of psychological knowledge about age-related characteristics, which has undoubted research significance, is not accompanied by the integration and synthesis of this knowledge to the proper extent. This problem is of great importance for the creation of technologies for the formation of a person from birth to maturity and is not only psychological, but also pedagogical and managerial, since the identification of the most effective means of forming the intellectual, emotional, volitional spheres of the personality and conscious regulation by a person of his activity is an urgent task of modern social practice.
In psychology, the genetic approach is used as the basis of the theory of individual development, which consists in describing the patterns of human formation in the process of his upbringing, education and training. But the formation of a person from birth to maturity does not exhaust the entire cycle of individual mental development. Questions remain, how a person is psychologically characterized after the onset of physical, civil and mental maturity, what age periods exist in a huge range of maturity (adulthood), what determines the creative activity of an adult, which a new branch of psychology is trying to answer - acmeology.
In general psychology, traditionally, researchers of mental functions, processes, and states abstract from age to an even greater extent than from the typological and individual characteristics of an adult's personality. Abstraction from age-related changes in this main period of human life is not accidental, as it is associated with some metaphysical prejudices about maturity as a kind of “mental fossil” (Claparede), as a state characterized by previously established mechanisms and properties of the mental make-up of a person. (V. G. Ananiev, 1957).
For a long time in psychology, early ages (infancy, childhood, adolescence) were considered as dynamic stages of development that differ sharply from each other, and adulthood as a kind of continuous static state that does not qualitatively change until old age. Such approaches are currently being explored in the context of the history of age research. Modern society is interested in identifying psychic resources, increasing the level of creativity and increasing the efficiency of a person throughout his conscious life. Therefore, the growing interest in the problems of age is due to the scientific substantiation of such practical tasks as professional selection, professional orientation and reorientation at different age levels, including old age, improving professional training in adulthood and increasing the level of professionalism throughout a person’s working life.
The requirements of social practice for the psychology of age determine its convergence with medicine, pedagogy, acmeology and other sciences that study a person. The solution of these urgent problems is possible only with the use of an integral approach to the individual development of a person, which involves the study of patterns and basic characteristics that reveal the temporal structure of the ontogeny of the psyche. The strategy for searching for age differences should take into account the relative nature of the age factor, which is expressed differently not only in the development of various substructures and functions of a person, but also at individual stages of human life.
A little-studied area is the problem of personal organization of time, activity and life in general.
Studies of the problem of time in psychology were carried out in a number of directions, which in fact have little connection with each other. These are classical studies of the perception of time (Yu. M. Zabrodin, F. E. Ivanov, E. N. Sokolov, P. Fress, etc.), the experience of time (D. Garbette, R. Knapp, etc.), time perspective ( R. Kastenbaum, J. Nutten and others). However, they turned out to be divorced from the research direction in which the neurophysiological, psychophysiological features of the human temporal organization were studied (N. N. Bragina, T. A. Dobrokhotova, Yu. M. Zabrodin, A. V. Borozdina, N. A. Musina , J. Oswald, S. Sherwood, etc.), as well as procedural-dynamic and, in this sense, objective temporal characteristics of the psyche itself (P. Fress, L. P. Grimak, D. T. Elkin, D. T. Elkin , T. M. Kozina, D. N. Uznadze), such as the speed of memorization, reaction speed, rates, rhythms of neurophysiological, psychophysiological processes (K. L. Abulkhanova, T. N. Berezina, 2001).
It can be assumed that this gap is determined by the fact that the dimensional ones were assigned to the field of study of subjective psychological time (or, as they say in Russian psychology, the subjective reflection of time), and the latter - to the field in which the objective temporal organization of the psyche itself was studied. In addition, these two approaches are isolated from studies of the problems of personal time - the time of personality development, motivation, the dynamics of the conscious and first of all, the dynamic concept of the personality of 3. Freud, turned out to be aloof from the study of a specific life path, its specific temporal, biographical, event characteristics (B. G. Ananiev, P. B. Baltes, S. Buhler, etc.). In turn, the age periodization of L. I. Bozhovich, D. B. Elkonina, and others turned out to be insufficiently connected with the characteristics of the life path. The first attempt to synthesize the actual life and age periodization was made by B. G. Ananiev. The social development of the child in the space-time of childhood was studied by D. I. Feldshtein.
Despite the great attention and interest of psychologists to the psychological characteristics of activity and the development of an activity approach, the fundamental temporal characteristics of activity and the temporal features of the methods of its implementation have not been disclosed. A unified conceptual model has not been created that reveals the relationship between biological, psychological, social and cultural time, there are no ideas about the relationship between psychological, personal, life time, a unified theory of their diversity.
The existing areas of study of time can be conditionally classified, highlighting four main aspects of its consideration. The first is the reflection by the psyche, the consciousness of objective time. The second is temporary, that is, procedural-dynamic characteristics of the psyche itself, associated with the underlying rhythms of biological, organic, neurophysiological processes. The third is the ability of the psyche to regulate the time of movements, actions and activities. The fourth is the personal organization of the time of life and activity, that is, the temporal-spatial composition in which the value relations of a person with the world are built throughout the life path.
K. A. Abulkhanova and T. N. Berezina offer their own concept of studying the time of personality and life time. The basis of this approach is to overcome the gap between the study of subjective (psychological) and objective (physical, socio-cultural, historical) time, the connecting link in which is the personality with its temporal organization, correlating its subjective time (consciousness, unconscious, experiences, etc.) over time, self-realization in activity and life path, the organizer of which she becomes objectively.
The authors of this concept present a conceptual system, for the first time explicating the concepts of "temporary regime", "temporary abilities of the individual", including ideal, value time in the structure of the latter, which allows us to consider the problem of personality development in aspects of the life path and human culture. The results of many years of research by the authors make it possible to reveal not only the temporal characteristics of the personality, but the very mechanisms of activity, the driving forces of its change, development and improvement. (K. L. Abulkhanova, T. N. Berezina, 2001).
Unlike many approaches that emphasize the subjectivity of psychological time, the concept of personal organization of time presupposes the ontological nature of its organization by a person either in activity or in life as a whole. In the latter aspect, it adjoins a whole complex of studies of the life path, life cycle, perspective (B. G. Ananiev, P. Baltes, J. Nytten, R. Kastenbaum, L. Frank, S. L. Rubinshtein, etc.). Such a broad context for posing the problem of the personal organization of time (the temporal characteristics of the psyche, the personality itself, the life path and its side structures) and the progressive nature of the theoretical and empirical research itself make it possible today to prove the thesis about the presence of the specifics of human time as a whole and its difference from the time of physical processes. This is first. Secondly, it becomes possible to develop an objective approach to the study of a given time due to the evidence of its specific organization. Thirdly, it opens up the possibility of differentiating different mechanisms of temporal organization at different levels of the psyche, and presenting the personality as a subject integrating these levels in a peculiar way, including his temporal type in the social and cultural temporal continuum, organizing the time of his life and activity. The categories of personal life time are “use of time”, “multiplication of time”, “acceleration”, “periodization of life”, etc. Thus, in a certain way, the objective and subjective time of a person is connected, which in other approaches and studies are separated from each other.
The totality of the concepts of "life position", "life line", "life prospects" allows us to more specifically describe the logic of the life movement of the individual, its pace, levels, value characteristics, scales and contradictions, to identify the dual dependence of the time of the life path on the personal ability to organize time and the last of the way of life in time. The life time continuum, in which the development, changes and movement of the personality are carried out, is a characteristic sociological periodization of the life path.
Personality in this approach acts as a coordinator of different times at different levels of the psyche. But if we take into account that the number of these times is very large (physical, mental, cognitive, communicative and so on processes), then the tasks of such coordination turn out to be extremely complex, and it is carried out through self-regulation.
On the one hand, the personality acts as the epicenter of the past, present and future, that is, it has the ability to relate these times to itself and build certain compositions from them. On the other hand, physical, biological and mental processes have their own time, which does not depend on a person, that is, they represent some kind of objective organization and even a task that he must reckon with. Numerous discrepancies between these various "clocks" that go at different speeds, at different tempos, rhythms, a person must eliminate, coordinate all the "clocks" in order to keep pace with objective time, primarily the time of activity as the main form and method of his social life. This ability is called timeliness, in a particular form, sensitivity, that is, the optimal coincidence of the characteristics of the stages of development with its conditions. Timeliness allows you to resolve the contradictions between biological, mental and social time, as well as between different temporary existences.
In a simpler formulation, timeliness is the coincidence of the maximum activity with the conditions, the adequacy of activity to these conditions. Neither premature activity, nor maximum post factum activity , will not give the desired result. Timeliness is the moment when the authenticity of self-expression is achieved through its fullness and freedom. (K. A. Abulkhanova, T. N. Kerezipa, 2001).
Thus, psychological science explores the age characteristics of a person in the context of development throughout life, trying to find patterns and relationships of his functioning as an individual, personality and subject of activity at different stages; features of the transition from one stage to another; determinants of both development and transition.
Another approach is proposed in the study of the "time - man" system (personal organization of life time), which allows solving the problems of personality development in life, in the time of human culture and substantiating the activity of the individual as the driving force of self-realization in time.
We considered age as a universal characteristic of a person, arousing interest among representatives of various sciences and, thus, initiating the emergence of a wide variety of approaches to the study of this phenomenon.
Late age in this context was characterized by us vertically as a certain length of life, but this is only one aspect of its study; here, it is probably appropriate to recall the aphorism of Seneca: “Like a fable, so is life valued not for its length, but for its content.” years to life, but also to add life to years. What is the life of a person in old age, what is the psychological content of the personality of an aging person?
Two heads and six legs; four walk, and two lie still
Self-esteem - what is it: concept, structure, types and levels
Cassandra's Path, or Pasta Adventures War on Earth and Underground