The science of sociology owes its name to its creator Auguste Comte(1798–1857). The term "sociology" has two roots. The first comes from the Latin societas, i.e. "society", the second - from the Greek loros, meaning "word" in the narrow sense, and "teaching", "science" in the broad sense. Thus, the term "sociology" is translated as "science of society".

Consequently, the object of study of sociology, as well as other social, social sciences, is human society.

But human society is also studied by other social sciences and the humanities, such as philosophy, history, economics, political science, etc. Each of them studies its own sphere of society, i.e., has its own subject of study. Sociology has it too.

Different sociologists have different views on the subject of study of their science. As O. Comte, the founder of sociology, believed, the subject of research by sociologists should be the laws of social development, from which practical recommendations would follow that are useful in all areas of human activity. O. Comte likened sociology to the natural sciences, sometimes calling it social physics. The laws of the development of society, like natural, natural laws, are, in his opinion, strict, unambiguous and objective, independent of the will of people.

Max Weber(1864–1920) considered the subject of sociology to be the so-called social action, that is, an action that correlates with the actions of other people, focuses on them. The subject of sociology in M. Weber is subjective, "attached" to a person.

Émile Durkheim(1858–1915) took a different path. He declared social facts to be the subject of the science of society, by which he understood norms, laws, values, ideas of people, public institutions, organizations, and ideas in general, materialized in the form, for example, of buildings, structures, etc. Each generation of individuals finds its own set social facts, which determines the behavior of people. E. Durkheim's approach to the subject of sociology is objective, independent of a particular person.

The approaches of M. Weber and E. Durkheim are united by the fact that they, like the vast majority of other sociologists, consider a person’s behavior in society to be determined by the connections that he has with the people and objects around him, his previous communication experience, education, upbringing, place in public life, public institutions, etc.

> the subject of sociology is social ties, public relations.

1.1.1. The place of sociology in the system of sciences

The theoretical basis, the foundation of sociology is philosophy, within the framework of which sociological problems were solved for 2.5 thousand years, until in the 19th century. did not become an independent science. It is from philosophy that sociology draws paradigms, concepts, approaches, individual ideas, methods, and terminology. History, ethics, and legal science have had and continue to have a great influence on the development of sociology. Psychology and political science can be considered the closest sciences to sociology both in terms of age and historical development, and in relation to philosophy as a progenitor. Sociology has very close ties with such sciences as economics, ethnography, and anthropology. Less close, although no less significant for its development, links between sociology and physiology, mathematics, statistics, geography and other sciences (Fig. 1).

1.1.2. Functions of sociology

The term "function" in translation from Latin means "execution". In sociology, this term is understood as the role, purpose, specific activity of an element of the system. Sociology as a science is not only an element of the system of sciences, but also a particle of the all-encompassing system of human society. What are the functions of sociology in society?

epistemological(cognitive-theoretical) function allows you to get new sociological knowledge, create and refine theories, concepts, develop a common view of society, its social ties.

Informational This function makes it possible to obtain sociological knowledge not only for specialists, but also for the public.

managerial function does not mean that sociologists directly control society. Their task is to develop recommendations for social management, to explain social phenomena, to search for their causes and possible solutions.

Organizational the function of sociology is to organize various groups: in production, in the political sphere, in military units, on vacation, etc.

predictive function allows you to predict the future. It is especially valuable for those who draw up and approve long-term plans and make responsible decisions concerning the distant future.

propaganda the function of sociology makes it possible to form social ideals, values, create images of the heroes of society, certain social relations. This function is especially active in education, politics, in the activities of the media, and in the military sphere.

The presence of these functions shows the significance, usefulness of sociology for society, its functionality.

1.1.3. Methods of sociology

Sociology for its research uses general scientific methods, such as analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, a systematic approach, etc.

In addition, sociology has developed its own specific research methods:

observation;

study of documentary sources;

testing;

sociometry;

social experiment.

Thus, sociology has all the features of a science: the object and subject of research, its structure and functions, research methods. Sociology does not duplicate or cancel other sciences. It is an independent science and academic discipline that occupies a worthy place in the system of scientific knowledge.

1.2. History of sociology

The study of social phenomena and processes has a long tradition. Already in the works of the philosophers of the Ancient World, the first attempts were made to solve such problems as building an ideal state and improving the social structure of society (Plato), political stability in small (Aristotle) ​​and super-large states (Polybius, Cicero), education and socialization of the individual (Socrates) and etc.

Social problems in the era of antiquity were solved within the framework of such sciences as history, philosophy, sophistry, ethics, law, as well as in literature, poetry and mythology. In the Middle Ages, complex social issues were mainly dealt with by theology, which took a lot from Antiquity, but at the same time it was repelled primarily from Christian dogmas. The problems of everyday life were solved on the basis of traditions, habits and prejudices.

In modern times, with the expansion of the geographical and intellectual boundaries of the known world, the range of social problems also expands significantly. They become especially acute in the era of the rapid development of capitalism at the beginning of the 19th century. The third estate, which was the most active and enterprising part of society, in addition to religious ones, also needed scientific ideas about society.

The idea of ​​the possibility of developing the natural laws of being was first expressed by Saint Simon(1760–1825) from the standpoint of the "physical" (i.e., natural) sciences, opposing them to theology and metaphysics. Pupil and follower of Saint-Simon O. Comte developed the idea of ​​his teacher and developed the concept of positive science, which should take the place of theology and old philosophy. He believed that a positive social science should be based on the same principles as physics, physiology, biology, and at first called it "social physics". In his major work A Course in Positive Philosophy, consisting of six volumes published sequentially from 1830 to 1842, Comte creates a coherent theory of the origin of the science of society, proves the need for its construction on positive principles, determines its place in the hierarchy of sciences, and, finally gives it a name. If Saint-Simon can be considered the "forerunner" of sociology, then we can rightfully call Comte its "father".

By analogy with physics, Comte divides his "social physics" into social statics, i.e., the science of the organization, structure of society, and social dynamics, whose task is to study the process of development of society. Society is considered by O. Comte as a whole, consisting of interrelated parts. These parts - public institutions (family, religion, state) - by their existence contribute to "general agreement", the unification of society. They help to overcome the selfishness of people and the division of labor that divides them, educate the younger generation in an altruistic spirit, and pass on the traditions, experience and moral norms of the older generations. Social dynamics, according to Comte, should study the theory of social progress.

In the literature, one can find discrepancies about the origin of the science of sociology. If we are talking about science, then the most accurate date of its foundation should be considered 1826, when Comte began to read public lectures on the course of positive philosophy. Most authors point to 1830 as the beginning of the publication of the "Course ...", others consider (for example, A. Radugin and K. Radugin) the year of birth of sociology in 1839, since then the 3rd volume of the "Course ..." was published, in which Comte first used the term "sociology".

It must be borne in mind that in his philosophical outlook, Comte was an idealist. For him, the world is first thought, then it exists. Consequently, the development of society also begins with the appearance of ideas of progress in the minds of people. Comte identifies progress with the development of human knowledge, which goes through three stages; each of them corresponds to a certain state of society (the law of three states). “The first stage,” notes Comte, “although at first necessary in every respect, must henceforth be regarded as purely preliminary; the second is in fact only a modification of a destructive nature, having only a temporary purpose - to gradually lead to the third; it is at this last, the only completely normal stage, that the structure of human thought is in the fullest sense final. Let us present this law in the form of a table (Table 1).

Table 1

O. Comte's law of three states

It is positive (positive) science, according to O. Comte, that is “the only solid foundation for social transformation that has to put an end to the critical state in which the most civilized peoples have been for so long”2. This science will help to make the transition to an industrial, peaceful society.

The development of science and knowledge proceeds from the simple to the complex, from the general to the specific. Each new science has, O. Comte believed, a higher order of the studied phenomena and includes the previous one as a necessary part. The hierarchy of sciences (the law of classification of sciences) is as follows (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Law of classification of sciences

The place of sociology, according to O. Comte, is at the top of this hierarchy, because it studies the most complex phenomena of the interaction of individuals. The law of three states is combined with the law of classification of sciences in the sense that positive thinking, formed in mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and biology, should also cover the social sphere and lead to the creation of a positive science of society - sociology. The subject of this science Comte considers society as a whole, the history of its development, transformation. Moreover, the laws of this development are precise and strict, as are the laws of mathematics, physics, and chemistry. These laws, according to O. Comte, can not only show the essence of society and its past, but also predict the future (the principle of historical determinism). But Comte's determinism is idealistic. If for the philosophers of the Ancient World the state of society is determined by the form of the state, for K. Marx - by the mode of production, then for O. Comte - by the way of thinking. It is precisely by changing the way of thinking with the invariable nature of man that Comte explains the historical movement of human civilization.

In the 40s. 19th century a materialistic trend in sociology arose, the founder of which was K. Marx (1818–1883). He was familiar with the works of Saint-Simon and O. Comte and agreed with them that the world is an objective reality and that the exact laws of its development can be discovered. But the development of human society, according to K. Marx (in this he disagrees with the positivists), does not occur on the basis of the development of knowledge, the spirit; it is determined by material production (materialistic determinism). It is material production that determines the so-called relations of production, that is, the connections between people that arise in the process of production. All ties in society (public relations) are derivatives of production relations. The basis of any society is the economic basis, which determines the political superstructure, spiritual life, all the processes taking place in society, including the development of science, which is determined by the needs of material production. "It is not the consciousness of people that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness." Man for K. Marx is an active social being, whose behavior changes depending on the reality surrounding him. With the change of society, not only the way of thinking changes, but also the very nature of a person, from which his mode of action follows. Consequently, Marx believed, by developing production and changing social relations, life, it is possible to change a person. Thus, society moves to a new, higher level (socio-economic formation). “Not a single social formation perishes before all the productive forces have developed, for which it gives enough scope, and new, higher production relations will never appear before the material conditions for their existence have matured in the bowels of the old society itself.”

The views of K. Marx on society influenced the development of the social sciences in the 20th century, but in the sociology of the 19th century. positivism continued to dominate. Positivist sociologists, unlike metaphysical philosophers, represented the world around them, including nature, as an objective reality. Human society for them is a continuation, a historical part of nature. The same natural laws of motion and development operate in it, which no longer move inorganic matter, not plants and animals, but people. But there is no fundamental difference in the manifestation of natural laws in human society. Thus, the principles of positivist sociology are:

naturalism. For positivism, human society is part of nature;

organicism. The positivist sociologist understands human society as a living organism, each organ of which functions in such a way as to ensure the integrity and development of the system as a whole;

evolutionism. Society, according to the positivists, is in constant motion and development. The driving forces of these changes are natural laws: the struggle for existence, natural selection, etc.

It follows from this that sociology should be the same "natural science" as astronomy, physics, biology, and human society develops according to natural laws. There are no specific "sociological" laws, and the methods of sociology, in contrast to the speculative methods of metaphysics, must be accurate, rigorous, quantitatively described and experimentally verified.

A follower of O. Comte, the English philosopher and sociologist Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), the creator of the biological trend in positive sociology, based his theory of society on the analogy with an organism that develops according to the laws of evolution.

In his work The Foundations of Sociology (1886), Spencer argues that the evolution of society consists in its differentiation (as in animals and plants - an increase in the number of species). At the same time, evolution pushes individual parts-organs of society towards greater integration, because only in this way can an integral social organism be preserved.

However, there are differences between the animal community and human society. So, the animal individual is “concrete”, that is, it is really single, and the human one is “discrete”, since it has abstract thinking and freedom of action. From this it follows that progress consists in the transition from a state in which the individual is subordinate to the whole to a state in which the social organization serves the individuals who compose it. Moreover, in the first state of society, integration is compulsory, and in the second, it is voluntary. The behavior of people, like animals, according to Spencer, determines the law of force.

Another difference between the animal community and human society is that the "regulatory system" of human society rests on "fear of the living and the dead", that is, on respect for such social institutions as the state and the church. Everyday communication is regulated by "ceremonial instructions", that is, traditions, norms that reflect the statuses and roles of people. In the economic system of society, the role of natural selection of the organic world, discovered by Charles Darwin, is played, according to G. Spencer, by competition.

From here originates the direction of sociological positivism, called "social Darwinism". Sociologists-Darwinists explained the development of individualistic tendencies in society by the survival of the fittest (the instinct of self-preservation), and the strengthening of social solidarity, morality and morality was explained by the manifestation of the altruistic instinct of procreation.

Social Darwinism gave food for thought to many sociologists and served as a sociological basis for such diverse currents of political thought as anarchism (P. Kropotkin), socialism (E. Evans, W. Clifford), fascism (B. Mussolini, A. Hitler).

Another English sociologist, Henry Buckle (1821–1862), founded the geographical branch of positivist sociology. He presented the progress of human society not as predetermined by providence or as the result of the free will of historical figures, but as a manifestation of natural factors. These factors are: climate, food, soil, landscape. In the south, food is cheaper, the soil is more fertile, the climate is more favorable for life. Hence the large population in the countries of the East, the poverty of its main mass and the enormous wealth of a few rulers. The landscape of temperate latitudes forms a rational, logical type of activity. This explains that "in Europe, the predominant trend was the subordination of nature to man, and outside Europe, the subordination of man to nature."

Positivism gave a powerful impetus to the formation and development of sociology. But he considered society mechanistically, that is, being, despite the internal struggle for existence, in an equilibrium state, which was determined by the balance and strict functioning of parts-organs within the framework of certain tasks. Despite O. Comte's slogan "Order and Progress", society for the positivists remained essentially unchanged. They failed to explain many social phenomena of the second half of the 19th century, including revolutions, the growth of the labor movement and the class struggle. All this by the 80s. 19th century led to a crisis of positivism.

Anti-positivism (1880-1920) did not seek to explain the world of social phenomena by biological struggle for existence or by the influence of the natural environment. On the contrary, the founders of anti-positivism, the German philosophers and sociologists Wilhelm Windelband (1848-1915), Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936), Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) saw their task in delimiting nature and human society, which, in their opinion, lives on its own. laws other than those of nature. Not to explain society from the point of view of the universal laws of the physical world, but to understand the meaning of social phenomena, structures and processes - this is what they saw as their task. Antipositivists considered the main thing not to acquire objective knowledge about society, but to understand social facts. They chose neo-Kantianism as the philosophical basis for such an understanding. Neo-Kantians criticized the philosophy of Immanuel Kant "from the right", from the standpoint of subjective idealism. They considered the subjectivity of the world and the existence of "things-in-themselves" to be the main achievement of I. Kant's epistemology, while the main fallacies were the objective nature of the latter. W. Windelband and G. Rickert proceeded from the transcendental-psychological approach to the teachings of I. Kant, that is, they put transcendental values ​​in place of objective truth, which, although they exist ideally, are important for people, have an impact on their thinking and behavior . Moreover, the "practical", close to life interpretation of social factors is of greater importance than theoretical schemes.

In other words, antipositivists, unlike positivists who recognized the world as an objective reality, argued that the laws by which nature and society develop are different, that it is impossible to reach the essence of social laws, that the essence underlying social processes and phenomena is, in principle, unknowable.

If the natural sciences are characterized by a generalizing (generalizing) method of cognition, then for the social sciences it is individualizing, meaning the establishment of individual unique facts of reality. These unique, peculiar social facts can be identified by correlation with stable ideal ideas-values.

V. Dilthey believed that the world, life are created by the ideas of people. And the task of the antipositivist sociologist is not to try to reveal the essence of social facts, but to understand them.

The concept of "understanding sociology" was developed by the German sociologist Max Weber. Understanding as a direct comprehension is opposed by M. Weber to the indirect, inferential knowledge, explanation inherent in the natural sciences. What is important is not objective knowledge, but understanding of social actions. Instead of evaluating social phenomena, M. Weber puts forward the principle of freedom from value judgments. This principle means that the reliability and truth of social phenomena and their significance for social behavior are completely different and sometimes incompatible things. It follows from this that there is no good or bad, positive or negative social action, that any social behavior should be understood from its correlation with those social values ​​that are inherent in a given social group (principle of reference to values).

"Understanding sociology" actively developed in the first half of the 20th century. in Europe (including Russia) and in the USA. G. Simmel, A. Firkandt, F. Znanetsky, G. Bloomer, E. Hughes, R. Merton, T. Parsons, P. Struve, N. Kareev and others become its supporters.

One of the influential strands of anti-positivism was the anthropological one founded by Max Scheler (1874–1929). He believed that man occupies a special position on the "ladder of beings." He lacks some of the necessary instincts, for example, the ability to navigate in the forest, in the dark, a poorly developed sense of smell, touch, etc. Man has severed his direct connection with nature, and as a single being, an individual, he is not self-sufficient. He compensates for his shortcomings with culture, that is, with the knowledge and skills that he receives from society.

The further development of civilization will only increase the gap between man and nature. Hence the task of developing social institutions - families, schools, churches, states, which saturate the individual with culture and regulate his behavior.

The crisis of positivism in the 80s. 19th century gave impetus to the development of not only various areas of antipositivism. Around the same time, sociological science was influenced by developing psychology. Sociologists, supporters of the psychological approach, sought to explain social events in terms of mental phenomena. This trend of sociology can be divided into the following areas:

psychological evolutionism(L. Ward, F. Giddins), who considered the development of society as part of cosmic evolution, in contrast to natural evolution, based on technical (purposeful), conscious control of social processes. The social impact of people becomes possible on the basis of the so-called "kind consciousness", "telesis", - a mental feeling of the commonality of the goals of the development of human civilization;

instinctivism(W. McDougal), who was looking for the basis of life in instincts and emotions, which are manifestations of the mental warehouse of the individual;

mass psychology(G. Lebon, G. Tarde), who sought to explain the behavior of large unorganized groups of people with the help of such group properties as the anonymity of the individual in the crowd, suggestibility, mental infection. Hence uncontrollability, irrationality, a quick change in the mood of the crowd;

behaviorism(E. Thorndike, D. Watson) explains the behavior of animals and humans, which is a combination of motor and verbal reactions, as a response to stimuli (impacts) of the external environment. The methodological basis of behaviorism was the position of positivism that sociology should be based on experience, experiment. From this, behaviorists conclude that sociology (and psychology) should study behavior, and not the psyche and consciousness. According to behaviorism, each person has a certain number of “behavior patterns” (breathing, eating, etc.). Over these elements in the process of learning, more complex ones are built on. Learning is based on the principle of trial and error, but the resultant effective response is reinforced. Thus, by adjusting incentives, certain reactions of individuals and groups can be obtained. However, the results of the behaviorists were inadequate to the effort expended. The main drawback of this theory was the exclusion from the chain of the human behavioral act of consciousness.

In the 20s. 20th century the positivist tradition is being revived. Neopositivism is based on the achievements of the technical and natural sciences, new developments in philosophy, logic, and the sociology of science.

The principles of neopositivism are as follows:

naturalism, i.e., the subordination of social phenomena to natural laws;

scientism i.e., the methods of sociology must be precise, rigorous, objective, like the methods of the natural sciences;

behaviorism, i.e., the motivation of social behavior can only be explored through open behavior;

verificationism, i.e., the truth of scientific statements must be confirmed on the basis of experience and experiment;

quantification, i.e., all social phenomena must be described and quantified;

objectivism, that is, sociology must be free from value judgments and ideological schemes.

Neo-positivist attitudes are shared by such prominent sociologists as P. Lazarsfeld, G. Zetterberger, G. Blaylock, K. Popper, J. Holton, R. Keith, T. Benton.

1.3. Sociology in Russia

In Russia, sociology began to gain its positions from the 60s. XIX century, when the scientific community and the reading public were able to get acquainted with the translations of books and articles by O. Comte. The spread of positive sociology was hindered by censorship of Comte's ideas in Russia and a general decline in interest in positivism abroad after the death of its founder. In the 1860s in France and other developed countries, the "second reading" of O. Comte begins - a process that has captured Russia as well. In the Russian journals Sovremennik, Russkoe slovo, Otechestvennye zapiski, and others, articles about positive sociology and its founder appear, written by V. V. Lesevich, D. I. Pisarev, and P. L. Lavrov. In 1867, the book "Auguste Comte and Positive Philosophy" was published in St. Petersburg, in which the works on Comte by the English sociologists G. Lewis and J. Mill were published.

The first Russian sociologists, according to the historian of sociology and one of the founders of this science in Russia N. I. Kareev, were P. A. Lavrov, N. K. Mikhailovsky and S. N. Yuzhakov. Their contribution to the development of this new science was the formation of their own approach to the study of social phenomena - a subjective method, which consisted in looking at society through the prism of the behavior of its members, especially active, developed, purposeful people (“heroes”), in contrast to the passive mass (“crowd "). One of the main works of N. K. Mikhailovsky was called “Heroes and the Crowd” (1882). The first Russian sociologists were also interested in the problems of the emergence of a human personality from an animal individual (for example, P. A. Lavrov “Before Man”, “The Scientific Foundations of the History of Civilization”), the problems of the division of labor and the progress of society (N. K. Mikhailovsky “What is progress? ”), the ratio of organic natural and social processes in the development of society, the influence of the economic sphere on progress (S. N. Yuzhakov “Sociological Studies”).

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. sociology in Russia already had certain achievements. Gradually, such areas of it as geographical (it is represented by the works of N. Ya. Danilevsky "Russia and Europe" and L. I. Mechnikov "Civilization and great historical rivers"), psychological (P. L. Lavrov, N. K. Mikhailovsky, E. V. De Roberti), materialistic (G. V. Plekhanov “On the development of a monistic view of history”, P. B. Struve “Critical notes on the question of the economic development of Russia”, M. I. Tugan- Baranovsky "Economic Factor and Ideas"; note that Struve and Tugan-Baranovsky soon departed from the apology of economic determinism and Marxism). During this period, Russian sociology not only experiences the influence of long-standing sciences, but also begins to influence the development of law (the works of B. N. Chicherin, V. I. Sergeevich, S. A. Muromtsev), history (V. O. Klyuchevsky , S. M. Solovyov, N. I. Kostomarov), philosophy (N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, K. D. Kavelin), other humanities and social sciences.

Thus, the first stage - the stage of the formation of sociology in Russia - can be considered the time of the spread of sociological ideas, the formation of trends in sociological thought, its rooting in the system of Russian science. This stage lasted from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s. 19th century

The second stage in the development of Russian sociology was characterized by its institutionalization, i.e., recognition by the state and society, the creation of departments and departments, scientific institutions for the training of specialists and scientific and pedagogical personnel, the foundation of scientific journals, societies, etc. This stage continued - middle of the 90s. 19th century until the mid 20s. XX century until sociological institutions were closed and non-Marxist sociologists were expelled from Soviet Russia.

At this stage, Russian sociology developed in close contact with foreign, primarily European. Russian sociologists of the "second wave" M. M. Kovalevsky, E. V. De Roberti, P. F. Lilienfeld are now well known in Europe, they are elected to foreign academies and scientific societies, participate in the work of the International Institute of Sociology (Kovalevsky was elected its president), organize the School of Social Sciences in Paris, where for the first time a sociology course is taught for the Russian public. In 1908, on the basis of the Medico-Surgical Academy, V. M. Bekhterev established a private Psychoneurological Institute, where the first department of sociology in Russia was created, consisting of M. M. Kovalevsky (head) and E. V. De Roberti, to whom P. A. Sorokin and K. M. Takhtarev joined later. Since 1912, a sociological section worked at the Faculty of History of St. Petersburg University, but only six years later it became possible to create departments of sociology at the Petrograd and Yaroslavl universities. After the death of M. M. Kovalevsky (1916), the Russian Sociological Society named after him was created, which sets as its main tasks the development of sociological science, sociological education and the dissemination of sociological knowledge. At that time, in addition to professional sociologists, it included: physiologist I. P. Pavlov, psychologist V. M. Bekhterev, economist N. D. Kondratiev, lawyers V. A. Maklakov and L. I. Petrazhitsky, historians E. V. Tarle and P. N. Milyukov, publicist A. V. Peshekhonov.

A well-known sociologist and historian, academician A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky was elected chairman. Since 1917, the awarding of a scientific degree in sociology begins. Finally, in 1919, a Sociological Institute was created in Petrograd, which received the status of a research institution.

So, at the second stage of its development, Russian sociology went through a process of institutionalization. Unfortunately, in the 1920s the Soviet authorities are beginning to treat sociological science more and more wary and even hostile. Since 1922, leading sociologists, along with representatives of other non-Marxist sciences, have been expelled from the USSR or sent for "re-education" to camps. Departments are closed and the teaching of sociology in universities is stopped. In 1923 the Sociological Society. M. M. Kovalevsky.

The next, third stage, which lasted from the mid-1920s. until the mid-1950s, was the most "black" in the history of Russian sociology. In essence, it was supplanted by scientific communism and Marxist-Leninist philosophy, and labeled as "bourgeois science."

The new institutionalization of sociology began after the condemnation of Stalin's "personality cult". In 1958, by decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Soviet Sociological Association (ASS) was created, whose members, under the leadership of party functionaries, represented Soviet sociology abroad, fought against the influence of "bourgeois" science and trained sociologists in the USSR. In 1961, a scientific sector for research into new forms of work and life appeared at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences (headed by G. V. Osipov); at the same time, a laboratory for concrete social research was created at Leningrad University (headed by V. A. Yadov). During the 1960s sectors and laboratories for solving applied sociological problems appear in Novosibirsk, Sverdlovsk, and Tartu. In 1968, the Institute for Concrete Sociological Research of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (IKSI) was established in Moscow (director - Academician A. Rumyantsev, who was removed from his post in the 1970s for insufficiently tough opposition to "bourgeois" sociology). Finally, in 1974, the journal Sociological Research was founded. So, in the post-war period, there was a partial institutionalization of sociology in the USSR, but it did not become widespread in society, and the development of this science continued to be held back by party bodies.

The fourth, modern, stage - the stage of the rapid development of Russian sociology - began in the mid-1980s. At this stage, sociology leaves the tutelage of the CPSU and historical materialism, becomes an independent science and academic discipline taught in all universities in Russia since the 1989/1990 academic year. This is one of the fastest growing sciences, which is gradually filling gaps in our knowledge about society and social relations, catching up with the national sociological schools of the USA, Great Britain, France, Germany and other developed countries that have gone ahead.

Thus, in Russia, sociology as an independent science arose in the first third of the 19th century. and has over 160 years of history. This is a relatively young, but already quite mature science, which has different approaches to the subject of research (objective and subjective) and directions of research. The main trends in the history of sociology are: positivism, the materialist trend (Marxism), anti-positivism (neo-Kantianism), which dominated in the 1880s–1920s, the psychological trend, and, finally, neopositivism.

Questions for self-control

What is the object of sociology?

What is the difference between the approaches of M. Weber and E. Durkheim to the subject of sociology?

Formulate the concept of the subject of sociology.

What is the structure of sociology?

What is the place of sociology in the system of sciences?

What are the functions of sociology in society?

What methods are used by the science of society?

When and how did sociology originate?

What is the essence of the law of three states of O. Comte?

What is the law of classification of sciences and how does it fit with the law of the three states?

What are the main provisions of the materialistic direction in the science of society?

List the principles of positivism.

What are G. Spencer's views on society?

What is Social Darwinism?

What are the main provisions of the geographical trend in positivist sociology.

What is the philosophical basis of antipositivism?

What is the essence of "understanding sociology"?

What is the anthropological trend in antipositivist sociology?

What is the psychological approach in sociology?

List the directions of the psychological approach and give a description of each of them.

Name the principles of neopositivism and its main representatives.

Name the main stages in the development of sociology in Russia.

Literature

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Buckle G. History of civilization in England. SPb., 1985. S. 57–59.

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Durkheim E. Sociology. M., 1995.

Isaev B. A. Course of sociology. SPb., 1997. S. 3–9.

History of Sociology: Textbook / A. N. Elsukov et al. Minsk,

1997. Sections 1, 3. History of theoretical sociology: V4 vol. M., 1997. Vol. 1. Sections 1–4.

Comte O. Spirit of positive philosophy. Rostov-on-Don, 2003.

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K. Marx, F. Engels. Cit.: V3 v. T.1.S.534–538.

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The object of sociological knowledge is society. The term "sociology" comes from the Latin "societas" - society and the Greek "logos" - doctrine, meaning in literal translation "the doctrine of society". Human society is a unique phenomenon. It is directly or indirectly the object of many sciences (history, philosophy, economics, psychology, jurisprudence, etc.), each of which has its own perspective of studying society, i.e. your subject.

The subject of sociology is social life of society, i.e. a complex of social phenomena arising from the interaction of people and communities. The concept of "social" is deciphered as referring to the life of people in the process of their relationships. The vital activity of people is realized in society in three traditional spheres (economic, political, spiritual) and one non-traditional - social. The first three give a horizontal section of society, the fourth - a vertical one, implying a division according to the subjects of social relations (ethnic groups, families, etc.). These elements of the social structure in the process of their interaction in traditional spheres form the basis of social life, which in all its diversity exists, is recreated and changes only in the activities of people.

People interact, uniting in various communities, social groups. Their activities are predominantly organized. Society can be represented as a system of interacting and interconnected communities and institutions, forms and methods of social control. The personality manifests itself through a set of social roles and statuses that it plays or occupies in these social communities and institutions. At the same time, the status is understood as the position of a person in society, which determines access to education, wealth, power, and so on. A role can be defined as the behavior expected of a person due to his status. Thus, sociology studies social life, that is, the interaction of social actors on issues related to their social status.

The definition of sociology as a science is formed from the designation of the object and subject. Its numerous variants with different formulations have a substantial identity or similarity. Sociology is defined in a variety of ways:

as a scientific study of society and social relations (Neil Smelser, USA);

as a science that studies almost all social processes and phenomena (Anthony Giddens, USA);

as the study of the phenomena of human interaction and the phenomena arising from this interaction (Pitirim Sorokin, Russia - USA);

as a science of social communities, the mechanisms of their formation, functioning and development, etc. The variety of definitions of sociology reflects the complexity and versatility of its object and subject.

Structure and functions of sociology

The specificity of sociology lies in its borderline position between natural science and socio-humanitarian knowledge. It simultaneously uses the methods of philosophical and socio-historical generalizations and the specific methods of the natural sciences - experiment and observation. Sociology has strong links with applied mathematics, statistics, logic, and linguistics. Applied sociology has points of contact with ethics, aesthetics, medicine, pedagogy, planning and management theory.

In the system of socio-humanitarian knowledge, sociology plays a special role, as it gives other sciences about society a scientifically based theory of society through its structural elements and their interaction; methods and techniques of human study.

Sociology has the closest connection with history. With all the sciences of society, sociology is connected by the social aspect of his life; hence, socio-economic, socio-demographic and other studies, on the basis of which new “frontier” sciences are born: social psychology, sociobiology, social ecology, etc.

Structure of sociology. In modern sociology, three approaches to the structure of this science coexist.

First (content) implies the mandatory presence of three main interrelated components: a) empiricism, i.e. a complex of sociological research focused on the collection and analysis of real facts of social life using a special methodology; b) theories- a set of judgments, views, models, hypotheses that explain the processes of development of the social system as a whole and its elements; in) methodology- systems of principles underlying the accumulation, construction and application of sociological knowledge.

The second approach (target). Fundamental sociology(basic, academic) is focused on the growth of knowledge and scientific contribution to fundamental discoveries. It solves scientific problems related to the formation of knowledge about social reality, description, explanation and understanding of the processes of social development. Applied sociology focused on practical use. This is a set of theoretical models, methods, research procedures, social technologies, specific programs and recommendations aimed at achieving a real social effect. As a rule, fundamental and applied sociology incorporate both empiricism, theory, and methodology.

Third approach (large scale) divides science into macro- and microsociology. The first studies large-scale social phenomena (ethnic groups, states, social institutions, groups, etc.); the second - the spheres of direct social interaction (interpersonal relations, communication processes in groups, the sphere of everyday reality).

In sociology, content-structural elements of different levels are also distinguished: general sociological knowledge; sectoral sociology (economic, industrial, political, leisure, management, etc.); independent sociological schools, directions, concepts, theories.

Sociology studies the life of society, learns the trends of its development, predicts the future and corrects the present both at the macro and micro levels. Studying almost all spheres of society, it aims at the coordination of their development.

Sociology can and must play the role of a social controller in society, intervening in the development of technology, the natural and social sciences. It can show the way out of impasses in social development, out of crisis situations, and can choose the most optimal model for further development.

Sociology is directly related to production through the problems of its social development, the improvement of personnel, the improvement of planning and the socio-psychological climate. It can serve as a powerful tool in the hands of political forces, influencing the mass consciousness and shaping it.

Sociology builds bridges between personal and social problems, allows each person to understand his life from the point of view of the general historical process, on the one hand, and on the other, to see the general in the particular, individual. This is the specificity of the sociological point of view.

Sociology performs many different functions in society. The main ones are:

epistemological- gives new knowledge about society, about social groups, about individuals and the patterns of their behavior;

applied- provides specific sociological information for solving practical scientific and social problems;

social forecasting and control - warns about deviations in the development of society, predicts and models trends in social development;

humanistic function - develops social ideals, programs for the scientific, technical, socio-economic and socio-cultural development of society.

The field of research in sociology is incredibly broad. Therefore, in the sociological literature, several levels of sociological knowledge are distinguished, i.e. determined structure of sociology .

The structure of sociology can be represented by 4 main blocks mi:

I. Theoretical and methodological foundations of sociology.

The study of a social phenomenon involves identifying the essence and nature of this phenomenon, its historical specifics, and its relationship with the economic and political aspects of life. This stage of cognition is the fundamental theoretical basis for the study of any social phenomenon. First of all, this general sociological theory , within which the methodological and theoretical foundations of this science are substantiated, attention is focused on the study of basic, fundamental problems of social cognition. Without this fundamental theoretical knowledge, it is impossible to study a social phenomenon.

II. A huge number of social theories, i.e. all the problems ka.

Sociology deals with individual social phenomena.
Two points stand out in their study:

one). Knowledge of the nature of a particular social phenomenon (personality, labor collective, self-expression of the subject through any activity, manifestation of the subject's social position in relation to something or opinion). It is systematized in special sociological theories, reveals the essence of a particular phenomenon, the specifics of the expression of the social in it. These theories are called: middle-level theories.

concept "Theories of the middle level" was introduced into sociology by the American sociologist R. Merton, who believed that it was necessary to develop a sociological theory located in the space between “particular working hypotheses” and “basic conceptual schemes”. Theories of the middle level or special sociological theories in contrast to general sociological theory, they operate with categories of a less general order - they consider social processes and phenomena, forms and types of social being and social consciousness at the level of specific social institutions and social subsystems. This includes such sectoral sociological theories as, for example, the sociology of politics, economic sociology, the sociology of labor, and so on.

2). Knowledge of the nature of the very state of a social phenomenon as a moment and limit in its development. That is, what, for example, is the essence of the economy as such and what is its impact on society.

III. Methods of sociological research, i.e. empirical and methodological arsenal of science.

The specificity of cognitive activity, indicated in this block - the theory and methods of sociological research, methods of collecting, processing, analyzing primary information about the state of a social phenomenon - acts as an important independent part of sociology.

IV. Social technologies, i.e. knowledge on the organization and activities of social development services, on the role of sociology in the national economy and management.

This includes the organization and activities of social development services, revealing the functions and role of the sociologist. This is a tool for transforming practice, which is owned by the head of any enterprise and employees of sociological services, power structures.

Besides different levels of sociological knowledge, there are also different levels of sociological research. Sociologists study society at two levels: Micro and macro level.

Microsociology studies the interaction of people in everyday life. Researchers working in this vein believe that social phenomena can be understood only on the basis of an analysis of the meanings that people attach to these phenomena when interacting with each other. The main topic of their research is the behavior of individuals, their actions, motives, meanings that determine the interaction between people, which, in turn, affects the stability of society or the changes taking place in it.

Macrosociology focuses on behavior patterns that help to understand the essence of any society. These patterns, which we otherwise call structures, include social institutions such as the family, education, religion, and political and economic order. Macrosociologists focus on studying the interactions between different parts of society, seeking to identify how these relationships change.

The word "sociology" comes from the Latin "societas" (society) and the Greek word "hoyos" (doctrine). It follows that sociology is the study of society. We invite you to take a closer look at this interesting field of knowledge.

Briefly about the development of sociology

Mankind at all stages of its history has tried to comprehend society. Many thinkers of antiquity spoke about him (Aristotle, Plato). However, the concept of "sociology" was introduced into scientific circulation only in the 30s of the 19th century. It was introduced by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher. Sociology as an independent science was actively formed in Europe in the 19th century. Scholars writing in German, French and English have participated most intensively in its development.

Founder of sociology and his contribution to science

Auguste Comte is the man who gave birth to sociology as a science. The years of his life are 1798-1857. It was he who first spoke about the need to separate it into a separate discipline and substantiated such a need. This is how sociology was born. Briefly describing the contribution of this scientist, we note that he, in addition, for the first time defined its methods and subject. Auguste Comte is the creator of the theory of positivism. According to this theory, when studying various social phenomena, it is necessary to create an evidence base similar to that of the natural sciences. Comte believed that sociology is a science that studies society only based on scientific methods, with the help of which empirical information can be obtained. These are, for example, methods of observation, historical and comparative analysis of facts, experiment, method of using statistical data, etc.

The emergence of sociology played an important role in the study of society. The scientific approach to its comprehension proposed by Auguste Comte opposed the speculative reasoning about it, which at that time was offered by metaphysics. According to this philosophical direction, the reality in which each of us lives is a figment of our imagination. After Comte proposed his scientific approach, the foundations of sociology were laid. It immediately began to develop as an empirical science.

Rethinking the content of the subject

Until the end of the 19th century, the point of view on it, as identical to social science, dominated in scientific circles. However, in studies conducted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the theory of sociology was further developed. It began to stand out along with the legal, demographic, economic and other aspects and social. In this regard, the subject matter of the science we are interested in gradually began to change its content. It began to be reduced to the study of social development, its social aspects.

Émile Durkheim's contribution

The first scientist who defined this science as specific, different from social science, was the French thinker Emile Durkheim (life years - 1858-1917). It was thanks to him that sociology ceased to be considered as a discipline identical to social science. It became independent and joined a number of other social sciences.

Institutionalization of sociology in Russia

The foundations of sociology were laid in our country after the decision of the Council of People's Commissars was adopted in May 1918. It stated that conducting research on society is one of the main tasks of Soviet science. In Russia, a sociobiological institute was founded for this purpose. In the same year, the first sociological department in Russia was created at Petrograd University, headed by Pitirim Sorokin.

In the process of development in this science, both domestic and foreign, 2 levels were distinguished: macro- and micro-sociological.

Macro- and microsociology

Macrosociology is a science that studies social structures: educational institutions, social institutions, politics, families, economics from the point of view of their interconnection and functioning. This approach also studies people who are involved in the system of social structures.

At the level of microsociology, the interaction of individuals is considered. Its main thesis is that phenomena in society can be understood by analyzing the personality and its motives, actions, behavior, value orientations that determine interaction with others. This structure allows us to define the subject of science as the study of society, as well as its social institutions.

Marxist-Leninist approach

In the Marxist-Leninist concept, a different approach arose in understanding the discipline that interests us. The model of sociology in it is three-level: special theories and historical materialism. This approach is characterized by the desire to fit science into the structure of the Marxist worldview, to create links between historical materialism (social philosophy) and specific sociological phenomena. The subject of discipline in this case becomes philosophical. That is, sociology and philosophy have one subject. It is clear that this is the wrong position. This approach isolated from the world process of development of knowledge about society.

The science that interests us cannot be reduced to social philosophy, since the peculiarity of its approach is manifested in other concepts and categories that are correlated with the empirical facts being verified. First of all, its peculiarity as a science lies in the possibility of considering social organizations, relations and institutions existing in society as being subject to study with the help of empirical data.

Approaches of other sciences in sociology

Note that O. Comte pointed out 2 features of this science:

1) the need to apply scientific methods to the study of society;

2) use of the received data in practice.

Sociology in the analysis of society uses the approaches of some other sciences. Thus, the application of the demographic approach makes it possible to study the population and the activities of people associated with it. The psychological one explains the behavior of individuals with the help of social attitudes and motives. The group or community approach is associated with the study of the collective behavior of groups, communities and organizations. Culturological studies human behavior through social values, rules, norms.

The structure of sociology today determines the presence in it of many theories and concepts related to the study of individual subject areas: religion, family, human interactions, culture, etc.

Approaches at the level of macrosociology

In understanding society as a system, that is, at the macrosociological level, two main approaches can be distinguished. It is about conflictological and functional.

Functionalism

Functional theories first appeared in the 19th century. The idea of ​​the approach itself belonged (pictured above), who compared human society with a living organism. Like him, it consists of many parts - political, economic, military, medical, etc. At the same time, each of them performs a specific function. Sociology has its own special task related to the study of these functions. By the way, the very name of the theory (functionalism) is from here.

Emile Durkheim proposed a detailed concept within the framework of this approach. It was continued to develop by R. Merton, T. Parsons. The main ideas of functionalism are as follows: society in it is understood as a system of integrated parts, in which there are mechanisms that maintain its stability. In addition, the necessity of evolutionary transformations in society is substantiated. Its stability and integrity are formed on the basis of all these qualities.

Conflict theories

Marxism can also be considered as a functional theory (with certain reservations). However, it is analyzed in Western sociology from a different point of view. Since Marx (his photo is presented above) considered the conflict between classes to be the main source of the development of society and carried out his idea of ​​its functioning and development on this basis, approaches of this kind received a special name in Western sociology - the theory of conflicts. From Marx's point of view, class conflict and its resolution is the driving force of history. From this followed the need to reorganize society through revolution.

Among the supporters of the approach to considering society from the point of view of conflict, one can note such German scientists as R. Dahrendorf and the Last believed that conflicts arise due to the existence of an instinct of hostility, which is aggravated when there is a clash of interests. R. Dahrendorf argued that their main source is the power of some over others. Conflict arises between those who have power and those who do not.

Approaches at the level of microsociology

The second level, microsociological, developed in the so-called theories of interactionism (the word "interaction" is translated as "interaction"). An important role in its development was played by C. H. Cooley, W. James, J. G. Mead, J. Dewey, G. Garfinkel. Those who developed interactionist theories believed that interactions between people could be understood in terms of rewards and punishments, because that is what defines human behavior.

The theory of roles occupies a special place in microsociology. What characterizes this direction? Sociology is a science in which the theory of roles was developed by such scientists as R. K. Merton, J. L. Moreno, R. Linton. From the point of view of this direction, the social world is a network of social statuses (positions) interconnected. They are the ones who explain human behavior.

Foundations of classification, coexistence of theories and schools

Scientific sociology, considering the processes taking place in society, classifies it on various grounds. For example, studying the stages of its development, one can take the development of technologies and productive forces as a basis (J. Galbraith). In the tradition of Marxism, classification is based on the idea of ​​formation. Society can also be classified on the basis of the dominant language, religion, etc. The meaning of any such division is the need to understand what it represents in our time.

Modern sociology is built in such a way that different theories and schools exist on an equal footing. In other words, the idea of ​​a universal theory is denied. Scientists began to come to the conclusion that there are no hard methods in this science. However, the adequacy of the reflection of the processes taking place in society depends on their quality. The meaning of these methods is that the phenomenon itself, and not the causes that gave rise to it, is given the main importance.

economic sociology

This is a direction in the study of society, which involves analysis from the standpoint of the social theory of economic activity. Its representatives are M. Weber, K. Marx, W. Sombart, J. Schumpeter and others. Economic sociology is a science that studies the totality of social socio-economic processes. They can concern both the state or markets, as well as individuals or households. In this case, various methods of data collection and analysis are used, including sociological ones. Economic sociology within the framework of the positivist approach is understood as a science that studies the behavior of any large social groups. At the same time, she is not interested in any behavior, but related to the use and receipt of money and other assets.

Institute of Sociology (RAS)

Today in Russia there is an important institution related to the Russian Academy of Sciences. This is the Institute of Sociology. Its main goal is the implementation of fundamental research in the field of sociology, as well as applied developments in this area. The Institute was founded in 1968. Since that time, it has been the main institution of our country in such a branch of knowledge as sociology. His research is of great importance. Since 2010, he has been publishing the Bulletin of the Institute of Sociology, a scientific electronic journal. The total number of employees is about 400 people, of which about 300 are researchers. Various seminars, conferences, readings are held.

In addition, on the basis of this institute, the GAUGN Faculty of Sociology operates. Although only about 20 students a year are enrolled in this faculty, it is worth considering for those who have chosen the direction of "sociology".

1. Sociology as a science. Object, subject, functions of sociology

Sociology is the study of society.

Science object: SOCIETY

1) Social connections

2) Social interactions

3) Social relations and the way they are organized

Science subject: SOCIAL LIFE OF THE SOCIETY

1) Man, his consciousness, his attitude to social changes

2) Human activity, through the study of which the institutional, stratification, managerial and other levels of organization of social life are revealed

3) The relationship between groups of people occupying different positions in society

4) Social structures and structural elements (personalities, social communities, social institutions):

Functions of sociology:

1) Theoretical-cognitive

2) Critical

3) Descriptive

4) Predictive

5) Transformative

6) Information

7) Worldview

2. Structure of sociology

Sociological knowledge is heterogeneous and has its own rather complex, multi-level structure, primarily due to the difference in angles and levels of study of social phenomena and processes.

Sociology studies these phenomena and processes both at the level of society as a whole, and at the level of more or less broad social communities and their interactions, and at the level of the individual and interpersonal interactions. This, in particular, provides an objective basis for subdividing sociological science into the following components:

1) general theoretical sociology as a macro sociological study aimed at clarifying the general patterns of functioning and development of society as a whole;

2) sociology of the middle level as studies of a lesser degree of generality, focused on studying the patterns of action and interaction of individual structural parts of the social system, i.e. private, special sociological theories, including branches of sociology (sociology of social groups, sociology of the city, sociology of the countryside, ethnosociology, economic sociology, sociology of education, sociology of politics, sociology of law, sociology of propaganda, sociology of the family, sociology of culture, sociology of labor, etc.);

3) microsociology, which studies social phenomena and processes through the prism of the actions and interactions of people, their behavior. In such a structure of sociological knowledge, the ratio of the general, the particular and the individual finds its expression.

Depending on the level of acquired knowledge, sociological research is divided into theoretical and empirical. For theoretical sociological research, a deep generalization of the accumulated factual material in the field of social life is of decisive importance.

At the center of empirical sociological research are the accumulation itself, the collection of factual material in a specified area (based on direct observation, questioning, analysis of documents, statistical data, etc.) and its primary processing, including the initial level of generalization.

The structure of sociology is sometimes analyzed through the prism of topical issues related to various areas of public life. In the structure of sociology, one should especially distinguish between fundamental and applied sociology. The basis for such a division is the differences in the goals and objectives that are set for sociological research: some of them are aimed at building and improving theory and methodology, enriching the foundations of sociological science itself, while others are aimed at studying practical issues of social life transformations, at developing practical recommendations. Both theoretical and empirical research can be carried out in these directions. Applied sociology is looking for ways and means of practical use of the mechanisms and tendencies of social life known by fundamental sociology.

3. Applied Research Methods

1) Survey method

a) Questioning

b) Interviewing

2) Method of observation

3) Document analysis methods

4) Experimental methods

4. The role of sociology in modern society

1) Cognitive - gives new knowledge about society

2) Applied - provides specific sociological information for solving practical scientific and social problems.

3) Controlled - political parties and authorities use the possibilities of sociology to conduct a targeted policy in all spheres of public activity

4) Ideological - develops social ideals, programs for the scientific, technical, socio-economic and socio-cultural development of society

5) Prognostic - warns of deviations in the development of society, predicts and models trends in the development of society.

6) Humanistic - conducting social research, bringing their results to the public can contribute to the improvement of social relations, the development of society

5. Personality as a subject of social relations. Personality structure

The study of the structure of personality is carried out in science on two interrelated grounds: on the basis of activity and on the basis of social relations into which it enters in the course of its life activity. The first ("activity") basis of personality structuring is used mainly in philosophy and psychology, and the second ("relational") - in sociological science. Thus, we can conclude: the structure of personality, as well as its essence, is described in completely different ways in philosophy, psychology and sociology.

The structure of personality is considered in sociology in two ways: on the one hand, as the fundamental basis of human activity, due to the state and development of society as a whole, and on the other hand, as the social structure of the individual. In the first case, it is based on the principles of philosophical analysis of personality, in the second - on its own capabilities.

The social structure of the personality characterizes both the “external” and “internal” correlation of a person with society: the “external” correlation is expressed in the system of social statuses (as an objective position of a person in society) and models of role behavior (as the dynamic side of statuses); "internal" correlation is represented by a set of dispositions (as subjectively meaningful positions) and role expectations (as the dynamic side of dispositions).

Man, being a social being, interacts with various social groups, participates in cooperative, joint actions. However, there is practically no such situation when a person completely belongs to any one group. For example, a person is a member of a family as a small group, but he is also a member of an enterprise team, a public organization, and a sports society. Entering many social groups at the same time, he occupies a different position in each of them, due to the relationship with other members of the group. For example, the director of an enterprise, who occupies the highest position in this team, having come to a sports society, will be there as a beginner and incompetent, i.e. takes a low position.

6. Personality socialization

The first occurs from birth to a year

Second crisis - 1-2 years

Third crisis - 3-4 years

The fourth crisis is related to going to school

The fifth crisis occurs in adolescence and is associated with the definition of a place in life.

Sixth crisis (18-20 years old) relationship building

The seventh crisis (40 years) an approximate result of life

The Eighth Crisis (Old Age) The Final Recap of Life

7. Social statuses and roles

In modern society, each person occupies a certain position. This implies that the individual has some kind of relationship, duties assigned to him, and his rights. The totality of these personality characteristics determines its social status.

status (from lat. status- "legal status") - a system of rights and obligations of an individual in relation to other people with other statuses. Social status is intended to indicate the position of the individual and the social group to which he is a member in certain spheres of human existence, in the sphere of human relationships.

Social status is not a stable characteristic of a person. Throughout life, a person can change a huge number of social statuses.

The social status of a person is determined by the following factors:

1. marital status of the individual;

2. degree of education;

3. the age of the person;

4. profession;

5. position held;

6. nationality.

The totality of all social statuses is called statutory set. So, one and the same person can be a mother, woman, sister, wife, teacher, candidate of science, associate professor, elderly person, Russian, Orthodox, etc.