A General History of the Pirates by Daniel Defoe. Charles Johnson (Daniel Defoe) A General History of Pirates

Charles Johnson (Daniel Defoe)

General History of Pirates

Foreword

War, trade and piracy

Three kinds of essence one.

I. Goethe. "Faust"

Even small children probably know that archaeologists are looking for the remains of the bygone life of mankind in the earth. Shards of stone, used for hunting and fighting, processed skins and harvested crops. Nondescript fragments of rough pottery. Shapeless ruins that were once the walls of houses. More spectacular outward discoveries rarely happen: everyday life and its attributes at all times have many times exceeded the number of holidays and extraordinary objects. And yet ... In all the archaeological expeditions in which I had to participate (and there were more than a dozen of them - in Moldova, Ukraine, the Caucasus, and even in the Summer Garden, in the very heart of the Neva capital), residents of the surrounding area always visited the excavation site, unless, of course, someone lived within the horizon. For some time, the guests quietly stood on the edge of the pit, in which dust-covered laborers swarm. And when someone straightened his aching back and walked with an unsteady gait to a tin milk can for a sip of warm, tasteless water, a short and, as it were, joking conversation began - always the same:

- Hello. Are you digging? And how did they find a lot of gold?

At first it amused me. Then it annoyed me. And only much later I realized that this sacramental question was dictated not by greed, not by ignorance, and not even entirely by curiosity. It's just that in each of us, even the most cynical and bitter over the years of a routine, exhausting struggle for survival, there is an indestructible romantic with huge blue eyes. And it doesn’t matter to him at all what can be bought with the gold he asked about: the very sound of the word “treasures” resounds somewhere inside in a chord so sweet and subtle that low-lying matters are far from them, like the earth’s surface from the source of the music of the spheres ...

I saw the unbearably shining eyes of the children crowding along the Neva parapets during the days of the Cutty Sark regatta: through the reflections of the colorful sails, the same romantic blueness of the unique shade of warm tropical seas splashed in these eyes. And the overtones of the trade wind ringing with shrouds and the serpentine hiss of a heavy wave ripped open by the keel, the scream of restless sailor souls in the skies and the spells of a strange bird that has seen a lot, mumbling over the ear in the night, were woven into the familiar chord:

- Piastres! Piastres! Piastres!

That is why the theme of pirates of the “classical” period at the very end of the bloody century of two world wars attracts, and will certainly still attract many generations of growing romantics with huge blue eyes: mysterious treasures, distant seas, sails, the sound of swords, strong-willed men and their royally exalted ladies hearts knighted by Sir Francis Drake and Sir Henry Morgan ... The enchanting legend woven by Byron, Poe, Sabbatini and many, many others is spiritualized and harmonious just enough to induce the wings folded behind our backs to fly, and those standing behind it the silhouette of the Last Creditor with a scythe is just so ghostly and not terrible that the blood of pirate victims seems to be nothing more than cranberry juice. And even the antagonists of the "noble robbers", with black armbands, wooden legs and a pathologically evil disposition, since the days of Stevenson, Xu and Conan Doyle fit perfectly into the overall picture: in the end, the "good guys" defeat the "bad guys", and virtue, as it should be, triumphant. In the discussion of the sublime movements of the soul, which are so lacking in our pragmatic time (however, what time is not pragmatic?), this whole myth is beautiful and necessary, and it would be a sin for me, who even now will not miss the opportunity to enjoy a good "pirate" novel, try to debunk it. However, the book you now hold in your hands is of a completely different nature. And in our preface, we will also talk about something completely different.

Usually, the idea of the phenomenon of piracy is firmly associated with the 16th-18th centuries - the time that was called “classical” a little higher. However, in reality, its origin is lost in the mists of time. The very word "pirate" firmly entered the lexicon of ancient Greek inhabitants four centuries before our era, but it had predecessors, and the heroes of Greek myths did not disdain acts of piracy - Minos, Odysseus, Hercules, Jason ... Pirate craft was already just as common then , as arable farming or cattle breeding, differing from them only in a greater degree of risk, and in the budget (as we would now say) of many Mediterranean city-states often played an even more significant role: the same Minoan Crete, for example, largely lived at the expense of sea robbery.

General history of pirates. The Life and Pirate Adventures of the Glorious Captain Singleton (compilation)

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Title: A General History of Pirates. The Life and Pirate Adventures of the Glorious Captain Singleton (compilation)

About Daniel Defoe's book A General History of Pirates. The Life and Pirate Adventures of the Glorious Captain Singleton (compilation)"

“Many things, it seems to us, have always existed. Since childhood, we have become so accustomed to Defoe that it is difficult for us to realize that there were simply no English novels before him. And before him there were no magazines in England. He founded the first weekly, The Review, which ran for ten years. For ten years, once a week, Defoe had a crazy day, besides, he wrote most of the articles himself ... "

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War, trade and piracy

Three kinds of essence one.

I. Goethe. "Faust"

- Hello. Are you digging? And how did they find a lot of gold?

- Piastres! Piastres! Piastres!

Moreover, in the Roman Digests (collections of laws), one of the laws that came to Roman law from the time of the ancient Greek sage Solon, three maritime "specializations" are listed - sailors, merchants and pirates. Let's add on our own: not just three equal professions, but three hypostases of one maritime business, and whether to be a game or a hunter on the high seas depended solely on circumstances in antiquity, and, as we will see later, in "enlightened" centuries.

No matter how eccentric it may sound, it is to piracy that the ancient Greek civilizations owe their commercial and technical flourishing at sea, just as to land raids and wars - the development of military technology, military leadership and political systems. After all, the need to protect their lives and property pushed sailors to improve ships and weapons, develop new trade routes and develop the art of navigation, develop the principles of cartography and various economic disciplines. And this inevitably led to the rapid development of navigation and trade. And here an analogy arises with the “orderlies of the forest” - wolves, which objectively contribute to the survival and prosperity of many “victim” species.

And just as an excessive increase in the number of wolves turns them from a blessing into a disaster, the excessively increased power of the pirates made them a brake instead of an incentive for development. Then the state organized a raid on them, similar to the one carried out by Gnaeus Pompey in Sicily, and the number of "orderlies of the sea" for some time was within reasonable limits. So these two processes of mutual regulation alternated from century to century, until the useful beginning of sea robbery was finally exhausted - and this was recognized only a little more than a century ago!

Finally, in addition to the progressive and "sanitary" components, in addition to the idea of plundering the loot, which is still close to many, piracy, until the most recent times of its official recognition, was associated with the slave trade. “Hunting should be done both on wild animals and on those people who, being by nature destined for submission, do not want to obey. This kind of war is inherently just." These words belong, no less, to the father of European positivist science, Aristotle, although once pirates enslaved his own teacher, Plato, and they managed to redeem him only after much trouble.

True, by the beginning of the era of the Great geographical discoveries, European piracy gradually lost its role as one of the main suppliers of "live goods" to world markets: the vast hunting grounds of Guinea, that is, almost the entire western coast of Africa, turned out to be at the service of the maritime states of Europe. The Portuguese, and then the Dutch, English, French official expeditions of slave hunters quickly drove the pirates out of this lucrative sector of trade. And yet, they managed to snatch good pieces from the sale of captured transports with black slaves, not to mention the traditional practice of ransoms for noble white captives. The other side of this topic is somewhat unexpected - the Negro slaves who fled and captured on transports turned out to be an abundant source of replenishment for the number of pirates themselves. At the same time, the crews of pirate ships, partly composed of blacks, were particularly resilient in battle: the former slaves had something to avenge, and in the event of captivity, they faced a fate much more bitter than the gallows.

Charles Johnson (Daniel Defoe)

General History of Pirates

Foreword

War, trade and piracy

Three kinds of essence one.

I. Goethe. "Faust"

- Hello. Are you digging? And how did they find a lot of gold?

- Piastres! Piastres! Piastres!

But the most important factor that shaped the main features of the piracy that we now perceive as "classic" was, of course, the discovery of America. When the newly appeared maritime states - Holland, England and France - began to timidly penetrate the ocean expanses, the world was already completely divided between the superpowers of those times: Spain and Portugal. On legal grounds, other countries could not claim the creation of overseas colonies: this state of affairs was consecrated by the bull of the Pope himself. Capture by force? It is also doubtful: the same colonies supplied silver and until then rare in Europe gold to the treasuries of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns in an endless stream, so that the war with these monsters was doomed to failure for purely economic reasons. The only way out of this vicious circle was sanctioned piracy "on a national basis."

transcript

2 Daniel Defoe A General History of Pirates Annotation A general history of the robberies and murders committed by the most notorious pirates, and of their manners, politics, and government, from the time of their first appearance on the island of Providence, in 1717, where they established their settlement, until the present year, 1724; with the addition of the amazing deeds and adventures of the female pirates Anne Bonnie and Mary Read; to which is prefaced an account of the adventures of the famous Captain Avery and his comrades, with a description of what kind of death he took in England.

3 Contents Preface 4 The Life of Captain Avery 14 The Life of Captain Martel 26 The Life of Captain Teach 30 End of Introductory Fragment. 39 3

4 Charles Johnson (Daniel Defoe) A General History of Pirates Foreword War, trade and piracy Three kinds of essence of one. I. Goethe. "Faust" Even small children probably know that archaeologists are looking for the remains of the bygone life of mankind in the earth. Shards of stone, used for hunting and fighting, processed skins and harvested crops. Nondescript fragments of rough pottery. Shapeless ruins that were once the walls of houses. More spectacular outward discoveries rarely happen: everyday life and its attributes at all times have many times exceeded the number of holidays and extraordinary objects. And yet, in all the archaeological expeditions in which I had to participate (and there were more than a dozen of them in Moldova, Ukraine, the Caucasus, and even in the Summer Garden, in the very heart of the Neva capital), residents of the surrounding area always visited the excavation site, if, of course, someone lived within the horizon. For some time, the guests quietly stood on the edge of the pit, in which dust-covered laborers swarm. And when someone straightened his aching back and walked with an unsteady gait to a tin milk can for a sip of warm, tasteless water, a short and, as it were, comical conversation was always the same: Hello. Are you digging? And how did they find a lot of gold? At first it amused me. Then it annoyed me. And only much later I realized that this sacramental question was dictated not by greed, not by ignorance, and not even entirely by curiosity. It's just that in each of us, even the most cynical and bitter over the years of a routine, exhausting struggle for survival, there is an indestructible romantic with huge blue eyes. And it doesn’t matter to him at all what can be bought with the gold he asked about: the very sound of the word “treasures” resounds somewhere inside in a chord so sweet and subtle that base matters are far from them, like the earth’s surface from the source of the music of the spheres of the Ego. I saw the unbearably shining eyes of the children crowding along the Neva parapets during the days of the Cutty Sark regatta: through the reflections of the motley sails, the same romantic blueness of the unique shade of the warm tropical seas splashed in these eyes. And the familiar chord was woven into the overtones of the trade wind ringing with shrouds and the serpentine hissing of a heavy wave ripped open by the keel, the scream of restless sailor souls in the skies and the spells of a strange bird that had seen a lot, muttering over the ear in the night: Piastre! Piastres! Piastres! That is why the theme of pirates of the “classical” period at the very end of the bloody century of two world wars attracts, and will certainly still attract many generations of growing romantics with huge blue eyes: mysterious treasures, distant seas, sails, the sound of swords, strong-willed men and their royally exalted ladies hearts knighted by Sir Francis Drake and Sir Henry Morgan An enchanting legend, woven by Byron, Poe, Sabbatini and many, many others, is spiritual and harmonious just enough to induce the wings folded behind our backs to fly, and the silhouette standing behind it The last Creditor with a scythe is just so ghostly and not terrible that the blood of pirate victims is presented as nothing more than cranberries.

5 vein juice. And even the antagonists of the "noble robbers", with black armbands, wooden legs and a pathologically evil disposition, since the days of Stevenson, Xu and Conan Doyle fit perfectly into the overall picture: in the end, the "good guys" defeat the "bad guys", and virtue, as it should be, triumphant. In the discussion of the sublime movements of the soul, which are so lacking in our pragmatic time (however, what time is not pragmatic?), this whole myth is beautiful and necessary, and it would be a sin for me, who even now will not miss the opportunity to enjoy a good "pirate" novel, try to debunk it. However, the book you now hold in your hands is of a completely different nature. And in our preface, we will also talk about something completely different. Usually, the idea of the phenomenon of piracy is firmly associated with the 16th–18th centuries, the time that was called “classical” a little higher. However, in reality, its origin is lost in the mists of time. The very word "pirate" firmly entered the lexicon of ancient Greek inhabitants four centuries before our era, but it had predecessors, and the heroes of Greek myths Minos, Odysseus, Hercules, Jason did not disdain acts of piracy. arable farming or cattle breeding, differing from them only in a greater degree of risk, and in the budget (as we would now say) of many Mediterranean city-states often played an even more significant role: the same Minoan Crete, for example, largely lived due to sea robbery . Moreover, in the Roman Digests (collections of laws), one of the laws that came to Roman law from the time of the ancient Greek sage Solon, three maritime "specializations" are listed - sailors, merchants and pirates. Let's add on our own: not just three equal professions, but three hypostases of one maritime business, and whether to be a game or a hunter on the high seas depended solely on circumstances in antiquity, and, as we will see later, in "enlightened" centuries. No matter how eccentric it may sound, it is to piracy that the ancient Greek civilizations owe their commercial and technical flourishing at sea, as well as to land raids and wars for the development of military equipment, military leadership and political systems. After all, the need to protect their lives and property pushed sailors to improve ships and weapons, develop new trade routes and develop the art of navigation, develop the principles of cartography and various economic disciplines. And this inevitably led to the rapid development of navigation and trade. And here an analogy arises with the "orderlies of the forest" wolves, which objectively contribute to the survival and prosperity of many "prey" species. And just as an excessive increase in the number of wolves turns them from a blessing into a disaster, the excessively increased power of the pirates made them a brake instead of an incentive for development. Then the state organized a raid on them, similar to the one carried out by Gnaeus Pompey in Sicily, and the number of "orderlies of the sea" for some time was within reasonable limits. So these two processes of mutual regulation alternated from century to century, until the useful beginning of sea robbery was finally exhausted, and this was recognized only a little more than a century ago! Finally, in addition to the progressive and "sanitary" components, in addition to the idea of plundering the loot, which is still close to many, piracy, until the most recent times of its official recognition, was associated with the slave trade. “Hunting should be done both on wild animals and on those people who, being by nature destined for submission, do not want to obey. This kind of war is inherently just." These words belong, no less, to the father of European positivist science, Aristotle, although 5

6 once pirates enslaved his own teacher Plato, and it was possible to redeem him only after much trouble. True, by the beginning of the era of the Great geographical discoveries, European piracy gradually lost its role as one of the main suppliers of "live goods" to world markets: the vast hunting grounds of Guinea, that is, almost the entire western coast of Africa, turned out to be at the service of the maritime states of Europe. The Portuguese, and then the Dutch, English, French official expeditions of slave hunters quickly drove the pirates out of this lucrative sector of trade. And yet, they managed to snatch good pieces from the sale of captured transports with black slaves, not to mention the traditional practice of ransoms for noble white captives. The other side of this theme, somewhat unexpectedly, fugitive and captured Negro slaves on transports turned out to be an abundant source of replenishment for the number of pirates themselves. At the same time, the crews of pirate ships, partly composed of blacks, were particularly resilient in battle: the former slaves had something to avenge, and in the event of captivity, they faced a fate much more bitter than the gallows. But the most important factor that shaped the main features of the piracy that we now perceive as "classic" was, of course, the discovery of America. When the newly appeared maritime states of Holland, England and France began to timidly penetrate the ocean expanses, the world was already completely divided between the superpowers of those times: Spain and Portugal. On legal grounds, other countries could not claim the creation of overseas colonies: this state of affairs was consecrated by the bull of the Pope himself. Capture by force? It is also doubtful: the same colonies supplied silver and until then rare in Europe gold to the treasuries of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns in an endless stream, so that the war with these monsters was doomed to failure for purely economic reasons. The only way out of this vicious circle was sanctioned piracy "on a national basis." Thus flourished the famous institution of privateering, aimed at undermining the economic power and colonial omnipotence of the Spaniards and Portuguese. And in a very short time, most of the European pirates, having oriented themselves in the situation, moved to the Caribbean Sea and to the African shores. Pirate bases began to appear in Tortuga, Providence, Madagascar, and by the middle of the 17th century, Caribbean pirates had become strong enough not only to attack Spanish treasury galleons, but also to capture entire cities on the Panama and Darien isthmuses. A golden age began in the history of piracy. In European countries contenders for equal membership in the "nautical club" this state of affairs caused twofold feelings. On the one hand, even after the death of the Great Armada, Spain remained the undisputed master of the sea, so the government of England, for example, tried not to go on the rampage and officially disowned "their" pirates. On the other hand, for the realization of the colonial aspirations of newcomers, robbery attacks on Spanish transports continued to be extremely useful. In addition, the dangers of navigation in European waters have decreased, and among the bourgeoisie, high-profile pirate campaigns against the “golden cities” of New Spain caused real surges of patriotism, sometimes even a little feverish. Yes, in public opinion, a particular living pirate formally remained an odious person, even if the state itself stopped prosecuting him. But the pirate exploits themselves, with all their blood and dirt, not only happened far from their native threshold, but also greatly fueled the feeling of national pride. It is no coincidence that it was in the 16th and 17th centuries in England that books of a hitherto unknown genre began to be printed - travel diaries and memoirs of pirates, which were invariably used.

7 were a certain reader demand. And, finally, in 1678 in Holland, and soon in a number of other European countries, an essay appeared that laid the foundation for an extensive family of books on the history of piracy "Pirates of America" by A. Exkvemelin. It is still not known for certain which name was encrypted in this anagram. However, all historians agree that under the pseudonym "A. Exquemelin" was hiding a French doctor who, by the will of fate, became a buccaneer in Tortuga and was directly involved in the famous Panamanian campaigns of Henry Morgan. Returning to Europe in 1674, Exquemelin took up medical practice in Amsterdam, and at his leisure wrote down what he found interesting from his observations of nature, the customs and customs of the Caribbean, from his experience as a buccaneer and participant in pirate attacks, interspersing ethnography and naturalistics with lengthy biographies of Caribbean pirates. It was this book that not only preserved in history, but also strongly singled out the names of L Ollone and Rock the Brazilian from the general series of pirates of the 17th century, immortalized the living details of Morgan's expeditions. "Pirates of America" caused a sensation in Europe. In a matter of months, the book was translated and republished in Germany, Spain, England, and France. It is characteristic of that time that the translators edited The Pirates in the spirit of their national predilections; as a result, if the Dutch text depicted the atrocities of the Spaniards in the New World, then in its Spanish version the Spaniards were exposed as innocent sheep, and the English pirates, and especially Morgan himself, were bloody monsters. This circumstance might not have been of particular interest to you and me if the English translation of the book had not been made from Spanish. But this is exactly what happened, and this circumstance in a certain way influenced the formation of the entire “pirate” genre. In 1724, a book appeared on the shelves of London bookstores, which was destined for the ambiguous fate of the “gray eminence” of literature about pirates, Captain Charles Johnson, “The General History of Pirates”. It outlined the biographies of ten Caribbean pirates of the 1710s. Like Pirates of America, the book was a huge success with readers: soon the second and third editions were published, supplemented by new biographies, and in 1728 the second volume of the General History appeared, telling about the pirates of the Indian Ocean. Many details of the style of the "History" indicate that its author took the work of Exquemelin as a model. The same topicality, since the book dealt with the events of several recent years. The same slightly dry, and at times deliberately impassive language of an outside observer-chronist. The same abundance of small everyday details and at the end of the book, for greater similarity, even a lengthy “Description” sewn into the fabric of the presentation, which tells about the natural and geographical features of the islands of Sao Tome and Principe: undoubtedly curious, but, unlike “Pirates of America” , which has almost nothing to do with the main text. Finally, impressive pictures of the atrocities of English pirates (and all the main characters of the "History" are English), which continued the tradition laid down, as we already know, by the light hand of the Spanish translator Exquemelin. And yet, what gave Johnson's book a special value in the eyes of his contemporaries and even more valuable today was an undoubted find of the author: reliance on documentary evidence. It is unlikely that the general public could have had the opportunity to read a letter from the captain of a merchant ship detailing the brutal battle he fought with two pirate ships. Or the original text of the speech with which the king's judge addressed the captured pirate before announcing his death sentence. In some places, Johnson's "History" even resembles a certain statistical report, with such scrupulousness it lists data on ships captured by pirates: type, name, captain's name, number of guns, crew size. Access to such 7

8 kind of information Exkvemelin, for obvious reasons, could not have. But in his book there is something that Johnson does not have: the experience of an eyewitness and a direct participant in the events described. Charles Johnson was not such an eyewitness, and he could draw the living details of what he wrote about only from the memories of other people. This is apparently the source of the numerous minor inaccuracies and lacunae that plague parts of the text that are not based on documents. Hence, there is some fog in the descriptions of the places of action: the author often has a poor idea of who, where and in relation to what is moving. But this is not the main drawback of "History of Pirates" from the point of view of the historian: after decades, it gradually became clear that many of the details in the description of the characters, not to mention the dialogues, Johnson simply invented! The apotheosis of the author's dishonesty turned out to be that the biographies of the female pirates Mary Reid and Anne Bonny were fictionalized by him from the beginning and almost to the end. Such things, as you know, do not fit well in the heads of professional historians. And the "General History of Pirates" went into the shadows. Of course, it was impossible to completely ignore it: both a hundred and two hundred years after the writing of this book, it was much more important for an ordinary reader to feel captured by her strangely ordinary events in their cruelty than to meticulously find out the authenticity of this or that detail. In addition, very, very much of the information contained in the "History" not only did not suffer from the intervention of the author's imagination, but is also absent from all other sources. And if this information were withdrawn from historical use, gaping gaps that would not be filled in any way would be formed in their place. Therefore, professionals involved in the history of piracy (and such appeared already by the end of the 1700s) chose the Solomonic solution. Information (and sometimes myths) from the "History of Pirates" has been used in all books on this topic for two and a half centuries. The "History of Pirates" itself as a source of this information is not mentioned almost anywhere. So, due to his own dishonesty, Charles Johnson became the "grey eminence" of the history of piracy. However, as I have already said, only historians reproached Captain Johnson for dishonesty, and in their own way they are, of course, right. But is this correctness absolute? After all, even without speaking more about the certain slyness of the representatives of historical science, one should recognize the "History" and undoubted literary value. Could it not happen that the "factual forgery" made by the author was dictated not by his evil will, but by some more respectful circumstances? In order to fairly answer this question, it was necessary first to understand what kind of person Captain Charles Johnson was. But when they began to understand, it turned out that such a person simply does not exist. When it was established that Captain Charles Johnson was not listed in the archival lists of the Maritime Ministry of Great Britain, many researchers reasonably assumed that in this the author of the History followed in the footsteps of his predecessor A. Exquemelin, and, also being a pirate in the past, published a book under alias. Such a hypothesis explained Johnson's exceptional knowledge of the details of the life of the pirates of the 1710s, but left open both the question of his honesty and how the former pirate could have accessed the documents. The mystery of Charles Johnson's personality remained a mystery until 1932, when the American literary scholar John Moore published an article analyzing The History of the Pirates. John Moore suggested that behind the pseudonym "Captain Johnson" was the English writer Daniel Defoe, the world-famous author of "Robinson Crusoe". To confirm his hypothesis, he had to do a lot of work. The scientist found documents from which it followed that in the late 1710s and early 1720s, when the “General History of Pirates” was being written, Defoe was keenly interested in shipbuilding and sailing.

9 niem. During these years, he actively wrote on pirate topics and published several books, although less documentary than "History", but dedicated to the same people and based on the same sources. After conducting a textual analysis of some of the works of Daniel Defoe and several chapters from the "History of Pirates", Moore showed that in some cases their texts are absolutely identical, and the biography of the pirate John Gow, which appeared in the third edition of "History", was a simple processing of Defoe's pamphlet, published by a few months earlier. There is nothing surprising in the fact that the writer published the "History" under a pseudonym. Of the hundreds of books and articles written after 1710, he published only two works under his real name, and of all his works (there are more than 500 of them), only about a dozen. At present, John Moore's hypothesis has become universally recognized outside of Russia. However, in our country to this day there are books, including well-known and respected authors of popular books on the history of piracy, where Captain Charles Johnson's "History of Pirates" is presented as an essay from which Daniel Defoe drew factual material for his works on a pirate theme. The beauty of the situation lies in the fact that some of the authors at the same time restrained, but unambiguously reproaches Defoe for plagiarism. Let's hope that now that the book is finally published in Russian, such misunderstandings will become a thing of the past. Although Daniel Defoe “came out” on the pirate theme quite by accident, the very appeal to it was completely natural: here, as it were, two parallel current aspects of his life merged together. One way or another, everyone knows about one of these sides, because who else in school years did not read any of the editions of Robinson Crusoe, and therefore the preface to it? A brilliant and very prolific satirist who published his first political pamphlet at the age of 23, and the last at the age of seventy-one, a few months before his death, was repeatedly arrested, fined for his work, and once even sentenced to stand at the pillory. Publisher of the weekly "Review" and the newspaper "Political Mercury", journalist and editor. The author of numerous works on the history of Great Britain and the first fictionalized biography of Tsar Peter I of Muscovy. Finally, the creator of 18 novels, the first of which, published when Defoe was already 59 years old, immortalized his name. The second side of his activity is less known to our reader. 18-year-old Daniel, who was preparing to take the priesthood, abandons this career and begins to engage in various kinds of trade, including those related to the import and export of goods to America (this is where, it turns out, the first thread of his interest in the problems of maritime communications comes from). In the summer of 1685, he participates in the uprising of the Protestant Duke of Monmouth, and three years later he contacts William of Orange, the pretender to the English throne, and even becomes part of his retinue during the Duke's trip to Ireland in June 1690. Then comes the first collapse on commercial grounds : in 1692, Defoe, who by that time was engaged in insurance of ships, was ruined due to their frequent death (there was a war for the Palatinate inheritance); the amount of debt is pounds. Now all his commercial projects will be connected with land. In his fifties, having endured a series of fines and prison sentences associated with both a sharp pen and commercial failures, Defoe comes to direct cooperation with the government. At the end of 1704, he was released from prison, his debts were paid by the crown, and the pamphleteer himself became a propagandist and informer, first under the Tory government, and from 1715 under the new Whig government. Such a change in status 9

10 not only did not interfere with his fertility as a pamphleteer, as already mentioned above, but apparently helped him to appear in a new capacity as a writer of novels. Some of them lay in a drawer for many years: The Joys and Sorrows of the Famous Moll Flanders, a novel published in 1722, dated, for example, 1683! And if you look at the themes of Defoe's major works as a whole, then you are once again convinced how wrong the conventional wisdom about the "specialization" of writers is. There is a well-known anecdote about Queen Victoria, who, having come to the delight of Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, demanded all his writings and received a pile of mathematical treatises. An anecdote is an anecdote: Carroll had enough poetry collections, short stories, and even novels. But only a children's fairy tale is widely known and loved. Something of the sort happened to Defoe. If you look for analogies to his creative passions, Vladimir Gilyarovsky is the first to come to mind. "Uncle Gilyai", the singer of the Moscow slums and the coryphaeus of Russian journalism, was keenly interested in the inhabitants of the world of loaders, cabbies, thieves and beggars. Defoe was just as interested in the world of London prostitutes (remember the same "Moll Flanders"), swindlers and adventurers. And pirates. The position of a government informer, presumably, provided him with every opportunity to collect the necessary information, and the instinct of a person who writes did not allow him to neglect such a storehouse of plots and topics. Therefore, "Robinson Crusoe" and its two sequels, practically unknown to the reading public in Russia, stand apart in his work, like Carroll's "Alice" and "Through the Looking-Glass". But a good half of Defoe's major works are related to the pirate theme, and all of them were written after 1718: "The Pirate King", whose hero was Henry Avery (published in 1719), "The Life and Pirate Adventures of Captain Singleton" (1720), The History of Colonel Jack (1722), A New Voyage Around the World (1724), Four Years' Travels (1726), Madagascar, or the Diary of Robert Drury (1729) Of course, the History of Pirates should be included here; and Robinson Crusoe. The latter may seem somewhat strange, although there is an episode in Robinson in which the hero is captured by pirates. In order to dispel the bewilderment, and at the same time try to explain Defoe's sudden interest in the activities of pirates (which arose a decade and a half after the writer could last face its consequences), we will have to change the subject again. Where did pirates come from in the 16th and 18th centuries? As usual, here you can find several sources and several reasons. If you look closely at the periods of ups and downs of piracy activity, it turns out that its bursts occur at the end of major wars between the maritime powers of Europe. Defoe in The History of the Pirates is very precise about this. Indeed, people with an adventurous streak, not too concerned about the cleanliness of their gloves, during the next war received an excellent opportunity to legally satisfy both their passion for adventure and their thirst for profit by obtaining a letter of marque. When the war ended, most of them, having become addicted to, but having no more legal grounds for sea robbery, began to engage in it illegally. After some time, the government had to once again undertake a demonstrative cleaning of pirate nests. (Just about one such period, which was destined to become the last peak in history of massive pirate activity in the Caribbean Sea and off the coast of Africa and India, and tells the "General History of Pirates".) The second source today may seem quite unexpected: sailors and even officers ships hijacked by pirates. But let us turn again to the dry statistics given by Defoe on the pages of this book. In the chapter "The Life of Captain England", in the list of 10

11 ships captured by this pirate from March 25 to June 27, 1719, we read: "Eagle" 17 people of team 7 became pirates; "Charlotte" 18 people 13 became pirates; "Sarah" 18 people 3 became pirates; "Bentworth" 30 people 12 became pirates; "Deer" 2 people, and both became pirates; "Carteret" 18 people 5 became pirates; "Mercury" 18 people 5 became pirates; "Shy" 13 people 4 became pirates; "Elizabeth and Catherine" 14 people 4 became pirates. It turns out that the pirate freemen, along with the noose looming in the future, was preferred by every third, and even a little more! We can talk a lot here about the social situation that provoked such decisions, but this would lead us far astray, and it has already been noted more than once. You can give a few more sources of replenishment of the pirate ranks. And yet more important, in our opinion, are the questions “who?” and why?" move to another plane. After all, the “trinity” of the maritime professions of a merchant, sailor and pirate has not been canceled, it has not only been preserved since ancient times, but also acquired a fourth hypostasis: a pioneer of newly discovered lands. And the New World with its gold, Indians, pioneers and filibusters turned out to be the valve through which people with the same general quality escaped from aging Europe: those whom Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov called "passionaries". It was here that their irrepressible energy could be used, and to direct it to destruction or creation depended on the circumstances. One of these people, whose name is often mentioned on the pages of the History of Pirates, was the reason for such a seemingly distant digression from the topic. The English privateer Woods Rogers, a hereditary sea captain, first sent privateers on raids against French ships, and when the British government stopped demanding 20 percent of the cost of production from privateers, he himself went hunting. Leading a flotilla of two frigates, in September 1708 he headed for the Pacific Ocean and after a brief stop at the Juan Fernandez Islands, capturing several Spanish and French ships along the way, in May 1709 he unexpectedly attacked the port of Guayaquil and plundered it. In January 1710, he captured the Manila galleon, an unrealizable dream of the vast majority of Caribbean pirates, and was wounded by a musket bullet in the upper jaw, but only three days later he tried to capture another galleon. During this fight, a piece of shrapnel knocked out a piece of Rogers' heel bone and cut off more than half of his leg under the ankle. The second tidbit could not be captured. However, the already captured good was more than enough to pay for the expedition. In October 1711, the ships returned to England, and in 1712, Rogers' book "A Voyage Around the World" was published, based on diary entries. Some researchers believe that the book was edited by Daniel Defoe. But we will return to this episode a little later. In the years Rogers transported slaves from Africa to Sumatra, and at the end of 1717, at the request of planters from the Bahamas, he was proclaimed the first royal governor of the island of New Providence, the main Caribbean base of pirates of those years. Appearing in the Bahamas in July of the following year, he managed to force some of the pirates to lay down their arms in exchange for a royal amnesty, dispersed the rest, and hanged some. Pirates began to bypass New Providence. However, the metropolis did not provide any support to the governor's activities, and in 1721 Rogers went to London for help. He failed to get money to protect the island (now from the Spaniards), went bankrupt and ended up in a debtor's prison. He was reinstated as governor only in 1728, and four years later Woods Rogers died in New Providence. Unfortunately, I do not know for certain how close Defoe's acquaintance with Woodes Rogers was. But the fact that such an acquaintance was and lasted for many years, I have no doubts. It has already been mentioned above that Defoe is believed to have edited

12 edited Rogers' book. But this book says, in particular, about a stop at the Juan Fernandez Islands, and about a pirate landed by his comrades on one of the islands and picked up by Captain Rogers. This pirate was named Alexander Selkirk, and after a few years he became known throughout England, and then to the whole world, under the name of Robinson Crusoe. After Rogers' trip to London in 1721, Defoe had enough material about the pirates of the Caribbean at his disposal to write a whole series of books. And all these pirates are from among the “offended” by the governor of New Providence in 1718, which Defoe always mentions in their biographies from the General History. Of course, the final judgment on the connection between these two people can only be made after a thorough study of the topic. But I think that even now we can safely say: Defoe's interest in the life and work of pirates, a number of his novels, which opens with the immortal "Robinson", "The General History of Pirates" with its unique historical data, all this is just a reflected light of the passionarity of Captain Woods Rogers. But let's give credit to the author. Let's not talk about novels that have their time and their place. As for The General History of Pirates, in this book the aged rebel and informer managed to convey to us what no one else could. Let at times dry protocol facts and his own wild fantasies mix in his head, the desire to create a reliable picture of events and the senile tendency to write didactic "life experiences" (but in this sense, the biblical "Book of Wisdom of Solomon" is no different, say, from the third volumes of Robinson!). Defoe did the main thing: he fixed ordinary piracy for centuries. Reading Exquemelin, we can imagine that the whole life of a pirate consisted of the capture of cities, caravans of gold, gigantic fleets of many hundreds of boarding sabers. On the pages of the "History of Pirates" we see the truth: "workdays" with regular cleaning of the bottoms, captures of small boats and going to the blocked port for medicines; with ship prostitutes, captured along with pirates and therefore became a historical myth, and household robbery of food; with the deposition of the captains and a stampede from military patrol ships All this carries the unique flavor of authenticity, and is presented in such a way that layers of the author's tribute to the Imagination not only do not interrupt it, but in an incomprehensible way set off and enrich it. And a strange thing: while working on the translation, I kept sarcastic to myself, calling The History of Pirates a "manufacturing novel." And the huge blue eyes of the one sitting inside, for some reason, flared up brighter and brighter. Explanations of some cultural realities, brief biographical notes, and other things that, in the opinion of the translator, might be of interest to the reader, are given in the notes (they are partly placed at the bottom of the pages, partly at the end of each chapter). Geographical names, nautical terms, ancient measures of weight, length, etc., as well as monetary units, are separated into special appendices for ease of use. The translator expresses sincere and deep gratitude to E. N. Malskaya for the enormous technical assistance in preparing the translation; E. V. Kislenkova, Academic Director of the Educacenter, for effective assistance in a critical situation; employee of the National Library of Russia M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, historian M. A. Govorun for help in working with reference literature and searching for visual materials; S. V. Lobachev, Candidate of Historical Sciences, for providing materials that were partially used in the preparation of this book. 12

13 Igor Malsky 13

14 The Life of Captain Avery There has never been a man among the brave adventurers who would have caused so much talk in his time as Captain Avery. A lot of noise was raised around him, as now around Meriweis, and he was revered as a very important person. It was said in Europe that he elevated himself to royal dignity and became the founder of a new monarchy, that he plundered untold riches and married the daughter of the Great Mogul 1, whom he captured on an Indian ship that fell into his hands, and that from her he had many children who were endowed with royal privileges and surrounded by great luxury. It was also said that he built forts and artillery cellars and commanded a squadron of ships, the crews of which he recruited from dexterous and desperate guys of all nationalities; that he gave orders in his own name to captains of ships and commanders of forts, who revered him for their sovereign. A play was even written about him called The Lucky Pirate.2 All these stories were treated with full confidence, so that several plans were submitted to the Council3 for how to equip a squadron to catch him; others proposed to declare an amnesty for him and his comrades and invite them to England with all their treasures, for they feared that his growing power would interfere with trade between Europe and the East Indies. However, all this was nothing more than empty rumors, fueled by the gullibility of some and the irresponsibility of others, who loved to tell all sorts of wonderful stories, for at the very time when they said that he was coveting the royal crown, he asked for alms, and when rumors spread, that he owns great wealth in Madagascar, he was starving to death in England. Undoubtedly, the reader will be curious to know what happened to this man and what was the true background of such numerous and unreliable news concerning his life, so I, as briefly as possible, will tell his story. Avery was born in the west of England, near Plymouth, in Devonshire. Having studied maritime affairs, he served as an assistant captain on a merchant ship and took part in several commercial voyages. It so happened (and this happened even before the Peace of Ryswick 4, when the alliance of Spain, England, Holland and other powers against France was in effect) that the French from Martinique carried on smuggling trade with the Spaniards on the Peruvian coast, which, according to the laws of Spain, was forbidden even to friends in peacetime, because no one, except the Spaniards themselves, was allowed to visit those places or go ashore, under fear of any 1 Great Mogul title of the supreme dynastic ruler of the Mughal (Mongolian) empire, the largest power of India, which was formed after the collapse of the Delhi Sultanate in 1526 The Mughal dynasty ruled until 1761. In the 17th century. The Mughal Empire included most of India. In the XVIII century. broke up into a number of states, which in the XVIII XIX centuries. were captured by the British. During the period covered by the "History of Pirates", the following Mughals ruled: Aurangzeb (), Bahadur I (), Jahandar Shah (), Farruk Sayyar (), Mahammed Shah (). 2 A play by Charles Johnson (). Staged in 1712 at the Drury Lane Theatre, published in 1713. It was a reworking of a tragedy of the 16th century. with the addition of comic and satirical elements. The plot is based on London gossip about Captain Avery. It is noteworthy that it was under the name of Charles Johnson that Defoe published The General History of Pirates. 3 In this case, we mean the State Council, an elected executive and legislative body of the British government, which included ministers. Since the 1660s, such Councils, endowed with local powers, were elected in all English colonial possessions and attached to the governors of the colonies appointed by the mother country. 4 In September-October 1697, a peace treaty was concluded in the Dutch village of Risvik (Rijswijk), which ended the War of the Palatinate Succession (gg.) between France and the Augsburg League, which included England, Holland, Spain, Sweden and the emperor of the "Holy Roman Empire" Leopold I. 14

15 minutes to be taken into custody. Wherefore the Spaniards constantly kept several ships there, which cruised along the coast, and were called the Guarda del Costa 5, to which orders were given to seize all ships that they encountered less than five leagues from the coast. The French, however, became adept at that trade, while the Spaniards did not have enough ships, and those that they had were poorly armed. And it often happened that when the Spaniards ran into French smugglers 6, they did not have enough strength to attack them, for which reason Spain decided to take into service two or three foreign ships. When this became known in Bristol, several merchants from that city equipped two ships, with more than thirty cannons 7 and with a crew of 120 people each, supplying them with plenty of provisions and ammunition, and all other necessary supplies. The deal was approved by the Spanish agents, and the ships were ordered to sail for A Coruña, or, in our opinion, the Groyn, where they were to receive further instructions and take on board several Spanish gentlemen bound for New Spain. On one of those ships that I will call the Duke and captained by Commander Gibson, Avery served as first mate. another ship, as well as the one on board of which he himself was. He ascertained their intentions before revealing his own to them, and, making sure that they were quite suitable for the implementation of his plan, he invited them at last to escape on one of the ships, captivating them with stories of what riches should await them on the shores of India. And as soon as he said this, how easily he enlisted their support, and it was decided to carry out this plan at ten o'clock in the evening of the next day. It must be said that the captain of the ship was a passionate lover of punch 9, and therefore spent most of his time on the shore, in taverns. However, that day he did not go ashore as usual, which, nevertheless, did not prevent his addiction. He took his usual dose of alcohol on board and went to bed before the hour for which the venture was scheduled. Those sailors who were not involved in the plot also dispersed into hammocks, so that there was no one left on deck except the conspirators, who actually made up the majority of the crew. At the appointed time, a Dutch longboat appeared, which Avery greeted in the proper way. In response, the sailors from the longboat asked: “Is your drunken boatswain on board?” It was a password agreed between them in advance, and Avery answered in the affirmative. The launch stood side by side with the ship, and sixteen strong guys joined the conspirators. When our sudars saw that everything went smoothly, they battened down the hatches and set to work. They did not poison the anchor rope, but slowly raised the anchor, and thus went out to sea without any excitement or fuss, although there were several ships in the bay - 5 Guarda del Costa (Spanish) Coast Guard. 6 Smuggler ship of smugglers. Smugglers caused considerable damage to the monopoly of trading companies, and in the colonies they were fought with no less, and often more severely, than with pirates. 7 This refers to large-caliber guns, since the ships were equipped according to the “frigate” class. In general, the following types of guns were installed on the ships of that time: half-guns (caliber 6.75 inches, core weight 30.5 English pounds), petra (24 pounds), basilisks (15 pounds), sakars (3.5 inches, 5 pounds) and small swivel guns minions, faucons (falconets), serpentines, rabanes (the weight of the core of the last two is only half a pound). The number of gun servants depended on the caliber of the guns. 8 That is, he was a lieutenant, the second person on the ship. The events described took place in June 1694. 9 Punch is a strong alcoholic drink that appeared in the 17th century. Punch was based on rum or alcohol, to which sugar, spices and sometimes lemon were added. Punch ingredients were mixed in bowls and drunk hot or cold from scoops. Punch was usually prepared at friendly parties. It was very popular among British and American sailors (including pirates), from whom land dwellers adopted the addiction to this drink. fifteen

16 lei, among which was a forty-gun Dutch frigate. His captain was offered a large reward if he set off in pursuit of them, but myncher 10, who, apparently, did not want to serve anyone but himself, did not succumb to persuasion, leaving this opportunity to someone else, thanks to which he allowed Mr. Avery to follow any course he pleases. In the meantime, either from the pitching, or from the noise while working with the rigging, the captain woke up and rang the bell. Avery with two accomplices entered the cabin, where the captain, half asleep and a little frightened, asked them: What is going on here? Nothing, Avery replied coolly. What's with the ship, why such a pitching? What's the weather like? asked the captain, who thought that a storm had broken out and the ship had been blown off anchor. No, no, replied Avery, we went to sea. The wind is fair and the weather is great. In the sea? exclaimed the captain. Can not be! Come on, Avery said, and don't be afraid. Put on some clothes and I'll tell you our secret. Know that now I am the captain of the ship, and this is my cabin, so you had better leave it. I'm heading to Madagascar 11, where I want to try my luck, and all these fellows have joined me. The captain gradually came to his senses and began to understand what was happening. However, he was still very scared. Noticing this, Avery said that he had nothing to fear and that if he wanted to join them, they would gladly accept him. In time, if he stopped drinking and managed his duties, he might be made a lieutenant. If he does not want to, then a boat has already been launched into the water, which is ready to deliver him to the shore. The captain was glad to hear this and accepted the second offer, after which the whole team was called to find out who wanted to go ashore with the captain, and who wanted to try their luck with the others. There were only five or six people who did not want to participate in this undertaking. At the same moment they and the captain were put into the boat, leaving them to get to the shore on their own. The conspirators continued on their way to Madagascar. I don't know if they captured any ships along the way 12 ; but when they arrived at the north-east end of island 13, they found two sloops anchored there. Seeing the ship, they cut the ropes on the sloops and rushed to the shore; all the people landed on land and hid in the forest. These sloops were stolen in the West Indies, and, seeing Avery's ship, the sailors decided that this frigate was sent in pursuit of them, and since they had no strength to resist it, they had no choice but to flee. Thinking about where they could hide, Avery sent several people ashore to tell them that they came in peace and that they could join the crew of the frigate for the sake of everyone's safety. The sailors from the sloops were well armed; they took refuge in 10 Corrupted Dutch Mein Herr, respectful address, lit. "my Lord". In this context, Defoe uses it ironically. In general, throughout the book it is noticeable that the Dutch do not enjoy the sympathy of the author. 11 By mentioning this island, Avery already told the captain by this alone that he decided to become a pirate: at that time Madagascar was considered the main pirate base of the South Atlantic, ideal for intercepting ships en route around Africa to the Red Sea and India. 12 According to some sources, on the way, Avery robbed three British ships off Cape Verde and sank two Dutch ships off Sao Tome. 13 More precisely, Avery's ship arrived at Johanna Island (Comoros). sixteen

17 in the woods and posted sentries who watched people disembark from the ship. However, they saw only two or three people, moreover, unarmed, who did not intend to fight them at all, but only shouted that they had come in peace and that they were ready to take them to the ship, where they could explain themselves. At first the sailors thought that this was a cunning trick, but when the messengers said that the captain himself and as many members of the crew as they themselves allowed were ready to meet them on the shore without weapons, they believed in the sincerity of their intentions and soon came to a mutual agreement. A few people from the ship went ashore, and a few sailors from the sloops sailed to the ship 14. The latter were delighted with their new partners, since their ships were small and they could not attack an armed ship, so so far they have not been able to capture any significant booty. But now they were full of hopes to get involved in a big game. Avery was also pleased with the replenishment with which he could strengthen his team, and although the share of booty per each should now decrease 15, he nevertheless decided that all means were good to achieve the goal, and he himself would not allow himself to be deprived. After conferring what to do next, they decided to set sail in galley 16 and two sloops and immediately set to work in order to bring the sloops out of the surf, which was soon done. The flotilla headed for the Arabian coast. Near the mouth of the Indus River, the marshal noticed a sail from the top of the mast, after which they rushed in pursuit and, approaching it, they saw that it was a large ship, perhaps some Dutch merchant ship returning home from the East Indies. But fate has prepared for them the best gift. When they opened fire to stop this ship, they raised the flag of the Great Mogul on it and seemed to prepare for defense. Avery only fired at the ship from a long distance, 17 and some of his sailors began to realize that their captain was by no means such a hero as he first seemed. However, at this time the sloops came into play. One of them approached the ship from the bow, the other from the stern, they attacked it and boarded it, after which the ship immediately lowered the flag and surrendered. It was one of the personal ships of the Great Mogul 18, and on board were several high court officials, and among them, as they said, one of the daughters of the Mogul, who made a pilgrimage to Mecca 19. Mohammedans believe that each of them is obliged once in a lifetime visit this place, and go there with rich gifts, which they lay at the tomb of Mohammed. It is known that the inhabitants of the East travel with extraordinary pomp, take with them all their slaves and servants, luxurious clothes and jewelry, load their ships with gold and silver, and 14 According to other sources, Johannes Avery captured a French pirate ship with booty, most of the defeated joined his team. The crew of the second sloop, apparently a breakaway part of the crew of Thomas Tew (which will be discussed below). 15 All booty on pirate ships was divided into parts (shares), usually from the following calculation: ordinary members of the crew 1 share; junior officers from a share and a quarter to 1, 5; the captain and the navigator each got 2 shares (but sometimes the captain's share reached 4 and even 8). Wounds and injuries received in battle were compensated in fixed amounts, which were paid before the start of the division. The specific amounts of compensation and proportions of shares were stipulated in an agreement (“agreement”), which, when forming a team, was signed by all its members. 16 Defoe's mistake. As he himself writes elsewhere in the book, Avery had a frigate. 17 The range of cannons in those days did not exceed 300 steps (about 200 m), and the rate of fire and hit accuracy were very low. Therefore, pirates usually used airborne cannon volleys only to intimidate the victim, relying solely on boarding combat. 18 Avery captured the Gang-i-Sawai, the largest ship of the Great Mogul, carrying between 400 and 500 soldiers and 80 cannons. This battle lasted two hours, and both sides lost many people killed. 19 The fact that the daughter of the Great Mogul was on board the Ganges is most likely a legend. In addition to 5 million rupees in silver and gold from the trading season on the shores of the Red Sea, the ship was carrying back to India several noble women pilgrims returning from Mecca. However, in the surviving report of the Indian historian, describing in detail the capture of this ship, no relatives of the padishah are mentioned. This is not mentioned in other sources either. 17

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Programmed dictation Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) Born in Genoa. Appointed commander of the fleet in Spain. In 1492 1493 led a Spanish expedition to find the shortest route to India. On 3 caravels

Dear Guys! This year you begin to study the history of our multinational Motherland Russia. The textbook you hold in your hands covers the period from ancient times to the end of the 16th century. It tells

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Page: 1 TEST 25 Last name, first name Read the text. Class DISCOVERY OF ANTARCTIS Even in ancient times, people believed that in the southern polar region lies a large, unexplored land. The brave sailors went

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How the wolf got his bottom "wait but" whose fox "went" to the ay "l 1 for the chicken. She "went" there "because" she "really wanted" to eat. In au "le fox" stole "la * sa" most big "yu ku" ritsu and would "stro-by" quickly run "la to

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Page: 1 TEST 9 Last name, first name Class Read the text. HOW CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS DISCOVERED AMERICA Christopher Columbus was born in 1451 to a family of weavers in the Italian city of Genoa. He began to go to sea as a teenager.

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Chapter 2 Overcoming the Fear of Negotiation The secret to a good deal is simple. Ask. Ask to lower the price or improve the terms of the contract. Ask for changes to the agreement. Ask for discounts, rebates or extra

Lesson 46 1. -From what line, a descendant, was Jesus? -From the line of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. 2. From which line of the Jewish king, a descendant, was Jesus also? -From the line of King David. 3. What does the name Christ mean for