Introduction to linguistics: a course of lectures. Language and cognition
V. I. KODUHOV
INTRODUCTION
LINGUISTICS
Approved by the Ministry of Education of the USSR
as a textbook for students of pedagogical institutes in the specialty No. 2101 “Russian Language and Literature”
MOSCOW "ENLIGHTENMENT"
Reviewers: Dr.
Philology, Professor of the Russian Language Department
MOP I them. N. K. Krupskoy N. A. K o n d r a t o v; PhD in Philology, Associate Professor of the Russian Language Department of the Cherepovets Pedagogical Institute M. I. Sidorenko
Kodukhov V.I.
K57 Introduction to linguistics: Proc. for students ped. in-t on spec. No. 2101 “Rus. lang. or T." - 2nd ed., revised. and additional .- M: Education, 1987.- 288 p.: ill.
The textbook on introduction to linguistics covers all the topics of the new program for this course. The book consists of four parts, which consistently talk about linguistics as a science, the social nature of the language and the laws of its historical development, the language system, and the classification of languages. In the second edition, changes and abbreviations have been made to all sections of the textbook, attention has been paid to materials on the Russian language.
4309000000 − 370 | − 13− 86 | |||
103 − 87 |
||||
Publishing house "Enlightenment", 1987
Foreword
"Introduction to Linguistics" outlines the main problems of the science of language, without knowing which it is impossible to comprehend the individual sections of this science. Language and society, language and thinking, the interaction of languages and the patterns of their development, the literary languages of the national and pre-national periods, the principles of language classification - understanding all these and many other linguistic problems is extremely important for anyone who seeks to understand the essence of language, to understand how language functions in society, what is its role in human life, what is the essence of the laws of language development. Without knowledge of these issues, it is impossible to learn any language.
It is no coincidence that the course "Introduction to Linguistics" is the first in the system of all linguistic disciplines studied in pedagogical institutes. It helps the first-year student to understand the essence of each linguistic discipline.
General linguistic training is necessary for a teacher of the Russian language and literature in a secondary school. Without a broad philological education, without linguistic training, the creative activity of a teacher in the field of teaching and educating the younger generation is impossible.
The textbook is written in accordance with the requirements of the new program, the logic of building the course itself and consists of an introduction and three main parts. The introduction provides information about linguistics as a science and its main sections and aspects. In the first part, the nature of the language, its origin and the laws of historical development are revealed. The second part highlights the main issues of the branches of the science of language that study the components of the language system. The third part examines the existing classifications of languages, their typology and main families. Thus, a broad picture of linguistic knowledge unfolds before students.
A list of additional readings is provided at the end of each chapter. Acquaintance with these books will help the student to understand more deeply the essence of individual problems that are covered in the textbook only in general terms, as well as the range of problems and the methodology for presenting complex issues of linguistics in popular science literature. The lists of additional literature do not include books and articles published by local publishers or that have become a bibliographic rarity. The textbooks and teaching aids indicated in the programs are also not named here.
Additional literature can be used by a student on the recommendation of a teacher who teaches the course, or at his own choice - if he wants to deepen and expand his knowledge on any particular issue, when writing abstracts (special questions), reports.
To facilitate the work on the assimilation of linguistic terminology, a glossary of basic linguistic terms is placed at the end of the book. It is at the same time a reference, since it contains a link to a page where the named concept is explained.
On the endpapers there are maps of the languages of the world and the political and administrative division of our country. Each of the cards will help visualize the spread of languages, make students' knowledge concrete and solid.
A number of reviews were published for the first edition of "Introduction to Linguistics" in domestic and foreign journals; the author received many letters. In reviews and letters, the textbook received a generally positive assessment, but at the same time, wishes and criticisms were expressed aimed at further improvement of the textbook. These recommendations and advice were taken into account in the preparation of the second edition.
Reworking the text of the textbook, while maintaining the composition and the general methodological concept, the author revised all sections and paragraphs. This was done in order to bring the text of the textbook in line with the new program, as well as to implement the suggestions and wishes expressed in reviews and at conferences where the textbook was discussed. In the second edition, materials on the history of linguistics have been abbreviated, the entire third part - “Classification of Languages” has been substantially revised, information on grammar has been significantly changed and reduced. In the second chapter, devoted to the consideration of language as the most important means of human communication, information about the functions of language and language units, about the unity of language and consciousness, about language situations is supplemented. In addition, the factual material throughout the tutorial has been updated.
The author expresses his gratitude to all those who assisted in the preparation of the second edition, including R. A. Budagov, E. M. Vereshchagin, and K. S. Gorb 3. Zakaev, L. 3. Shakirova, I. S. Kulikova, T. G. Pono-marenko, V. M. R u sanovskii V. I. Kononenko. The author is sincerely grateful to the official reviewers of the second edition of the textbook
Doctor of Philology, Professor of the Department of the Russian Language, Moscow Regional Pedagogical Institute. N. K. Krupskoy N. A. Kondrashov and candidate
Philology, Associate Professor of the Department of the Russian Language, Cherepovets Pedagogical Institute. A. V. Lunacharsky m I. Sidorenko, as well as candidates of philological sciences, associate professors of the department of general linguistics of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. V. I. Lenin S. A. Polkovnikova and M. Yu. , eliminate inaccuracies, get rid of excessive saturation with terminology, avoid duplication with linguistic courses read later, after studying the introduction to linguistics. All these changes and clarifications meet the requirements for a modern textbook addressed to first-year students of philological faculties.
INTRODUCTION
LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE
§ 1. LINGUISTICS AND OTHER SCIENCES
Linguistics, or linguistics 1, is the science of language, its social nature and functions, its internal structure, the patterns of its functioning and historical development, and classification of specific languages.
Language is the most important means of human communication; there is not and cannot be a human society and people that would not have a language. There is no man himself without language. Language as a means of communication and as a system of signs is studied by many sciences.
Therefore, the first task we face is to define the subject of linguistics, delimiting linguistics from related sciences that study language.
The facts and phenomena of language and speech activity have different characteristics and therefore can be considered from different angles. So,
content of the proposal Every equilateral triangle is an equiangular triangle the logician defines as a proposition an identity consisting of a subject (S = every equilateral triangle), a connective (is) and a predicate (P = an equiangular triangle), and it will be noted that the subject and predicate have the same scope of the concept 2 , since they denote concepts of equivalent meaning.
The same sentence in grammar will be analyzed by the members of the sentence, and the subject and predicate differ in their place in the sentence and the presence of a link, which is considered as part of the nominal predicate; in addition to the main members of the sentence, secondary ones are distinguished in the grammar, in this case, agreed definitions: in the phrase
any equilateral triangle heterogeneous are found
new definitions; Finally, the stylistic feature of this sentence is also noted - its book character.
When analyzing the proposal, we found two aspects of the analysis
- logical and grammatical. These aspects are related
1 The term "linguistics" is formed on the basis of the French linguistique - linguistics; The French term was based on the Latin noun lingua - language, speech.
2 The scope of the concept in logic is called the set of objects,
which have features of a given concept (the totality of features of a given concept is called its content).
with each other, since they consider the same object, but they differ from each other in that they distinguish different sides in the object. These aspects of the object become the subject of the sciences. Knowledge of the object, its different aspects, specific research methods - all this is the basis for the selection of individual specific sciences.
As you know, modern science generally consists of three main sections - natural science (or natural sciences that study the phenomena and laws of the development and existence of nature), social n x (social) sciences, i.e., the sciences of society, and philosophy, which studies the most general laws of nature, society and thinking. Linguistics as the science of human language belongs to the social sciences.
At the intersection of natural sciences and social sciences, technical sciences in a broad sense arise, including agricultural and medical sciences; at the intersection of natural science (mainly physics) and philosophy (mainly logic), mathematical sciences arise, which include not only the mathematical sciences themselves, but also mathematical logic and cybernetics.
Linguistics is connected with all the main sections of modern science, and this is explained by the huge role that language plays in all spheres of human activity, including in the process of cognition and communication.
Linguistics and social sciences. Linguistics is one of the social sciences. It is clear that it is closely connected with such social sciences as history, economic geography, psychology and pedagogical sciences.
The connection of linguistics with history (the science of the development of human society) is understandable, since the history of language is part of the history of the people. The connections with the history of the society of the vocabulary of the language, the scope and nature of the functioning of the language, primarily literary, are especially clearly visible.
The connection between linguistics and history is two-way: historical data provide a concrete historical consideration of language changes, linguistic data are one of the sources in the study of such historical problems as the origin (ethnogenesis) of a people, the development of the culture of a people and its society at different stages of history, contacts between peoples.
Linguistics is associated, in particular, with such historical disciplines as archeology1, which studies history through
From Greek. αςχάίος - ancient and λόγος - teaching. The basis -logy with the meaning of auk in modern terminology is widely used to form the names of sciences and their sections; synonymous with the basis of -logy, the suffix -ik- is used, for example: phonetics (or phonemics), but phonology; morphology, but morphemic; grammar, nolexicology.
material sources - tools, weapons, jewelry, utensils, etc., and ethnography1 - the science of the life and culture of peoples.
Linguistics comes into closest contact with ethnography when studying the dialect dictionary - the names of peasant buildings, utensils and clothing, agricultural items and tools, crafts. Thus, V. I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” contains a lot of information from folk life: revealing the meaning of dialect words and dialect meanings of commonly used words, the dictionary reports on those things and concepts that exist among the people. The connection of linguistics with ethnography is manifested not only in the study of material culture, but also in the classification of languages and peoples, in the study of the reflection in the language of national consciousness.
Of all the sciences that study the basis and superstructure, linguistics is most closely associated with literary criticism (literary theory, literary history and literary criticism). The union of linguistic knowledge and literary criticism gave rise to philology 2 . At the junction of linguistics and literary criticism is poetics3. The connection between linguistics and literary criticism is especially noticeable in such disciplines as stylistics and the history of the literary language, as well as in the development of problems of the language of fiction.
However, there is a significant difference between the linguistic and linguistic approach and methods of studying a literary text. The literary critic studies language as a component of artistic form and in connection with ideological content, as the primary element of literature, as the art of the word. A linguist studies a literary text as a manifestation of the author's speech activity, as a fact of the language norm and functional style. Functional stylistics is engaged in the study of the choice and use of linguistic means in works of art.
Language as a fact of the speech activity of an individual is the subject of study of psychology and linguistics.
1 From Greek. εΰυος - people and γςάφω - I write; the basis-graphy is used to form a number of linguistic terms (for example, spelling, lexicography).
2 Greek φιλέω - love and λǒγος - word. In ancient Greece, the term φιλǒλογος (philologos) did not yet have a modern meaning; philologist in the usual
the study of literary form (style) and content, then grammar, spelling and text metrics were the task of the grammarian. In the Renaissance, classical philology arose, studying not. only language and literature, but also history, law, economy, religion, philosophy. Later, in the middle of the 19th century, philology narrowed its object by combining literary criticism and linguistics into philological sciences.
3 Poetics - a section of the theory of literature that studies the structure of works of art and the system of their aesthetic means; The term is derived from the Greek ποιήΤική - poetic art, poetry.
Linguistics (like psychology) is also connected with pedagogy; moreover, such a particular didactic discipline as language teaching methodology is considered as a section of applied linguistics (some modern linguists call this discipline linguodidactics or linguopeda-
gogic).
The methodology of language teaching has its foundations in linguistics, psychology and pedagogy (especially in didactics). Modern" methodology covers not only the methodology of teaching the native language, but also the methodology of a non-native language.
Linguistics and natural sciences. Of the natural sciences, linguistics comes into contact mainly with human physiology and anthropology. 1 . Particularly important for linguistics is the reflex theory of speech activity, created by the Russians. physiologists I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov. The words that a person hears and sees represent the second signal system - a specifically human form of reflection of reality. The second signal system is signal signals. Common to the first and second signal systems is their reflex physiological basis and reflective essence.
The interests of linguists and anthropologists converge in two cases: firstly, in the classification of races and languages, and, secondly, in the study of the question of the origin of speech, which will be reported later.
The connection of linguistics with the social sciences is stronger and closer than with the biological and medical sciences. This once again emphasizes that, despite the physiological basis of articulate speech, language belongs to social phenomena, since its connections with society and human consciousness, functioning in society are among its main characteristics.
Linguistics and Philosophy. Linguistics, like other sciences, is connected with the philosophical sciences - dialectics and logic. Philosophy equips specific sciences with methodology2, contributes to the development of principles and methods of analysis that are characteristic of a particular science, such as linguistics. Through philosophy, which performs the functions of a methodology of cognition and worldview interpretation of its results, and the general theory of social sciences, all sciences, including linguistics, are connected with ideology and politics.
The philosophical basis of Soviet linguistic knowledge is dialectical materialism,
From Greek. αυύςωπος - man and bases -logy. Anthropology - about the origin of man and his races, about the variability of the human structure in time and space,
Methodology is a philosophical doctrine about the methods of cognition and transformation of reality; there is a methodology for scientific cognition
the doctrine of the principles of constructing a theory, forms and methods of scientific and cognitive activity.
M a r k s ist s t o l e n i n skaya philosophy. The methodological role is played here not only by materialist dialectics and its categories, but also by materialism. VI Lenin defined dialectical logic in the following way. “In order to really know a subject, one must embrace, study all its aspects, all connections and “mediations”. We will never achieve this completely, but the demand for comprehensiveness will warn us against mistakes and from deadness. It's in the 1st. Secondly, dialectical logic requires that an object be taken in its development, “self-movement” (as Hegel sometimes says), change ... Thirdly, all human practice must enter into a complete “definition” of an object and as a criterion of truth and as a practical determinant of the connection of an object with what a person needs. In 4, dialectical logic teaches that there is no “abstract truth”, truth is always concrete”1.
The first principle (the requirement of comprehensiveness) finds its expression in a systematic approach to language and speech activity. The principle of consistency in linguistics is manifested primarily in the fact that the language is considered as a single whole, as a unity of formal and meaningful units, which in themselves, as well as their elements, are related in origin and various uses in society.
Particularly important is, on the one hand, the understanding of the language system as a set of its main tiers (phonetic, morphological, syntactic and lexical), and on the other hand, the connection of language with society and thinking. All these questions will be considered further.
The second requirement of dialectics finds its expression in principle and history. It consists in the fact that all phenomena and categories of language are considered from the point of view of their origin, historical development, modern functioning and prospects for their future functioning and change. Historical linguistics analyzes the laws and causes of language change.
The historical foundation of linguistics is comparative historical linguistics, which uses a special method of studying language - comparative historical. This will be discussed specifically in a special chapter and paragraphs of this book.
The criterion of practice, as one of the basic requirements of Marxist-Leninist philosophy, is manifested in the fact that the tasks and direction of research depend on the needs of society. Language itself arises from the need to consolidate and communicate to others a common experience. Its further development is also connected with the development of society. Thus, the constant development of human society,
1 V.I. Lenin. Once again about the trade unions ... - Poly. coll. cit., vol. 42, p. 290. In the future, all quotations from the works of V. I. Lenin are given according to this edition - with an indication of the volume and page.
The course of lectures corresponds to the standard program of the course "Introduction to Linguistics". It contains basic information about the language, its functions, and the history of its study. The course presents a distinct scientific and sectoral structure of linguistics. The main attention is paid to the problems of internal linguistics - synchronic, diachronic and comparative. A "Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms" is attached to the course.
For bachelors and students, as well as for those interested in linguistics.
Preface 1
1. SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE OF FOREIGN LINGUISTICS 2
2. HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE 3
3. LANGUAGE AND OTHER SYSTEMS OF SIGNS. COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE 4
4. LANGUAGE AND KNOWLEDGE. COGNITIVE FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE 6
5. LANGUAGE AND PRACTICE. PRAGMATIC FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE 7
6. LANGUAGE AND CULTURE. BARPARIZATION OF LANGUAGE 9
7. LANGUAGE AND CULTURE. VULGARIZATION OF THE LANGUAGE 10
8. LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY. TYPOLOGY OF LANGUAGE SITUATIONS 12
9. TYPES AND HISTORY OF WRITING 13
10. SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE OF LINGUISTIC GNOSEOLOGY 14
11. SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRY STRUCTURE OF INTERNAL LINGUISTICS 15
12. THE FIRST STAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE 17
13. THE SECOND STAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE 18
14. THE THIRD STAGE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE 19
15. SYNCHRONIC PHONETICS (IN THE NARROW SENSE OF THE WORD). TYPES OF PHONETIC CLASSIFICATIONS 21
16. SYNCHRONIC PHONOLOGY. SOUND AND PHONEM 22
17. SYNCHRONIC MORPHONOLOGY. MORPONEME AND TYPES OF MORPHONOLOGICAL ALTERNATIONS 24
18. SYNCHRONIC SILLABIC. SYMBOL DIVISION THEORIES 25
19. SYNCHRONIC ACCENTOLOGY. TYPES OF ACCENT 26
20. SYNCHRONIC MELODIC. COMPONENTS OF INTONATION 28
21. SYNCHRONIC WORD FORMATION. WORD FORMATION 29
22. SYNCHRONIC LEXICOLOGY. POLYSEMY. HOMONYMY. SYNONYMY. ANTONYMY 31
23. SYNCHRONIC MORPHOLOGY. PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS BY PARTS OF SPEECH 32
24. SYNCHRONIC MORPHOLOGY. WAYS OF EXPRESSING MORPHOLOGICAL VALUES 33
25. SYNCHRONIC SYNTAX. ITS FORMAL, SEMANTIC AND ACTUAL ASPECTS 35
26. SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS OF TEXT. ITS SEMASIOLOGICAL AND ONOMASIOLOGICAL ASPECTS 36
27. DIACRONIC PHONETICS. TYPES OF SOUND CHANGES. PHONETIC LAWS AND REGULARITIES 37
28. DIACRONIC PHONETICS. TYPES OF HISTORICAL AND PHONETIC PROCESSES 39
29. DIACRONIC WORD FORMATION. SCIENTIFIC AND FALSE ETYMOLOGY. DEETHYMOLOGATION 40
30. DIACRONIC LEXICOLOGY. REASONS FOR LEXICO-SEMANTIC CHANGES 41
31. DIACRONIC MORPHOLOGY. TYPES OF HISTORICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES 43
32. DIACRONIC SYNTAX. MAIN STAGES OF THE SYNTAXIC EVOLUTION OF A LANGUAGE 45
33. COMPARATIVE HISTORICAL METHOD IN LINGUISTICS 46
34. GENEALOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES 47
35. TYPOLOGICAL APPROACH IN THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE 48
36. GENERAL TYPOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES 49
37. CONTRAST PHONOLOGY 51
38. CONTRASTIVE WORD FORMATION 52
39. CONTRASTIVE LEXICOLOGY 53
40. CONTRASTIVE MORPHOLOGY (BY THE MATERIAL OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES) 55
41. CONTRAST SYNTAX 56
APPENDIX. Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms 57
Notes 69
Valery Petrovich Danilenko
Introduction to Linguistics: a course of lectures
Foreword
Linguistics (linguistics) is the science of language. It has four sides: physical(sound) biotic(associated with the organs of the body involved in speech activity), mental(the language system is stored in the human psyche, thanks to which it functions in the activities of the listener and speaker) and cultural(the language system is one of the products of culture, and speech activity is one of the types of cultural-creative activity).
Language, therefore, "appears" to us in four aspects - physical, biotic, mental and cultural. The whole point, however, is in the hierarchy of these "phenomena" of language. I.A. For Baudouin de Courtenay, for example, language "appeared" primarily in its psychic (psychological) hypostasis, and U. Maturana - in its biotic (biological) one. But if we follow the Humboldtian ideas about the essence of language, then the priority (leading, essential) side of the language should be recognized as its cultural side. That is why linguistics is included in cultural studies - the science of culture, and its closest "neighbors" in the circle of other sciences are cultural sciences - science of science, art history, ethics, etc., and only then - as they are close to cultural studies (and therefore, and to linguistics) - philosophy, psychology, biology and physics are located.
The cultural side of the language is its leading side, because, first of all, language is one of the most important products of culture, and only then - physical, biotic and mental education. In order to dispel any doubts on this score, we must remember that the signs of which it consists were created and continue to be created in the same way as other products of culture.
Language is not a gift of God at all, but the greatest creation of the cultural-creative activity of man. Of course, the technology for creating different cultural products is diverse, but each cultural product, from a dart to a computer, is a product of the same type of human activity - cultural creation, thanks to which our animal ancestors embarked on the path of humanization (anthropogenesis, hominization).
The peculiarity of the language in comparison with other products of culture lies in the fact that it is the most important system of signs, in terms of significance with which no other sign systems can compete.
Language, therefore, can be defined as a special - biophysical and mental - product of culture, which is the most important system of signs that performs three main functions - communicative (communication), cognitive (knowledge) and pragmatic (practical impact on the world).
The following books are recommended as basic textbooks for an introduction to linguistics:
Reformatskiy A.A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1967.
Maslov Yu.S. Introduction to linguistics. 2nd ed., M., 1987; 3rd ed., 1997.
Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M., 1979.
Kochergina V.A. Introduction to linguistics. Fundamentals of phonetics-phonology. Grammar. M., 1979.
Vendina T.I.
Kamchatnov A.M., Nikolina H.A. Introduction to linguistics. M., 2001.
As additional reading, I will name my books:
1. Fundamentals of spiritual culture in the pictures of the world (co-authored with L.V. Danilenko). Irkutsk: IGU, 1999.
2. General Linguistics and the History of Linguistics: A Course of Lectures (with the stamp of the UMO of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation). M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2009.
3. History of Russian Linguistics: A Course of Lectures (with the stamp of the UMO of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation). M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2009.
4. Onomasiological direction in grammar. 3rd ed., rev. M.: KD LIBROKOM, 2009.
5. Functional grammar of Wilem Mathesius. Methodological features of the concept. M.: KD LIBROKOM, 2010.
6. Wilhelm von Humboldt and neo-Humboldtianism. M.: KD LIBROKOM, 2010.
V. I. KODUHOV INTRODUCTION to LINGUISTICS Approved by the Ministry of Education of the USSR as a textbook for students of pedagogical institutes in the specialty No. 2101 “Russian Language and Literature” Second edition, revised and supplemented MOSCOW “PROVSHEVSHENIE” 1987 "" I BBK 81 K57 R ece nzenty: Doctor of Philology, Professor of the Department of the Russian Language, MOP I. N. K. Krupskaya N. A. K o n d r a t o v; Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor of the Russian Language Department of the Cherepovets Pedagogical Institute M. I. Sidorenko about Kodukhov V. I. K57 Introduction to Linguistics: Proc. for students ped. in-t on spec. No. 2101 “Rus. lang. or T." - 2nd ed., revised. and additional .- M: Education, 1987.- 288 p.: ill. The textbook on introduction to linguistics covers all the topics of the new program for this course. The book consists of four parts, which consistently talk about linguistics as a science, the social nature of the language and the laws of its historical development, the language system, and the classification of languages. In the second edition, changes and abbreviations have been made to all sections of the textbook, attention has been paid to materials on the Russian language. K 4309000000 − 370 − 13 − 86 103 − 87 BBK 81 Prosveshchenie Publishing House, 1987 The preface “Introduction to Linguistics” outlines the main problems of the science of language, without knowledge of which a meaningful perception of individual sections of this science is impossible. Language and society, language and thinking, the interaction of languages and the patterns of their development, the literary languages of the national and pre-national periods, the principles of language classification - understanding all these and many other linguistic problems is extremely important for anyone who seeks to understand the essence of language, to understand how language functions in society, what is its role in human life, what is the essence of the laws of language development. Without knowledge of these issues, it is impossible to learn any language. It is no coincidence that the course "Introduction to Linguistics" is the first in the system of all linguistic disciplines studied in pedagogical institutes. It helps the first-year student to understand the essence of each linguistic discipline. General linguistic training is necessary for a teacher of the Russian language and literature in a secondary school. Without a broad philological education, without linguistic training, the creative activity of a teacher in the field of teaching and educating the younger generation is impossible. The textbook is written in accordance with the requirements of the new program, the logic of building the course itself and consists of an introduction and three main parts. The introduction provides information about linguistics as a science and its main sections and aspects. In the first part, the nature of the language, its origin and the laws of historical development are revealed. The second part highlights the main issues of the branches of the science of language that study the components of the language system. The third part examines the existing classifications of languages, their typology and main families. Thus, a broad picture of linguistic knowledge unfolds before students. A list of additional readings is provided at the end of each chapter. Acquaintance with these books will help the student to understand more deeply the essence of individual problems that are covered in the textbook only in general terms, as well as the range of problems and the methodology for presenting complex issues of linguistics in popular science literature. The lists of additional literature do not include books and articles published by local publishers or that have become a bibliographic rarity. The textbooks and teaching aids indicated in the programs are also not named here. h Additional literature can be used by a student on the recommendation of a teacher who teaches the course, or at his own choice - if he wants to deepen and expand his knowledge on any particular issue, when writing abstracts (special questions), reports. To facilitate the work on the assimilation of linguistic terminology, a glossary of basic linguistic terms is placed at the end of the book. It is at the same time a reference, since it contains a link to a page where the named concept is explained. On the endpapers there are maps of the languages of the world and the political and administrative division of our country. Each of the cards will help visualize the spread of languages, make students' knowledge concrete and solid. * A number of reviews were published for the first edition of "Introduction to Linguistics" in domestic and foreign journals; the author received many letters. In reviews and letters, the textbook received a generally positive assessment, but at the same time, wishes and criticisms were expressed aimed at further improvement of the textbook. These recommendations and advice were taken into account in the preparation of the second edition. Reworking the text of the textbook, while maintaining the composition and the general methodological concept, the author revised all sections and paragraphs. This was done in order to bring the text of the textbook in line with the new program, as well as to implement the suggestions and wishes expressed in reviews and at conferences where the textbook was discussed. In the second edition, materials on the history of linguistics have been abbreviated, the entire third part - “Classification of Languages” has been substantially revised, information on grammar has been significantly changed and reduced. In the second chapter, devoted to the consideration of language as the most important means of human communication, information about the functions of language and language units, about the unity of language and consciousness, about language situations is supplemented. In addition, the factual material throughout the tutorial has been updated. The author expresses his gratitude to all those who assisted in the preparation of the second edition, including R. A. Budagov, E. M. Vereshchagin, and K. S. Gorb a ch e v i ch y, M. 3. Zakaev, L. 3. Shakir o v o y, I. S. K u likov o y, T. G. Pon o -marenko, V. M. Rusanovskiy and V. I. Kononenko. The author is sincerely grateful to the official reviewers of the second edition of the textbook - Doctor of Philology, Professor of the Russian Language Department of the Moscow Regional Pedagogical Institute. N.K. Krupskoy N.A. A. V. Lunacharsky m I. Sidorenko, as well as candidates of philological sciences, associate professors of the department of general linguistics of the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute named after. V. I. Lenin S. A. Polkovnikova and M. Yu. : simplify the presentation, clarify individual formulations, eliminate inaccuracies, get rid of excessive saturation with terminology, avoid duplication with linguistic courses read later, after studying the introduction to linguistics. All these changes and clarifications meet the requirements for a modern textbook addressed to first-year students of philological faculties. INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE § 1. LINGUISTICS AND OTHER SCIENCES Linguistics, or linguistika 1, is the science of language, its social nature and functions , its internal structure, the patterns of its functioning and the historical development and classification of specific languages. Language is the most important means of human communication; there is not and cannot be a human society and people that would not have a language. There is no man himself without language. Language as a means of communication and as a system of signs is studied by many sciences. Therefore, the first task we face is to define the subject of linguistics, delimiting linguistics from related sciences that study language. The facts and phenomena of language and speech activity have different characteristics and therefore can be considered from different angles. Thus, the content of the sentence Every equilateral triangle is an equiangular triangle will be defined by the logician as an identity proposition consisting of a subject (S = every equilateral triangle), a connective (is) and a predicate (P = an equiangular triangle), and it will be noted that the subject and the predicate have one and the same scope of the concept2, since they designate equivalent concepts. The same sentence in grammar will be analyzed by the members of the sentence, and the subject and predicate differ in their place in the sentence and the presence of a link, which is considered as part of the nominal predicate; in addition to the main members of the sentence, secondary ones are distinguished in the grammar, in this case, agreed definitions: in the phrase every equilateral triangle, heterogeneous definitions are found; Finally, the stylistic feature of this sentence is also noted - its book character. When parsing the sentence, we found two aspects of analysis - logical and grammatical. These aspects are related to each other 1 The term “linguistics” is formed on the basis of the French linguistique - linguistics; The French term was based on the Latin noun lingua - language, speech. 2 The scope of a concept in logic is the set of objects that have features of a given concept (the set of features of a given concept is called its content). 6 with each other, since they consider the same object, but they differ from each other in that they distinguish different sides in the object. These aspects of the object become the subject of the sciences. Knowledge of the object, its different aspects, specific research methods - all this is the basis for the selection of individual specific sciences. As you know, modern science generally consists of three main sections - natural science (or natural sciences that study the phenomena and laws of the development and existence of nature), social n x (social) sciences, i.e. the sciences of society, and philosophy, which studies the most general laws of nature, society and thinking. Linguistics as the science of human language belongs to the social sciences. At the intersection of natural sciences and social sciences, technical sciences in a broad sense arise, including agricultural and medical sciences; at the intersection of natural science (mainly physics) and philosophy (mainly logic), mathematical sciences arise, which include not only the mathematical sciences themselves, but also mathematical logic and cybernetics. Linguistics is connected with all the main sections of modern science, and this is explained by the huge role that language plays in all spheres of human activity, including in the process of cognition and communication. Linguistics and social sciences. Linguistics is one of the social sciences. It is clear that it is closely connected with such social sciences as history, economic geography, psychology and pedagogical sciences. The connection of linguistics with history (the science of the development of human society) is understandable, since the history of language is part of the history of the people. The connections with the history of the society of the vocabulary of the language, the scope and nature of the functioning of the language, primarily literary, are especially clearly visible. The connection between linguistics and history is two-way: historical data provide a concrete historical consideration of language changes, linguistic data are one of the sources in the study of such historical problems as the origin (ethnogenesis) of a people, the development of the culture of a people and its society at different stages of history, contacts between peoples. Linguistics is associated, in particular, with such historical disciplines as archeology1, which studies history from the Greek. αςχάίος - ancient and λόγος - teaching. The basis -logy with the meaning of auk in modern terminology is widely used to form the names of sciences and their sections; synonymous with the basis -logy, the suffix -ik- is used, for example: phonetics (or phonemics), but phonology; morphology, but morphemics; grammar, but lexicology. 7 material sources - tools, weapons, jewelry, utensils, etc., and ethnography1 - the science of the life and culture of peoples. Linguistics comes into closest contact with ethnography when studying the dialect dictionary - the names of peasant buildings, utensils and clothing, agricultural items and tools, crafts. Thus, V. I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” contains a lot of information from folk life: revealing the meaning of dialect words and dialect meanings of commonly used words, the dictionary reports on those things and concepts that exist among the people. The connection of linguistics with ethnography is manifested not only in the study of material culture, but also in the classification of languages and peoples, in the study of the reflection in the language of national consciousness. Of all the sciences that study the basis and superstructure, linguistics is most closely associated with literary criticism (literary theory, literary history and literary criticism). The union of linguistic knowledge and literary criticism gave rise to philology 2 . Poetry is located at the intersection of linguistics and literary criticism 3 . The connection between linguistics and literary criticism is especially noticeable in such disciplines as stylistics and the history of the literary language, as well as in the development of problems of the language of fiction. However, there is a significant difference between the linguistic and linguistic approach and methods of studying a literary text. The literary critic studies language as a component of artistic form and in connection with ideological content, as the primary element of literature, as the art of the word. A linguist studies a literary text as a manifestation of the author's speech activity, as a fact of the language norm and functional style. Functional stylistics is engaged in the study of the choice and use of linguistic means in works of art. Language as a fact of the speech activity of an individual is the subject of study of psychology and linguistics. 1 From Greek. εΰυος - people and γςάφω - I write; the basis -graphy is used to form a number of linguistic terms (for example, spelling, lexicography). 2 Gr. φιλέω - love and λǒγος - word. In ancient Greece, the term φιλǒλογος (philologos) did not yet have a modern meaning; a philologist in the usual sense was called γςαμμαΤικος (grammarist). The opposition between philologist and grammarian arose in ancient Rome; if the philologist was assigned the study of literary form (style) and content, then grammar, spelling and text metrics were the task of the grammarian. In the Renaissance, classical philology arose, studying not. only language and literature, but also history, law, economy, religion, philosophy. Later, in the middle of the 19th century, philology narrowed its object by combining literary criticism and linguistics into philological sciences. 3 Poetics - a section of the theory of literature that studies the structure of works of art and the system of their aesthetic means; The term is derived from the Greek ποιήΤική - poetic art, poetry. 8 Linguistics (like psychology) is also connected with pedagogy; moreover, such a particular didactic discipline as language teaching methodology is considered as a branch of applied linguistics (some modern linguists call this discipline linguodidactics or linguopedagogy). The methodology of language teaching has its foundations in linguistics, psychology and pedagogy (especially in didactics). The modern "methodology covers not only the methodology of teaching the native language, but also the methodology of a non-native language. Linguistics and the natural sciences. Of the natural sciences, linguistics comes into contact mainly with human physiology and anthropology1. Particularly important for linguistics is the reflex theory of speech activity, created by Russian physiologists I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov. The words that a person hears and sees represent the second signal system - a specifically human form of reflection of reality. The second signal system is signal signals. Common to the first and second signal systems is their reflex physiological basis and reflective essence. The interests of linguists and anthropologists converge in two cases: firstly, in the classification of races and languages, and, secondly, in the study of the question of the origin of speech, which will be reported later. The connection of linguistics with the social sciences is stronger and closer than with the biological and medical sciences. This once again emphasizes that, despite the physiological basis of articulate speech, language belongs to social phenomena, since its connections with society and human consciousness, functioning in society are among its main characteristics. Linguistics and Philosophy. Linguistics, like other sciences, is connected with the philosophical sciences - dialectics and logic. Philosophy equips specific sciences with methodology2, contributes to the development of principles and methods of analysis that are characteristic of a particular science, such as linguistics. Through philosophy, which performs the functions of a methodology of cognition and worldview interpretation of its results, and the general theory of social sciences, all sciences, including linguistics, are connected with ideology and politics. The philosophical basis of Soviet linguistics is dialectical materialism, From Greek. αυύςωπος - man and bases -logy. Anthropology - about the origin of man and his races, about the variability of the structure of man in time and space, Methodology - a philosophical doctrine of the methods of cognition and transformation of reality; the methodology of scientific knowledge is the doctrine of the principles of constructing a theory, forms and methods of scientific and cognitive activity. 9 M a r k s ist s s o l e n s k a y philosoph y. The methodological role is played here not only by materialist dialectics and its categories, but also by materialism. VI Lenin defined dialectical logic in the following way. “In order to really know a subject, one must embrace, study all its aspects, all connections and “mediations”. We will never achieve this completely, but the demand for comprehensiveness will warn us against mistakes and from deadness. It's in the 1st. Secondly, dialectical logic requires that an object be taken in its development, “self-movement” (as Hegel sometimes says), change ... Thirdly, all human practice must enter into a complete “definition” of an object and as a criterion of truth and as a practical determinant of the connection of an object with what a person needs. In 4, dialectical logic teaches that there is no “abstract truth, truth is always concrete”1. The first principle (the requirement of comprehensiveness) finds its expression in a systematic approach to language and speech activity. The principle of systemic in linguistics, it manifests itself primarily in the fact that the language is considered as a single whole, as a unity of formal and meaningful units, which in themselves, as well as their elements, are connected by origin and various uses in society. Particularly important is, on the one hand, an understanding of the system language as a set of its main tiers (phonetic, morphological, syntactic and lexical), and on the other hand - the relationship of language with society and thinking. All these issues will be considered later. The second requirement of dialectics finds its expression in principle and with It consists in the fact that all phenomena and categories of language are considered from the point of view of their origin, historical development, modern functioning, and perspective of their future functioning and change. Historical linguistics analyzes the laws and causes of language change. The historical foundation of linguistics is comparative historical linguistics, which uses a special method of studying a language - comparative historical. This will be discussed specifically in a special chapter and paragraphs of this book. The criterion of practice, as one of the basic requirements of Marxist-Leninist philosophy, is manifested in the fact that the tasks and direction of research depend on the needs of society. Language itself arises from the need to consolidate and communicate to others a common experience. Its further development is also connected with the development of society. So, the constant development of human society, 1 VI Lenin. Once again about the trade unions ... - Poly. coll. cit., vol. 42, p. 290. In the future, all quotations from the works of V. I. Lenin are given according to this edition - with an indication of the volume and page. 10 requiring literate and educated people, causes the development of a culture of speech, a spelling reform that simplifies writing, the compilation of publicly available dictionaries and grammar guides, language textbooks. Practice should not be understood only as personal experience, it is "all human practice". The formation of a dialectical-materialist worldview presupposes a serious and systematic assimilation of knowledge, the enrichment of memory, as V.I. philosophical, social and natural science thought, familiarization with the true values and achievements of world culture. At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish between general educational and special knowledge. If general educational knowledge unites specialists by introducing them to the education and culture of their time, then special knowledge unites people according to professions, according to specific tasks of socially useful labor. Such specialists, in particular, are linguists, teachers of the Russian language and literature. Finally, the fourth requirement of dialectics recalls the concreteness of truth. This means that each science, including linguistics, based on methodological principles, develops a theory of its object, in this case, language, its norms and speech activity. The principle of concreteness in linguistics means that the general rules and laws of the functioning and development of a language are embodied not in the doctrine of language in general, but in the doctrine of the functioning and development of a very specific language - Russian, English, Uzbek, Finnish, etc. Linguistics, as we have seen, it is connected in various ways with different sciences, and these connections can be less deep and more profound. Thus, the connection between linguistics and anthropology is essentially limited to the question of the origin of speech. The connection with logic, psychology, literary criticism is deeper. "Nevertheless, the connection of linguistics with other sciences does not deny its independence as a special science. The independence of linguistics is based primarily on the fact of the existence of language as a special social phenomenon. Linguistics studies language from all sides, while other sciences study only separate aspects of the language. § 2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF LINGUISTICS Linguistics is one of the ancient sciences that has gone through a long path of development. Interest in language is reflected in the folklore of all peoples. How did the language originate and how does the diversity of languages \u200b\u200bexplain? in Alexander Afanasyevich Potebnya begins the word and what is the power of the word?Here is a far from complete list of questions that are posed and answered in the oral folk art of all peoples of the world.A description of the sound and grammatical structure of individual languages was made in a number of countries. So, in the IV century. BC e. Panini wrote a grammar of the ancient Indian language - Sanskrit. In the III-II centuries. BC e. scientists working in the Alexandrian Library studied the ancient Greek language. Questions of linguistics were considered and are considered in all philosophical concepts. Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC) paid much attention to the logical study of language and created poetics. A significant role in the development of general questions of linguistics belongs to the French thinker R. Descartes (1586-1650) and the German scientists G. V. Leibnits (1646-1716) and V. von Gu m o l d t u (1767-1835). Humboldt laid the foundations for the philosophy of language - the general theory of language and speech. Along with writing grammars and compiling dictionaries for specific languages, the principles and methods of grammatical theory are being developed, which make it possible to scientifically study the history of languages and their structure. In the second half of the XIX century. two main linguistic directions were formed: logical - in Russia its largest representative was F.I. Buslaev (1818-1897), the author of the Historical Grammar of the Russian Language, and psychological - in Russia it was substantiated by A.A. Potebney (1835-1891), author of the books Thought and Language and From Notes on Russian Grammar. Representatives of the logical and psychological trends have studied and are studying language as a means of expressing content; in the study of language and speech, they go from content to form. At the beginning of the XX century. the theory and methods of formal direction are being developed, which focus their main attention on the structure of word forms and word combination forms. In Russia, the formal direction was represented by two grammar schools: Moscow - its founder is F.F. Fortunatov (1848-1914) and Kazan - its founder was I.A. e ne (1845-1929). Soviet linguistics has gained strength and gained worldwide recognition, developing the best traditions of Russian and foreign linguistics. Soviet linguists rely on the Marxist-Leninist philosophy and practice of language construction in our country. The study of the structure and functioning of more than 130 languages of the peoples of the USSR made the experimental base of Soviet linguistics solid and diverse. The richest material of Russian studies has been accumulated and systematized; Ukrainian studies are rapidly developing; Significant progress has been made in the study of Belarusian and other Indo-European languages (especially Germanic and Romance), Turkic, Caucasian, Finno-Ugric, Paleo-Asiatic, Tungus-Manchurian, Mongolian, and also many other languages spoken outside the Soviet Union. Distinctive features of Soviet linguistics are the recognition of the public nature of the language, the development of questions of the sociology of language, the study PRINCIPLES AND THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE USE IN DIFFERENT NATIONS AND PEOPLES IN M in the national socialist state. The leading role of the sociological aspect in Soviet linguistics is due not only to an understanding of the very nature of linguistic phenomena, but also to the connection of linguistic theory with tasks cultural construction, with the consistent implementation of the Leninist national language policy, the recognition of the equality of the languages of all the peoples of the Soviet Union. One of the significant aspects of Soviet social linguistics is the creation of the theory of the language of the linguistic norm and the literary language. It is being reformed, and for many languages writing is being created for the first time, normative (especially school) grammars and normative dictionaries - monolingual and bilingual - are compiled. The experience of the development of various literary languages in the Soviet Union and the development of the theory of the literary language are of great theoretical and practical international importance. In the Soviet theory of the literary language, not only the general linguistic, but also the socio-political significance of the problem of the literary norm and the culture of speech was emphasized, the variety of ways in which literary languages and their styles were formed, the interdependence of the forms of social community of people and social types of language, especially the language of the people and the national language, were shown. . Soviet linguists, using the material of different languages, developed and deepened V. I. Lenin's position that the unity of the language, its unimpeded development is an essential condition for the formation of a nation. Bilingualism as a form of functioning and development of the language is intensively and diversified. Significant progress has been made in Soviet dialectology: generalizing and special works on the dialectology of many languages have been written, a number of dialectological atlases have been created, and dialect dictionaries of various types have been compiled. The historical aspect of linguistic theory is also getting proper development. The principle of historicism itself is being developed, including consideration of the causes of the development of the language, general and particular laws of its development, principles and methods of comparative historical and historical grammars. The leading section of comparative-historical linguistics has become Indo-European history, and within it - Slavic and Germanistic studies. In Soviet linguistics, on the basis of a large amount of factual material from different languages, the morphological classification of languages was further developed (see § 41). An essential aspect of Soviet linguistics is the development of the theory of the language system and the development of linguistic disciplines that study the individual tiers of the language system. The successes of Soviet linguistics are due to the Great October Socialist Revolution. From the first years of Soviet power, science became a national matter, an object of constant concern for the Communist Party and the Soviet government; research institutes and educational institutions are being actively created. Within the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences there are now all-Union linguistic institutes, institutes and departments of all-Union academies and branches of the academies of sciences of the autonomous republics. Linguistic theory and training is carried out at the philological faculties of universities and pedagogical institutes. For the development of the theory of Soviet linguistics, the activities of I. I. Meshchaninov (1883-1967), L. V. Shcherby (1880-1944) and V. V. V. no city (1895-1969). I. I. Meshchaninov, author of the works “New teaching about language. Stage typology” (1936), “General linguistics. On the problem of stages in the development of words and sentences” (1940), “Members of a sentence and parts of speech” (1945), emphasized the importance of such principles of the “new doctrine of language” as the connection between language and society, language and thinking, the unity of the language-creative process, and stages (discontinuity) in the development of languages, the typological unity and diversity of languages, their parts of speech and sentence members (these issues are discussed in the third part, § 40). The theory of conceptual categories, morphological-syntactic typology and functional-semantic methodology developed by I. I. Meshchaninov had a huge impact on the development of linguistics. L. V. Shcherba is the creator of a linguistic concept based on linguistic observation and experiment, and an original trend in phonetics. In 1974, selected works by L. V. Shcherba were published under the title “Language System and Speech Activity”. In 1983, his book “Russian Vowels in Qualitative Relation” was republished (1st edition - 1912). V. V. Vinogradov - a student of Shakhmatov and Shcherba, the largest representative of Russian linguistics in the middle of the 20th century. His main works - “Essays on the history of the Russian literary language 15 Victor Vladimirovich Vinogradov XVII-XIX centuries. ” (1934), “Russian language. Grammatical Doctrine of the Word” (1947). The works of VV Vinogradov were republished; in a series of selected works "Studies in Russian Grammar" (1975) and "Lexicology and Lexicography" (1977), his articles, previously published in journals, were published. At the center of Vinogradov's linguistic concept was the word and style of the language in their systemic, social and historical conditionality. Vinogradov developed the modern doctrine of parts of speech, laid the foundations of phraseology and word formation, and the history of the literary language. § 3. ASPECTS AND SECTIONS OF LINGUISTICS Modern linguistics, as we have seen, is a combination of different linguistic schools and trends that bring to the fore different aspects "and research methods. Such a multidimensionality of linguistics is explained by the complexity of the language itself and the diversity of the tasks that society sets before Linguistics as a science is divided into general and particular, theoretical and applied (practical) .Private language is the science of a separate language, for example, Russian studies is the science of the Russian language, English studies is the science of the English language, Ukrainian studies is the science of the Ukrainian language, etc. Any private linguistics begins with the compilation of a dictionary and writing grammar, the implementation of these works involves not only special knowledge, but also a developed theory of the language norm.Any particular linguistics contains, therefore, some general information about the language, reflects the properties of the language in general. Thus, in the science of ru phonetics and grammar stand out in Russian, and this is also true for other particular linguistics and general linguistics. It is also true for all languages that speech sounds are divided into vowels and. consonants, and among the parts of speech are the name and the verb. However, any particular linguistics contains such information that is true only in this particular case, but cannot. 16 be accepted as true for all languages. Let us give several examples from phonetics and morphology, which testify to the concreteness of the theory of Russian studies. EXAMPLES from phonetics. For a person who speaks Russian, the usual sound is [s]: soap, [zhyt "] to live, walls. Meanwhile, such a sound is not even found in all Slavic languages, it is not in English and French and in many languages of the world. In Bulgarian The language has a special vowel, which is denoted by the letter ъ, but which is difficult for Russian to pronounce and it is difficult to find a match for it: t'piyat 'g'l - an obtuse angle, etc. n. Already in this example, [b] corresponds to [y], then [o]. EXAMPLE OF MORPHOLOGY. We are used to the fact that a noun has a gender and is declined; it seems to us that the presence of prepositions in the forms of indirect cases is usual: at the table, at the table, at the table, at the table, at the table. However, these properties are not required even for all nouns in the Russian language; after all, there is a group of indeclinable nouns (coat, role), as well as nouns of a general gender - such as the headman, crybaby, etc. We will find even more differences if we compare the facts of the Russian language with the facts of other languages. So, it turns out that a noun does not always have a gender; it is not, for example, in English and Armenian, in all Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages. Conversely, the category of certainty-uncertainty, characteristic of English, is absent in Russian. The endings that form the case forms are different in languages in terms of their sound composition, in the way they are attached to the stem, and in function. Moreover, in many languages there are no case forms of the noun: from the Slavic languages, such a grammatical feature is observed in Bulgarian and Macedonian; cf., for example: Bulgarian. masa - table, with masa - at the table, k'm masa - to the table; for masa - at the table, for masa - about the table. It is also known that English and French nouns do not have case forms. Even such a feature of a noun as the ability to carry a preposition with it is not common: many languages, including Turkic and Finno-Ugric, use for this purpose not a preposition, but a postposition (see Ch. IX, § 34, p. 216). Private and practical (applied) linguistics should not be confused with practical knowledge of the language. One can practically know well one or even a number of languages and not have knowledge about the language, not be theoretically prepared. Conversely, it is possible to know the theory of a language well and not actively speak languages. A linguist is a specialist in the field of theory and language; A person who speaks many languages is called a polyglot. Applied language knowledge is the application of: linguistic knowledge to practical activities. 17 An important branch of practical activity of linguists is the teaching of native and non-native languages in general and special schools. This activity causes the compilation of various kinds of reference books, primarily educational dictionaries and grammars. An important branch of practical activity of linguists is also the translation from one language to another, the development of terminology, the improvement of the alphabet and spelling, the creation of a written language for previously non-literate peoples, etc. n. Finally, a branch of applied linguistics is engineering linguistics, which has emerged in recent decades. This includes the use of technical means in teaching a language, the problems of television and radio communications, machine (automatic) translation, etc. General language knowledge systematizes data on all languages and establishes a theory applicable to different languages in their theoretical and applied study. General linguistics as a section of the science of language has as its goal: 1) to determine the nature of the language, its essence; 2) to establish the main aspects of the science of language and the tiers of the language, as well as the sciences that study them - morphology, lexicology, etc.; 3) give a taxonomy of languages, create a classification of languages; 4) develop a methodology for linguistic analysis, systematize and improve the methods, techniques and techniques of linguistics. With all the difference in the approach to the language and methods of analyzing it in different schools, in modern linguistics the main aspects of general linguistics have emerged. General linguistics, or general linguistics, consists of three main sections: external linguistics (it studies language as a social phenomenon, its social and mental functions; therefore, it is also called social linguistics, functional linguistics), internal linguistics and comparative linguistics (comparative linguistics)1. Internal, or structural, linguistics studies the language system, its units and categories, its levels (tiers) and their structure. Units of language, their relationship to each other in the language system, their linguistic form and linguistic content - this is what is both the object and subject of the science of the internal structure and system of the language. Its object is writing (the graphic and spelling form of the language), the sound structure of the language, the grammatical structure of the language, and its vocabulary. The main sections of this science are grammar, phonetics, lexicology and grammar. The term gr a m a t o l o g y 2 is recent; it is used in works that explore written 1 The term “comparative studies” is derived from lat. comparattvus - comparative and suffixes -ist- and -ik-. 2 From Greek. γςάμμαa - a written sign and bases -logy. 18 language and speech from the point of view of semiotics1. More often, the term p and w o is used - as a designation of the subject of study itself, as well as the name of the science of writing and written activity (writing technique and written speech activity). phonetics, grammar, lexicology and other, more specific branches of the science of language (for example, phraseology and word formation) study the structure of the language, regardless of its use. However, language exists only in society, only when it is used by people, and in different ways in different communicative areas. This gives rise to the variability of linguistic means, their synonymy, functional varieties, oral and book speech, various styles of the literary language. These properties of the language can also be the subject of special study. Thus, another science arises - with t and l and with t and k. Stylistics studies the ways of using and choosing language means depending on the nature and goals of the utterance and the conditions of communication, as well as the styles themselves that arose as a result of the functional stratification of the language. Stylistics deals primarily with the vocabulary of the language, as well as syntax, although morphology and orthoepy also have stylistic variation and rules for its stylistic evaluation and synonymic convergence. Since stylistics studies functional styles as social varieties of language, it becomes the subject of social linguistics. A language can only be studied on the material of one language in its present; the structure of a language can be studied in relation to other languages. The structure of the language becomes the subject of comparative studies. Comparative linguistics arose as comparative historical linguistics, studying its phonetics and morphology of the Indo-European languages. Comparative linguistics is subdivided into comparative-historical and comparative (cont r a s t i v n o e) . These aspects of comparative linguistics differ from each other in terms of the goals and methods of research: if comparative historical linguistics studies related languages that have arisen from a common source and therefore are united objectively, historically, then comparative linguistics also studies unrelated languages. Their comparison is carried out at the will of the researcher (of course, under the influence of social needs). Each of the individual linguistic sciences about the structure of the language can be general, comparative-historical, typological. Examples of such works are: Volkov AA Grammatology. Semiotics of written speech. M., 1982, 175 s; G e l b I. E. Experience in the study of writing. (Fundamentals of grammar.) M., 1982, 336 p. The term sem and o t and k a is formed on the basis of the Greek. δημείον - a sign, sign. This is the science of signs, their features and types, systems and conditions of use (sign situations). 19 private and applied. General phonetics, grammar and lexicology study units and categories that are common to all languages. Comparative historical phonetics and grammar study the sound and grammatical structure of related languages, regular correspondences of sounds and forms of languages, their chronological sequence, as well as the pattern of historical changes. Comparative-historical lexicology considers not so much the history of words and expressions as their etymology. Language typology (identification of the main types of languages - see § 40), like the morphological classification of languages, relies most of all on morphology and syntax. Private phonetics, grammar and lexicology differ in that they are based on the materials of one language. The presence of sections of general linguistics - general and particular linguistics, theoretical and applied linguistics - makes it possible for modern science of language to deeply and comprehensively explore the particular (individual), general and universal properties of languages, their functioning and development, to solve all the various tasks that the linguists and linguists modern life. FURTHER LITERATURE Berezin F. M. History of Soviet linguistics. Some aspects of the general theory of linguistics. Reader. M., 1981. Berezin F. M. Reader on the history of Russian linguistics. 2nd ed., rev. Moscow, 1977. Budagov, R. A. Struggle of Ideas and Trends in Linguistics of Our Time. M., 1978. 3 inder L. R., Maslov Yu. S. L. V. Shcherba is a theoretical linguist and teacher. L., 1982. Kondratov NA History of linguistic studies. M., 1979. Makarov V. I. A. A. Shakhmatov. M., 1981. O d i n c o v V. V. V. V. Vinogradov. M., 1983. Phil F. P. Essays on the theory of linguistics. M., 1982. 4 Urmaeva N. V. F. I. Buslaev. M., 1984. THE PUBLIC NATURE OF LANGUAGE AND REGULARITIES OF ITS DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER II LANGUAGE AS THE MOST IMPORTANT MEANS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION Language as the most important means of human communication is inextricably linked with society, its culture and people who live and work in society, using the language widely and diversely. Without considering the purpose of the language, its connections with society, human consciousness and mental activity, without considering the rules of functioning and the laws of the historical development of languages, it is impossible to deeply and correctly understand the language system, its units and categories. V. I. Lenin in his work “On the right of nations to self-determination”, analyzing the relationship between language and nation in their historical development, wrote: “Language is the most important means of human communication” (vol. 25, p. 258). In this definition, it is important to emphasize not only that language is a means of communication, but especially that it is the most important means of communication, and also that that this is a specifically human form of communication. The disclosure of the features of the concept of "language" implies, therefore, a comparison of language with other means of communication and a characterization of language as a social phenomenon. § 4. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE Communication (or communication 1) is the transmission from one person to another of a message for one purpose or another. Communication takes place as a result of the communicative activity of two or more persons in a certain situation and in the presence of a common means of communication. communicative function. The most important means of human The language of communication is the language. It acts as an instrument of communication, thus exercising a communicative function. Communicating with each other, people convey their thoughts, expressions of will, feelings and emotional experiences, influence each other in a certain direction, achieve a common understanding. Language gives people the opportunity to understand each other and to work together in all spheres of human activity. Language has been and remains one of the forces that ensure the existence and development of human society. From lat. communicatio - message, transfer. 21 Language as a means of communication serves both the individual and society (society) as a whole. Language means are used by people to express the most diverse content - right and wrong, interesting and uninteresting, useful and useless (remember “secular” conversations), their own and others, etc. Of course, socially significant information is important. The language is used in all areas of communication - economic, socio-political, everyday life, in the field of fiction and aesthetic impact, science and education, in the field of office work and personal correspondence, in the field of religious worship. The expansion of the scope of the language, the multifunctionality of its communicative properties is directly dependent on the socio-political and cultural development of the people, their state. Language acts as a means of communication both when one person speaks (monologic speech) and when two or more persons speak (dialogical and group speech). Communication can be not only oral, but also written. Oral conversation between two people is a natural form of communication. With the advent of technical means of communication (radio and television), oral monologue communication has become widespread, and the role of perception and understanding of someone else's speech has increased. Language as a means of communication is a common property. At the same time, he can perform two social functions - integrating and differentiating. The language performs these social functions when the historical formation of languages occurs on the basis of the concentration of dialects or the unification of languages, as well as the isolation of the language (this is discussed in detail in Chapter IV). The language performs an integrating function when it is used as the language of international or world communication. Such social functions are performed by the Russian language. A language that is not used for communication between peoples performs a differentiating function. This is the native language of a particular nation or nationality. In bourgeois multinational countries, the ruling class introduces, sometimes by force, their own national language as an obligatory language; so it was in tsarist Russia, so it was in the colonies, where English, Spanish, French, German and some other languages of the conquerors were used as common official languages. Marxism-Leninism showed how much the national question, including language policy, depends on the interests of the class struggle of the proletariat, determined the role and place of the national question in the revolutionary transformation of the world. V. I. Lenin considered the solution of the national question and the language problem to be part of the “working question,” which could only be resolved in a socialist society. V. I. Lenin noted: “Having rebuilt capitalism into socialism, the proletariat creates the possibility of the complete elimination of national oppression” (vol. 30, p. 22). V. I. Lenin constantly emphasized that one of the most important factors of a truly democratic state is the equality of all nations and nationalities and their languages: “Not a single privilege for any nation, not for one language! Not the slightest oppression, not the slightest injustice towards the national minority!” (vol. 23, p. 150). “A democratic state,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “unconditionally must recognize the complete freedom of native languages and reject any privileges of one of the languages” (vol. 25, pp. 71-72). When the monarchists of Russia, and after them the liberals, began to push through the idea of a compulsory, forcibly introduced state language and called Russian as such, while speculating with arguments about its culturally progressive significance, V. I. Lenin wrote: “We know you better, that the language of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky is great and powerful. We want more than you that between the oppressed classes of all the nations inhabiting Russia, without distinction, the closest possible communion and fraternal unity be established. And we, of course, stand for the fact that every inhabitant of Russia has the opportunity to learn the great Russian language. We do not want only one thing: the element of coercion. We do not want to drive into paradise with a club. For, no matter how many beautiful phrases about “culture” you might say, the obligatory state language is associated with coercion, hammering ... ”(vol. 24, pp. 294-295). V. I. Lenin spoke out against any nationalism, including against “cultural-national autonomy”. Speaking against the state language, V. I. Lenin at the same time pointed out that in a free multinational and multilingual state, the peoples inhabiting it must themselves voluntarily choose one or another language as a means of interethnic communication. This choice must be made by the working people of different nationalities themselves, but not imposed "from above". Back in 1913, Vladimir Ilyich wrote: “-..the needs of economic turnover will always force nationalities living in the same state (as long as they want to live together) to learn the language of the majority. The more democratic the system of Russia is, ... the more urgently the needs of economic turnover will push different nationalities to learn the language most convenient for general commercial relations.” And further: “... the needs of economic turnover will themselves determine the language of a given country, knowing which is beneficial for the majority in the interests of trade relations. And this definition will be all the more firm in that it will be accepted voluntarily by the population of different nations, the faster and wider, the more consistent democracy will be...” (vol. 23, pp. 423-425). The entire course of the historical development of the Land of Soviets has confirmed the correctness and vitality of Lenin's propositions. Our socialist society is characterized by complete, not in words but in deeds, equality of nations and languages, none of which is given preference. Any language in our country can be spoken, and the Russian language, due to historical necessity, has become a means of interethnic communication. It is voluntarily studied in schools, it is used everywhere, everywhere and always in the process of studying the culture and economy of peoples. Enriched at the expense of other languages, it, in turn, has a beneficial effect on the development of all the national languages of our country (see also Chapter IV, § 12 and Chapter V, § 16). Cognitive and accumulative functions. The communicative function is one of the main social functions of the language. The second main function of the language is due to the content of communication. “Language,” wrote K. Marx and F. Engels, “is the immediate reality of thought”1. The purpose of the language to be a means of expressing, transmitting and storing content is called its cognitive (or expressive 2) function. Speaking about the cognitive function of the language, it is necessary to distinguish between the transmitted, communicative meaning of the sentence and its abstract, formal meaning, which serves only as a means to formalize and convey the meaning - the result of thinking, the specific content of the sentence. So, in the sentence It smells of hay over the meadows, it is said about haymaking - that mowed grass gives off a special smell. However, this sentence contains the meaning of impersonality, the circumstances of the place, the subject of the state; they do not belong to a specific content, since they are able to form many other specific thoughts, for example: Because of the Volga, the meadows smell of flowers (A. Ostrovsky); Buckwheat honey smelt from the fields (Fadeev); A warm wind pulled (Fet); Dampness wafted from the hut (Lermontov). The cognitive function is manifested not only in the communication of individuals, it is revealed in the language experience of the people, it ensures the preservation of a wide variety of knowledge for descendants - about society and nature, about thinking and language. For example, items such as chain mail _ or paneva (the so-called homespun woolen skirt) fell out of use, but the words, 1 Marks K. and Engel's F. Op. 2nd ed., vol. 3, p. 448. In the future, all references to the works of K. Marx and F. Engels are given only for this edition, indicating the volume and page. 2 From lat. cognitio - cognition and expressia - expression; the secondary, stylistic function is also called the expressive function (see § 14, p. 84). 24 denoting them are preserved in the texts of the Russian language. The function of language to reflect and store knowledge is called akumu ULYATIVNOY. In the age of the scientific and technological revolution, the role of language as an instrument of thinking and cognition is growing, the volume and depth of knowledge expressed by language are increasing rapidly. Communicative, cognitive and accumulative functions are the main social functions of the language as the most important means of communication. The rest of the features are optional and minor; they do not belong to the language as a whole, but to its variants and styles. Style and speech functions. Knowledge of the language, its categories and units is necessary when learning a language. It is also necessary for language teaching. In order to use the language, it is necessary to master it, that is, to form the skills and abilities to speak and read, write and listen to the speech of others. Fluency in a language is based on speech practice, on the transformation of knowledge of language means into skills and abilities to communicate in a particular language in any communication conditions. The inclusion of language tools in the context involves familiarity with the styles of language and styles of speech. Both do not form special languages; they are variants of the language and the norms of its use, forming its stylistic function. Language styles serve different areas of communicative activity. They are classified on the basis of varieties of the cognitive function of the language: the function of ordinary conversation underlies the everyday style, the function of the message is the official documentary and scientific style, the function of influence is the journalistic and artistic style. Accordingly, it is said about the functions of the language, most often rhetorical and poetic. Each functional style of language has smaller varieties; for example, the scientific style is divided into scientific, popular science and educational and scientific. Each style has written and spoken versions. If we consider stylistic varieties and variants of the language as a manifestation of the social functions of the language, then there will be many such functions; however, in terms of language use, they are selective and belong not to the language as a whole, but to its external structure. Speech functions arise when linguistic means are included in the structure of a speech act and types of presentation. Speech functions associated with the use of language to express specific thoughts, wills, feelings and emotions, considered from lat. accumulatio - accumulation. Along with the terms “accumulation”, “accumulation”, a number of modern sciences use the term “cumulation”, “cumulative” (from Latin cumulatio - increase, accumulation). 25 are found in § 7 (p. 41)". The context2 function is realized in the thematic and logical-compositional structure of the text, it is associated with the main types of presentation - narration, description, reasoning, proof. Functions of language units. Language as the most important means of communication and generalization fulfills its social purpose due to the flexibility of its units, the multidimensionality and dynamism of the language system, its categories.Different units of the language are involved in the performance of the functions of the language, in the expression and transmission of the message.Directly in the act of speech of the message, nominative and predicative units of the language are used - words and sentences Nominative and 3 units are not only individual significant words (house, walk, five, good, fast, etc.), but also compound names and phraseological units (railway, from everything hearts).Predicative and 4 units are various kinds of sentences.In addition to communicative units, the language has even more structured units necessary for the construction of nominative and predicative units. Such units of the language are phonemes and morphemes, word forms and models of word formation, inflection and construction of sentences. The means of language, its units and models are related in three ways - to the language system, thinking and the person - the speaker, the listener and the reader. Units of language differ in material and ideal side, form and content, and the nature of these sides and their relationship to each other are different for different sides. The expression of linguistic form of linguistic meanings is called their intrastructural functions. All language units, like all sign units, have a material side. They must be perceived by the senses, primarily by the organs of hearing and vision. The ability of units of a language to be perceived is called their "per" As a stylistic and at the same time speech function, they characterize em from and in nu u (from French emotive - emotional). In the language itself, as you know, there are linguistic means that are used to express feelings and emotions, such as interjections, nouns with diminutive suffixes.Feelings and emotions are at the same time expressed in speech with the help of special intonation, gestures, etc. 2 The term "context" (as well as "text") is formed on the basis Latin contextus - connected, connected (oratio contexta - coherent speech; textus - coherent presentation); the context is a semantically complete passage of written speech; sometimes the context is also called an excerpt of oral speech. й - serving for naming, nomination, from French nominatif - nominal, nominal (cf. Latin nomen - name, name). pertaining to a predicate, from Latin praedicatum. the term “predicative” also uses the term “communicative”; communication is called in this case the unit of the message. 26 with a spectral function. Units of language serve to designate and delimit something else, ideal and material. The ability of language units to designate and distinguish them is called a function. The material side of language units is formed by phonemes, as well as their typical combinations - phonemic blocks. Phonemes and morphemes are the smallest units of the language, they have distinctive functions. For example, the words zhar and shar, var and thief, ox and shaft differ respectively by one phoneme, each of which is not a morpheme. The words set, selection, collection are distinguished by a prefix morpheme, and the words collection-chic and collection are distinguished by a suffix morpheme. If speech sounds are the natural matter of language, then phonemes and morphemes are peculiar only to human language, they are a social fact. According to the matter that is used to build units of communication, the language can be sound and written. The main form of the language is sound, since there are non-written languages. Language and other means of communication. Along with the sound language (articulate speech), since ancient times people have used other sound means of communication - the “language of the whistle” and the “language of drums” (gongs). The whistled language is heavily used on the island of Gomera in the Canary archipelago; he is known to the indigenous people of Mexico. Drums are widespread in West, East and Central Africa. It should, however, be recalled that in the exact meaning of the term there are no special separate “languages of drums”, since they recode, that is, transmit in a special way, the language of a people or tribe. Civilized peoples also have additional means of communication and thought transmission for transcoding their languages. These additional languages are audio and written. So, along with ordinary colloquial speech, various sound signals (bells, beeps, etc.) are used; modern technical means of communication adjoin here: sound recording (“speaking” letter), telephone, video telephone, radio, etc. Written additional means of communication are more diverse. All of them are characterized by the fact that they translate the sound form of the language into a form perceived with the help of the organs of sight and touch in whole or in part. Among the graphic forms of speech, in addition to the main form - the general letter of this people, they differ: From lat. regipio - I perceive with feelings; perceptio - understanding, perception. From lat. significo - I designate; significatio - a sign, sign, meaning. 1. Auxiliary languages - manual alphabet (dactylology1) and dotted alphabet; they were created to help people who have lost their hearing or sight to use the language. Manual alphabet is based on the image of letters with the fingers; signals are added to the finger signs to help distinguish similar sounds; for example, a hand on the chest means a voiced sound, a hand far from the chest means a dull sound. Here is one phrase: The relief-dot alphabet (font) for the blind was developed in 1829 by the Frenchman Louis Braille; Letters are drawn using a combination of six dots. The same phrase in Braille will be pricked like this: 2. Specialized signaling systems, for example : telegraphic alphabets (in particular, Morse code), road signs, signaling with flags, rockets, etc. item 3. Scientific symbols - mathematical, chemical, logical, etc. In modern science, the symbolism of mathematical logic is widely used. Here are some symbols and their meaning: R - ratio; xRy - x is related to y \ L ٨- conjunction: A AB - A and B; V - disjunction: A VB - A or B; 1 28 From Greek. δάκτυλος - finger. and and λόγος - word. ≠ unequal: A ≠ B - A is unequal to B; ─ ─ negation: A - not - A; ⊂ - inclusion: A ⊂ B - A is included in B; ⊃ implication: A ⊃ B - if A, then B. Signaling, symbols, language means, being different sign systems, are used as a means of communication. Language is a comprehensive and historically established system of means of communication serving s o c i n i n t i o n in all spheres of its activity. Additional signaling systems and scientific symbols do not have these properties. The scope of artificial sign language systems is narrow. This, of course, does not diminish their social significance. For example, now, in the age of the scientific and technological revolution, the role of information in the mathematical sciences is increasing, which leads to the spread of mathematical symbols. Still, the scope of the symbol system is limited. § 5. LANGUAGE AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON Language is not an individual and not a biological phenomenon. A person cannot be isolated from society; the individual voluntarily or involuntarily reflects social relations. Language is all the more connected with society and its history. The social essence of the language is clearly visible when compared with the sound signaling of animals. Animals have organs similar to those of humans, including the brain, sensory organs, and nasopharynx. Man can teach animals to pronounce and perceive human words. In Karola Schulze's parrot, Koko “knew” 120 words. Durov trained the pronunciation of dog speech: [nno ma-ma]. The horse reacts to the sounds of the man go, [whoa] - stop. However, neither the orangutan nor the horse perceive and produce sounds outside of a specific situation, to denote concepts. . Here is one example. In 192, Indian hunters found two girls in a wolf's hole. The girls behaved like wolves, especially the eldest (she was called Kamala); she lived with the wolves for at least five years. Kamala walked on all fours, resting her palms and feet on the ground, she ran as fast as a man on two legs. Kamala lapped water like a dog, greedily pounced on raw meat, gnawed on bones, and howled like a wolf at night. The girl was completely unable to speak. 29 The "humanization" of Kamala proceeded very slowly. It was only in her third year that she learned to stand on two legs if she was supported from behind; only seven years later she mastered walking on two legs, but as soon as she had to run, she fell on all fours and jumped on all fours. Learning to speak was very slow; four years later, Kamala learned only six words, and after seven years, her vocabulary did not reach 50 words. At the age of sixteen, this girl from the wolf's lair behaved like a four-year-old child. She died soon after. Language and race are not related to each other. There are more languages than races. In addition, racial characteristics are not absolute, since mixed and transitional forms have existed and still exist. Mixed forms arose in the era of the so-called great migration of peoples, the great geographical discoveries and the colonization of modern times. Linguistics has repeatedly emphasized the difference between language and race. The French linguist A. Meillet wrote in 1911 that “language depends on historical conditions and does not depend at all on race, which is the concept of physical order”1. A well-known linguist and ethnographer, a specialist in the field of general linguistics and the languages of the Indians of America, E. Sapir, considering the division of peoples according to race, language and culture, argued that “language, race and culture do not necessarily correlate”2. Being a special social phenomenon, language differs from other social phenomena of a superstructural and basic character. Language and economy, language and production have no direct connection. F. Engels wrote to I. Bloch in September 1890: “It is unlikely that anyone will be able, without becoming a laughing stock, to explain economically the existence of each small German state in the past and at the present time, or the origin of the High German movement of consonants, which turned the geographical division formed by the mountainous a chain from the Sudetenland to the Taunus, into a real crack that runs through all of Germany” (vol. 37, p. 395). The social nature of the language is manifested primarily in its connection with the people - the creator and bearer of this language, its norms, in particular literary and written. The presence of a general (sometimes they say - a national) language is the highest manifestation of the sociality of the language. The sociality of the language is also manifested in the social differentiation of the language, in the presence of dialects in 3 - territorial and social. 1 Meie A. Introduction to the comparative study of Indo-European languages. M. - L., 1938, p. 106. 2 Sepir E. Language. Introduction to the study of speech. M. - L., 1934, p. 169.3 From Greek. Siodekxog - dialect, adverb. The science of dialects and adverbs is called dialektology. 30 A dialect does not form a language by itself: it is a part of this or that language. The local dialect is a set of (nonetic, lexical and grammatical features common in a particular territory. Phonetic and lexical features are more diverse than grammatical ones. Phonetic dialect features cover both the composition of phonemes, and their pronunciation.In some dialects of the Russian language, for example, phonemes<ц) и (ч), совпадая в одном звуке - [ц] или [ч]: цай, хоцу, цапля, или чай, хочу, чапля. Вот как отразилось это фонетическое явление в частушке, записанной П. Я. Черных в деревне В. Суворово Иркутской области: У милёнка серы брюки И такой же с п и н з а ц о к. Я н а р о с н а подмигнула, Он бяжыт как д у р а ц о к. Особенно заметны диалектные различия в произношении неударных гласных, порождающие такие фонетические явления, как разные виды оканья и аканья. Диалектные различия в лексике еще более разнообразны, так как они касаются не столько самих лексических групп, их состава, сколько отдельных слов, их значений. Среди собственно диалектной лексики можно указать такие слова, как рогач - ухват, вага - гиря, лозг - овраг, чки - льдины, скородить - боронить. Особенно разнообразны слова, обозначающие узкоместные предметы быта и хозяйства. Степень отличия диалектов друг от друга и их территориальный охват различны по языкам. Например, диалектное членение французского языка (в самой Франции) не столь значительно, как диалектные различия в немецком языке. Немецкие диалекты характеризуются большей дробностью членения и большей противопоставленностью малых зон. Диалектные особенности находятся за пределами литературной нормы. Они, однако, могут встречаться в речи персонажей художественных произведений. Диалектные особенности, используемые в художественных произведениях, выполняют особую роль. Учитывая необычность такого употребления диалектных слов и особую эстетическую нагрузку, их называют специальным словом - д и а л е к т и з м ы. Лексические и семантические диалектизмы - это такие диалектные слова и их значения, которые вводятся в текст художественного произведения для создания местного колорита, В частушке, как это часто бывает, отражена не одна диалектная особенность; в ней есть особенности фонетические (“бяжыт” вместо [б"иэжыт], “наросно” вместо [нлрошнъ]) и нефонетические (“спинзацок” вместо пиджачок, “серы” вместо серые). 31 для речевой характеристики персонажа. Так, например, М. А. Шолохов постоянно соотносил диалектные и литературные слова: курень - дом, баз - двор, соха - жердь, гас - керосин. Диалектизмы-слова курень, баз, диалектизмы-значения соха и гас служат для более четкого изображения действительности. В речи деда Щукаря диалектизмы используются для создания комического. От местных диалектов надо отличать ж а р г о н ы и проф е с с и о н а л ь н у ю р е ч ь. Местные диалекты обслуживают население данной местности, могут при благоприятных условиях быть положены в основу вновь возникающего языка. Жаргоны, являясь прежде всего и главным образом отклонениями от общего языка, имеют узкую сферу применения - социаль ную и территориальную (они свойственны прежде всего городской речи). Жаргонные явления свойственны, с одной стороны, верхушке господствующего класса (примером может служить дворянский жаргон), а с другой стороны - деклассированным элементам общества. Несомненным отклонением от литературно го языка являются молодежный сленг и детская речь. Жаргон как речевое явление представляет собой набор некоторого количества специфических слов и выражений, иностранных слов и переосмысленных общих слов, некоторых отклонений в их произношении. Особую социальную разновидность речи образуют условные языки ремесленников (портных, печников, стекольщиков и т. п.) и торговцев (коробейников). Возникнув при феодализме как отражение цеховой замкнутости профессий, условные языки при капитализме становятся пережиточной категорией социальнотерриториального образования. Лексика этих ремесел возникает в результате переосмысления и преобразования родных и заимствованных слов, а также образования новых слов (свет-лик - день, вербух - глаз, векчело - человек, пекура - печь). Социальность языка проявляется в наличии профессиональной лексики и терминологии, которая характеризует не только речь социальных групп, но и становится составным компонентом общего языка, его литературно-письменной нормы. Наличие территориальных и социальных диалектов, узкосоциальной и профессиональной предназначенности целых групп и разрядов лексики не разрушает единства языка, его общей основы, не превращает язык в узкосоциальное явление. Язык о б щ е н а р о д е н в с в о е й с у щ н о с т и. Его диалектное и профессиональное варьирование не лишает его общих свойств. Язык отличается как от орудий производства, так и от форм производственного объединения людей. Самос тоятельность языка как общественного явления проявляется в несовпадении государственного и языкового объединения людей, деления людей по религиозному и языковому признаку Конечно, существуют однонациональные государства, где обще32 народный, литературный и государственный языки совпадают. Сейчас в Европе существует около 20 однонациональных стран - Австрия, Албания, ГДР, Дания, Италия, Исландия, Норвегия, Португалия, ФРГ, Франция и некоторые другие. Однонациональными считаются страны, где основная национальность составляет более 90% населения. Стремлением согласовать язык и государственность является признание двух или нескольких государственных языков. В Канаде, где живут два основных народа (англо-канадцы и франкоканадцы), два государственных языка - английский и французский. В Швейцарии официально признаны четыре государственных языка: немецкий, французский, итальянский и ретороманский. Несколько государственных языков существует в Индии: хинди и английский; официальными (главным образом культовыми) признаются санскрит и урду; официальными языками штатов являются: ассамский, бенгали, гуджарати, хинди, каннада, кашмири, малайялам, маратхи, ория, панджаби, тамили, телегу. Многонациональными странами являются Великобритания и Испания, Югославия и Чехословакия, Индия и Китай. В Индонезии почти 150 племен и народов; правда, все они еще не обрели самостоятельности. В СССР около 130 наций и народностей, среди них более 20 наций численностью более 1 млн. человек, более 30 численностью от 100 тыс. до 1 млн. человек. Особенно многоязычны Азия и Африка. Так, в Азии расселено несколько сотен народов, стоящих на разных ступенях исторического развития. Большинство стран многонациональны; более 50 народов живет в каждой из таких стран, как Индия, Индонезия, Китай, Вьетнам, Филиппины; более чем по 20 народов живет в Бирме, Пакистане, Афганистане, Иране и ряде других стран. Значительно труднее языковая ситуация, когда государственным и вообще литературно-письменным языком оказывается язык, неродной для основной части населения страны. Так было в прошлом, так бывает и сейчас. Например, на острове Гаити, заселенном сейчас неграми и мулатами, государственным языком признан французский, разговаривают же на креольском. В Мексике государственным и разговорным выступает испанский, хотя в стране живет около 3 млн. индейцев, говорящих на своих языках (ацтекском, майя, отоми и др). и около 1 млн. североамериканцев. Следовательно, факты показывают, что язык, будучи важнейшим средством общения и формой национальной культуры, тесно связан с обществом, его категориями и институтами. Однако особое общественное назначение и особое строение делают язык с а м о с т о я т е л ь н о й о б щ е с т в е н н о й кат е г о р и е й. ч 33 6. ЯЗЫК И МЫШЛЕНИЕ Будучи орудием обмена мыслями и закрепления их для потомства, язык как форма национальной культуры непосредственно связан с сознанием и мышлением. Термины “мысль”, “сознание” и “мышление” очень часто употребляют синонимично, обозначая ими духовную деятельность человека, которая состоит в отражении объективной действительности в сознании,- самое это свойство высшей нервной деятельности человека, а также процесс этого отражения и результат отражения. Однако термин “сознание” употребляется и более специально. С о з н а н и е м в этом случае обозначают, во-первых, совокупность психической деятельности, включая интеллект, чувства и волю человека (мышлением называют лишь способность мыслить и рассуждать). Сознанием называют, во-вторых, результат теоретической и практической деятельности, осознание человеком, обществом, народом своего бытия и отношения к миру. В этом случае используют также специальные термины - “мировоззрение”, “идеология”, “народное самосознание”. Мысль - это конкретный результат мышления. М ы ш л е н и е как способность мыслить и рассуждать, делать умозаключения и давать оценки может быть образным, техническим и логическим. Образное мышление предполагает живость восприятия, единство представления, понятия и оценки. Оно находит свое выражение в поэтической речи, в художественных произведениях живописи, музыки, архитектуры, в кинофильмах, телеспектаклях и телефильмах. Техническое мышление соединяет образ и понятие с техническим их воплощением. Логическое мышление построено на строгом соблюдении правил употребления понятий и построения суждения. Язык я в л я е т с я с р е д с т в о м и о р у д и е м всех в и д о в м ы ш л е н и я, он материализует и выражает сознание- прежде всего словарным составом. Слова обращены к миру вещей и миру понятий. Слова называют предметы и выражают знания. Язык как средство выражения и передачи мысли. Роль языка как орудия мышления проявляется прежде всего в формировании и выражении мыслей - результатов мышления, познавательной деятельности. “Самые высшие достижения человеческой мысли,- говорил М. И. Калинин,- самые глубокие знания и самые пламенные чувства останутся неизвестными для людей, если они не будут ясно и точно оформлены в словах. Язык - это орудие для выражения мысли. И мысль только тогда становится мыслью, когда она высказана в речи, когда она вышла наружу посредством языка, когда она - как сказали бы философы-опосредствована и объективировалась для других”" 1 34 К а л и н и н М. И. Избр. произв. М., 1962, с. 444. Язык выражает и передает не только интеллектуальные общения, но и чувства - эмоции и волеизъявления. По целям высказывания различают функциональные (модальные) р а з н о в и д н о с т и предложений, которые, как известно, бывала повествовательными, восклицательными, побудительными и вопросительными. На этом основании выделятся виды когнитивной функции, а именно - информативная (функция передачи сообщения), эмотивная (функция передачи ЧУВСТВ и эмоций), волюнтивная (функция передачи волеизъявления) и и н т е р р о г а т и в н а я (вопросительная). Непосредственнее всего единицы языка связаны с единицами логического мышления: слово с понятием, предложение с суждением. Слово и понятие отражают отличительные признаки предметов и явлений объективного мира. Предложение и суждение организуют мысль как утверждение или отрицание. Однако слово может указывать на несущественные признаки и указывать на представление, а предложение - содержать вопрос или побуждение; ни понятие, ни суждение не обладают этими свойствами. Даже значение такого слова, как телевидение, казалось бы, близко к определению научного понятия, различно толкуется в словаре и учебном пособии. В “Словаре русского языка” (1972) С. И. Ожегова значение слова телевидение определяется так: “Передача и прием на экран изображения движущихся и неподвижных объектов на расстоянии средствами электро- и радиосвязи” (с. 727). В курсе физических основ техники современного телевидения дается такое определение: “ Т е л е в и д е н и е - область техники, дающая возможность при помощи специальных устройств и каналов связи наблюдать на экране приемного устройства изображения объектов как неподвижных, так и подвижных и, как правило, весьма удаленных и физически невидимых из пункта наблюдения. В основе телевидения лежат три важнейших физических процесса - преобразование световой энергии изображения в электрический сигнал, передача этого сигнала по каналам электрической связи и преобразование принятого сигнала в оптическое изображение”. (К о с т ы к о в Ю. В., К р ы ж а н о в с к и й В. Д. Телевидение. Физические основы. М., 1972, с. 9). Лексикографическое определение раскрывает значение слова телевидение как характеристику процессов, совершающихся в телевизоре; научное пособие характеризует телевидение как отрасль техники, указывая три важнейших физических процесса телевизионной связи. Расхождение лексикографического определения значения слова (в том числе выражающего научное или техническое понятие) и научного определения содержания понятия показывает, что лексическое значение и научное понятие не совпадают, что язык и мышление отличаются друг от друга. 35 Язык и м ы ш л е н и е (имеются в виду как языковые логические формы, так и конкретные мысли) о т л и ч а ю т с я друг от д р у г а " по н а з н а ч е н и ю и по с т р о е н и ю с в о и х е д и н и ц. Первое различие состоит в том, что целью мышления является получение новых знаний, их систематизация, тогда как язык всего лишь обслуживает п о з н а в а т е л ь н у ю д е я т е л ь н о с т ь, помогая оформить мысли и закрепить знания, передать их. Иначе говоря, мы мыслим, чтобы узнать и понять, говорим же для того, чтобы передать наши мысли, чувства, пожелания. Второе различие языка и мышления состоит в строении их единиц, в различии языковой и логической формы. Основу мышления составляют логический строй мысли, правила оперирования понятиями и суждениями для достижения истины. Логические законы и формы - общечеловеческие. О с н о в у я з ы к а составляют его г р а м м а т и ч е с к и й строй, п р а в и л а словоизменения, словообраз о в а н и я и п о с т р о е н и я п р е д л о ж е н и й, для того чтобы точно выразить и ясно передать мысль. Грамматический строй, его формы весьма и весьма разнообразны в языках мира; более того, в пределах одного и того же языка можно использовать различные синонимические средства для выражения одной и той же мысли. Диалектика е д и н с т в а я з ы к а и м ы ш л е н и я проявляется в том, что мысль непосредственно связана с языком, но не с языком вообще, а с определенным к о н к р е т н ы м языком, который используется как средство общения. Язык и общественное сознание. Язык, будучи орудием общения и мышления, связан не только с мыслительной и познавательной деятельностью отдельного человека, но и с производственной и духовной деятельностью людей, с базисом и надстройкой, т. е. с общественным бытием и общественным сознанием. Их соотношение является существенным для философского изучения общества, его структуры и исторического развития. Философское рассмотрение связи языка с обществом и доказательство этой связи служит основанием для развития идеалистических и материалистических взглядов на язык. Идеалистическое понимание общественной природы языка состоит в том, что язык обособляется от общества, рассматривается как имманентная структура, изучаемая сама в себе и для себя, как внутриязыковая система отношений единиц языка. При таком подходе язык не является ни. орудием общения, ни орудием мышления, так как, по словам Ф. де Соссюра, “в противоположность часто встречающемуся ошибочному представлению язык не есть механизм, созданный и приспособленный для выражения понятий”". Идеалистической по своей 1 С о с с ю р Ф. де. Труды по языкознанию. М., 1977, с. 118. 36 философской основе является также гипотеза Уорфа - Сепира, которая преувеличивает роль языка в познавательной деятельности людей: “Мы видим, слышим и воспринимаем так или иначе те или другие явления,- цитирует Э. Сепира Б. Уорф,- главным образом благодаря тому, что языковые нормы нашего общества предполагают данную форму выражения”1. Диалектический и исторический материал не отрицает влияния общественного сознания на развитие общества, на самую познавательную деятельность людей, которая порождается общественной практикой и корректирует ее, так как практика есть источник и критерий истины. Те знания, которые закрепились в словах и конструкциях языка, есть результат мышления многих людей; будучи закрепленными в языке, они используются как инструмент дальнейшего познания. Общественное сознание выражается в различных формах; они включают в себя политические, правовые, нравственные, религиозные, художественные, философские и иные общественные взгляды и научные знания, причем сама наука является одной из форм общественного сознания. Формы общественного сознания, как и сферы использования языка, оказывают влияние на язык, порождая особую терминологию, стилистические особенности языка. Однако язык остается единым для всех форм общественного сознания, для всех сфер его использования. Впрочем, религия и наука нередко избирают своим языком не язык народа, а чужой язык. Так, в России для этих нужд использовались церковнославянский и латинский языки. Проникновение национального языка в сферу высшего образования обязано росту национального самосознания. Французский язык введен в лауку Р. Декартом (1586-1650), английский - Дж. Локком (1632-1704); за науку на русском языке боролся М. В Ломоносов. В 1768 г. “Московские ведомости” сообщали о том, что в Московском университете “для лучшего распространения в России наук начались лекции во всех трех факультетах на российском языке”. Идеологи американских империалистических кругов широко используют политические лозунги, политические эвфемизмы, искажение смысла слов для идеологической обработки масс. Например, термин “капитализм”, четко выражающий социальноэкономическое понятие, заменяется “фразами” - “система свободного предпринимательства” (the system of free enterprising), “открытое общество” (an open society), “народный или трансформированный капитализм” (people"s or transformed capitalism), “массовое общество” (mass society), “социальное партнерство” (social partnership), “экономический гуманизм” (economic humanism) и т. п. В ФРГ вводятся такие, например, См.: Уорф Б. Л. Отношение норм поведения и мышления к языку.- кн.: Новое в лингвистике. Вып. 1. М., 1960, с. 135. 37 политические эвфемизмы: Ostzone - Восточная зона (вместо Deutsche Demokratische Republik), Sozialpartner (социальный партнер): капиталист (Arbeitgeber- работодатель) и рабочий (Arbeitnehmer - работоприниматель); боннская газета “Генеральанцайгер” словосочетание Московского Договора 1970 г. “нерушимость границ” понимает как “возможность для мирного воссоединения или ненасильственного пересмотра немецких границ на востоке, хотя бы на бумаге”. Язык и культура. В истории и современном языкознании выделяется проблема связи языка и культуры, учение о языке как форме культуры. Культура - это совокупность достижений человеческого общества в производственной, общественной и духовной жизни; различают культуру материальную и духовную. Чаще термин “культура” относится к духовной жизни народа: говорят об античной культуре, буржуазной культуре, социалистической культуре и т. д. Отдельный человек различно представляет культуру своего народа; она проявляется в культуре труда и быта, культуре поведения, культуре речи. Язык связан прежде всего с духовной культурой - с художественной и научной жизнью общества, с философией и другими формами общественной надстройки. Более того, язык сам по себе является частью духовной культуры народа. Словами с культурно-историческим компонентом значения в современном русском языке являются, например, такие, как колхоз, субботник, офицер, блины, квас, верста, крепостной, помещик и т. п. Язык непосредственнее других форм общественного сознания связан с фольклором, литературой. Когда говорят о языке как форме национальной культуры, имеют в виду прежде всего художественную литературу. Однако язык связан и с другими формами общественного сознания, он является их органом, словесным выражением. В языке как форме национальной культуры отражается интернациональное и национальное, общенародное и классовое. Демократические и социалистические элементы имеются в любой культуре. “Мы,- писал В. И. Ленин,- из каждой ■ национальной культуры берем только ее демократические и ее социалистические элементы, берем их только и безусловно в противовес буржуазной культуре, буржуазному национализму каждой нации” (т. 24, с. 121). Советская культура - социалистическая по содержанию, интернационалистическая по своему характеру. Советская культура многонациональна по своим формам, в том числе по языку (см. гл. V, § 16). Ведущую роль в сохранении и умножении достижений советской культуры играет культура русского народа - сама по себе, а также как образец для развития культуры всех народов нашей страны и многих народов мира. Русский язык, 38 го словарный состав, стилистическое богатство оказали и оказывают прогрессивное влияние на развитие литературных язы-к0В языков художественной литературы больших и малых народов СССР. Классики марксизма-ленинизма о единстве языка и сознания. В философских системах проблема связи языка общества, языка и сознания всегда занимала и занимает важное место. Марксизмленинизм как наука и как мировоззрение играет руководящую роль в строительстве нового общества, в развитии передовой науки. Высказывания К. Маркса, Ф. Энгельса, В. И. Ленина о языке являются конкретным применением теории к одной из областей человеческой деятельности - к языку, а потому имеют методологическое значение. Особо следует оценивать их высказывания о связи языка и сознания, о языке как орудии мышления и классовой борьбы. Неогегельянцы, сторонники идеалистической философии Гегеля, обособляли мышление в самостоятельную силу, обособляли язык в некое самостоятельное царство, существующее отдельно от общественной жизни. К- Маркс и Ф. Энгельс подчеркивали, что язык является элементом общественной жизни, продуктом человеческой истории. “Ни мысль, ни язык,- писали они,- не образуют сами по себе особого царства, ... они только проявления действительной жизни” (т. 3, с. 449). Анализируя связи мышления и бытия, сознания и бытия, К. Маркс и Ф. Энгельс определяли сознание как осознанное бытие, а бытие людей как реальный процесс их жизни, подчеркивая, что не сознание определяет жизнь, а жизнь определяет сознание. Конечно, мышление как процесс отражения объективного мира является функцией головного мозга, однако мыслительный процесс не может состояться без логических операций, без языка, который является материей и непосредственной действительностью мысли. “Искусство оперировать понятиями,- подчеркивал Ф. Энгельс,- не есть нечто врождённое” (т. 20, с. 14), мышление не является принадлежностью отдельного единичного человека, так как оно “существует только как индивидуальное мышление многих миллиардов прошедших, настоящих и будущих людей” (т. 20, с. 87). Зависимость сознания от общественного бытия подтверждается на протяжении всей истории человечества. Язык так же древен, как сознание; язык возникает из потребности сообщить какую-то мысль, какое-то приказание. К. Маркс пояснял, что практическая активность, как удовлетворение потребностей - добывания жизненных средств, была причиной возникновения представлений и самой речи. Люди начинают с того, чтобы “активно действовать, овладевать при помощи действия известными предметами внешнего мира и таким образом удовлетворять свои потребности < > after the needs of people and the types of activity by which they are satisfied have multiplied and further developed in the meantime, people give separate names to whole classes of these objects, which they already distinguish by experience from the rest of the external world” (vol. 19, p. 377 ). V. I. Lenin emphasized: “Sensory perception gives the object, reason - the name for it” (vol. 29, p. 74). Of great importance is the teaching of the classics of Marxism-Leninism about language as the immediate reality of thought and practical consciousness. As already noted, philosophers and linguists separate language and consciousness from the social life of people, from their practical activities, they separate thinking from language. German philosophers - Hegel and Feuerbach, Stirner and Dühring - wrote about "pure consciousness", "absolute spirit". Criticizing this approach as idealistic, Marx and Engels put forward the doctrine of language as matter and form of consciousness, of language as practical, actual consciousness. “Language,” they wrote, “as soon as it separates itself into an independent force, it immediately, of course, becomes a phrase” (vol. 3, p. 449). Quoting Dühring’s statement: “He who is able to think only through language has not yet experienced what abstract and genuine thinking means,” Engels sarcastically remarks: “If so, then animals turn out to be the most abstract and genuine thinkers, since their thinking is never obscured annoying interference of language. In any case, one can see from Dühring’s thoughts and from the language that expresses them how little these thoughts are adapted to any language whatsoever, and how little the German language is adapted to these thoughts” (vol. 20, p. 85). Lenin repeatedly emphasized that thought is a function of the brain, that language has only something in common, that the history of language belongs to those areas of knowledge that make up the theory of knowledge and dialectics. Since social consciousness reflects the consciousness of classes and social groups, it cannot but influence the language and its ideological coloring. It manifests itself in the language of idealistic philosophy and political slogans, that is, in philosophical and political phrases. K-Marx wrote that the ruling class, opposing itself to the subordinate class, formulates its interests in the form of empty phrases, conscious illusion, deliberate hypocrisy. He emphasized: “... the more their falsity is exposed by life, the more they lose their significance for consciousness itself, the more resolutely they are defended, the more hypocritical, moral and sacred the language of this exemplary society becomes” (vol. 3, p. 283-284). The struggle against the terminology of idealists and metaphysicians, against bourgeois, landowner and liberal phrases / was an integral part of the activities of Marx, Engels and Lenin40 as scientists and journalists. Empty phrases, distorted language interfere with theoretical and practical activity, gloss over the matter with phrases, V. I. Lenin pointed out (vol. 32, p. 229). At the same time, the classics of Marxism-Leninism fought for a clear, precise and expressive language accessible to the masses. About the language of newspapers, Marx wrote that the press speaks about the life of the people not only in the reasonable language of criticism, but also in the "passionate language of life itself." In the note “On the Cleansing of the Russian Language”, V. I. Lenin spoke out against the distortion of the Russian language, in favor of an accessible newspaper language capable of influencing the masses. § 7. LANGUAGE AND SPEECH ACTIVITY The term “language” denotes both the structure of the language, and the literary norm, and individual speech, for example, the language of Pushkin. And this is correct in a certain sense, since language is a complex phenomenon, and there is no language as a system without its social and individual use. Contrasting speech with language, speech is called speech skills, a speech act, and the result of speech - a text, and even speech activity itself - language ability (competence) and speech behavior. The speech activity of the speaker has a social and psychophysiological side. The social nature of speech activity consists, firstly, in the fact that it is a part of human social activity, and secondly, in the fact that both the speech act and the speech situation require public speakers who know a single language of communication, a common culture, a common theme. A speech act as a psychophysical process is a connection between the speaker (addresser) and the listener (addressee), which involves three components - speaking (writing), perception and understanding of speech (text). A speech act as a dialogue presupposes the establishment of a connection between the interlocutors. Involving the interlocutor in a conversation, drawing his attention to one or another moment of the statement41 is one of the speech functions, called contact 1. The specialized means of speech contact are the appeal and the means of approval and disapproval, intellectual and emotional evaluation. So, when choosing an address, proper names and their accompanists (Ivan Ivanovich and comrade / citizen Ivanov), personal pronouns you and you are used differently; The choice of address is influenced by factors such as the degree of proximity, kinship, age, social status (boss - subordinate, teacher - student, etc.). P.). The choice of address is not only an expression of the attitude of the speaker to the listener, but also the culture of his behavior. Speech communication involves the inclusion of interlocutors in the thematic and compositional situation of a speech act, in its dialogical and monologic context. This situational 2 function consists in the actualization of linguistic forms and meanings, their use. to express specific thoughts, wills and feelings in accordance with the goals and conditions of communication, the topic and content of the conversation, discussion and any other form of dialogue. A speech act is the unity of the transmission of a message and joint thinking, “a unity, in the words of L. S. Vygotsky, of communication and generalization.” “In order to convey any experience or content of consciousness to another person, there is no other way than referring the transmitted content to a certain class, to a certain group of phenomena, and this ... certainly requires generalization ... Thus, the highest inherent in a person forms of psychological communication are possible only due to the fact that a person with the help of thinking generally reflects reality”3. To use the language, you need to know it, and this is the result of education and training, including in the course of observing the speech of others in the process of speech activity, since mastering the riches of the language is an ongoing process. Language acquisition is the acquisition of certain knowledge, skills and abilities, the development of a person's language ability. Language acquisition and use are selective. More mandatory is the knowledge of models of language units, rules for changing and combining words, and common vocabulary. As for the variants of pronunciation, inflection and combination of words, the choice of synonyms, this side 1 From lat. contactus - touch. The synonyms of the adjective contact are also used the words social and fatal. 2 The term “situation” is derived from the French. situation - position, situation, circumstance. Along with the concept of speech situation in linguistics, the term “language situation” is used, which will be discussed in Chap. IV, § 13. 3 Vygotsky LS Selected psychological research. M., 1956. p. 51. 42 speech activity is not so obligatory, allowing for individual deviations. Therefore, speech activity does not represent a simple implementation of the language system, all vocabulary riches and stylistic possibilities recorded in past experience - speech activity is an active use of language s to speakers, whose speech ability is also active and dynamic. Active vocabulary and grammar, which directs the speaker's speech activity, oppose his passive vocabulary and grammar. "If passive vocabulary is words that the speaker perceives and understands, but does not use in his speech, then active vocabulary (or active vocabulary) - these are the words and their meanings that the speaker not only understands and knows, but also uses himself. Active words can be more common or less common, and this depends not only on the topic and genre of the statement, but also on the individual style "(syllable) . The high quality of speech is based on the richness of the speaker's vocabulary, knowledge of the rules of the language and fluency in them. Insufficient (fragile and formal) knowledge of the rules of the language causes false associations - the main cause of speech errors. Let's remember such a series of words: a bow, a bandage, a screw, a candy wrapper, a fad, a fact, a bolt, a slice, a portico, a bush, a bunch, a beret, a raft, a whip, etc. We establish that all these words are diminutive (that's right), end to -tic (this is already incorrect, since here there was an arbitrary division of words into morphemes). Such a false association leads to the formation of erroneous forms, firstly, of the krantik type (correct: tap), and secondly, of the plant type (instead of plan). The individuality of speech activity is manifested in the fact that on the basis of linguistic synonymy, speech synonymy arises, the individual use of word forms and lexemes themselves. This is how an individual style of speech appears - a syllable. The syllable as an individual style of speech consists of the selection of general language and general stylistic means, their combination in specific conditions of speech and genre to reveal the theme, ideological and aesthetic content and the very personality of the writer or speaker. The individual style of speech is firmly based on the norm of the given language; this is what ensures the accuracy, clarity and expressiveness of speech. The individual style of speech, further, includes features that are caused by belonging The terms “active” and “passive grammar” were introduced by L. V. Shcherba. Passive grammar explains how words were formed, how they were inclined and combined. Active grammar should teach how words change and combine now, how new words are formed. 43 speaking to a certain social environment, profession - by education and practice, and, finally, features that are actually individual, since they belong to this person1. An individual cannot either create a language, or change it, or arbitrarily adopt or not adopt its laws. V. I. Dal, the compiler of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, suggested replacing foreign words with Russian words that already exist or newly created, namely, to say: initiative (and not initiative), nature (and not nature), echo (and not resonance ), a petrel (and not a barometer), a kol-zemitsa (and not an atmosphere), dexterity (and not gymnastics), likeness (and not a portrait), agree (and not harmonize), identify (and not navigate), moral (and not moral), etc. However, the exaggerated attention only to Russian words, the struggle against learned foreign words was a step backwards, since “society,” wrote V. G. Belinsky, “will not accept, for example, wake-up calls instead of instinct and sparkling instead of diamonds and diamonds. What is a diamond and a diamond - every glazier knows this, almost every peasant; but not a single Russian person knows what sver-kaltsy are.”2 The borrowing of necessary foreign words as an objective pattern of the development of the vocabulary of the language was also reflected by V. I. Dal, who included more foreign words in his dictionary than they were in previous dictionaries. FURTHER LITERATURE Avrorin VA Problems of studying the functional side of the language. (On the subject of sociolinguistics). L., 1975, p. 53-84. B u d a g o v R. A. Language - reality - language. M., 1983, p. 7-58, 224-227, 249-254. Vereshchagin E. M., Kostomarov V. G. Language and culture. Linguistic and regional studies in teaching Russian as a foreign language. Methodological guide. 3rd ed. revised and additional M., 1983, p. 13-36. Desherie in Yu. D. Social Linguistics. M., 1977, p. 211-253, 61-85. Leont'ev A. A. The world of man and the world of language. M., 1984. Ontology of language as a social phenomenon / Ed. ed. G. V. Stepanov and V. Z. Panfilov. M., 1983, p. 3-36, 143-266. Shveytser A. D., Nikolsky L. B. Introduction to sociolinguistics. M., 1978, p. 11-76, 147-177. 1 The dialect features that are preserved in the speech of this or that person also turn out to be individual. For example, a moderate okane of the Volga type is considered a feature of the speech of A. M. Gorky. A peculiarity of F. Schiller's pronunciation is pronunciation and as [i], which allowed him to rhyme Gliick and Blick. 2 Belinski V. G. Poli. coll. op. M., 1955, vol. IX, p. 61. 44 CHAPTER 111 ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE The origin of man, human society and language. Origin of human
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