Language norm types of language norms variants of norms. Norm and linguistic variance

Language norms(norms of the literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of language means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is an example of a uniform, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

A linguistic phenomenon is considered normative if it is characterized by such features as:

Compliance with the structure of the language;

Mass and regular reproducibility in the process of speech activity of the majority of speaking people

Public approval and recognition.

Language norms are not invented by philologists, they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the whole people. The norms of the language cannot be introduced or canceled by decree, they cannot be reformed by administrative means. The activity of linguists studying the norms of a language is different - they identify, describe and codify linguistic norms, as well as explain and promote them.

The main sources of the language norm are:

Works of classical writers;

Works by contemporary writers who continue the classical traditions;

Media publications;

Common modern usage;

Linguistic research data.

The characteristic features of language norms are:

relative stability;

prevalence;

general use;

general obligation;

conformity with the use, custom and possibilities of the language system.

Norms help the literary language to maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to perform one of the most important functions - cultural.

A speech norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of a language system, selected and enshrined in

the process of public communication.

The normalization of speech is its correspondence to the literary and linguistic ideal.

In the literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:

norms of written and oral forms of speech;

norms of written speech;

oral language norms.

The norms common to oral and written speech include:

Lexical norms;

Grammar norms;

Stylistic norms.

The special rules of writing are:

Spelling standards;

Punctuation rules.

Applies to spoken language only:

Pronunciation norms;

Norms of stress;

intonation norms.

7. Imperative norms and variant

Language norms, especially the norms of such a developed literary language as the Russian language, are a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, reflecting both social and aesthetic views on the word, and internal, independent of the taste and desire of the speakers, the laws of the language system in its continuous development and improvement.

At the same time, the culture of speech presupposes the observance of these norms with varying degrees of obligation, rigor, there are fluctuations in the norms, which is reflected in the assessment of speech, which occurs on a scale correct/permissible/incorrect. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish between two types of norms - imperative (mandatory) and dispositive (additional). Violations of imperative and dispositive norms can be understood as gross and non-coarse.

Imperative norms in language- these are rules that are mandatory for implementation, reflecting the laws of the functioning of the language. An example of imperative norms are the rules of conjugation, declension, agreement, etc. Such norms do not allow variants (non-variable norms), and any other implementations are regarded as incorrect, inadmissible. For example: alphabet ( not alphabet), accepted (did not accept), chicken ( not chicken), thanks what ( not thanks to what).

Linguists note that the variation of the norm is an objective and inevitable consequence of linguistic evolution. The presence of variation, i.e., the stage of coexistence of the old and the new quality, from their point of view, is even useful, expedient: variations allow you to get used to the new form, make the change in the norm less tangible and painful, (for example , waves - waves, Sparkling - sparkling, herbal - herbal). These options cover different levels of the language: there are orthoepic variants of the norm ( weekdays [w] ny and weekdays [h "] ny), morphological and derivational ( spasm husband. gender and spasm female genus, leprosy and play pranks), variants of grammatical forms ( tea and tea, caplet and dripping), syntax options ( executed than and full of what, waiting for a letter and waiting for a letter).

Shape variation- this is not a constant property of specific language units. The fluctuation continues for a more or less long period, after which the variants diverge in meaning, acquiring the status of independent words. For example, in the past of an uneducated person ( ignoramus) could be called ignorant.(At I. A. Krylov: The ignoramuses judge exactly that. What they don’t understand, then everything is a trifle with them.) In another case, a productive variant completely displaces its competitor (this happened, for example, with the variant turner and normative in the XVIII-XIX centuries. turner).

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The concept of the norm of the modern Russian literary language.

Norm types

The literary norm is the rules for pronunciation, formation and use of language units in speech. Otherwise, the norm is defined as objectively established rules for the implementation of the language system. Norms are divided depending on the regulated tier of the language into the following types:

orthoepic(norms of pronunciation of words and their forms),

accentological(stress norms, a special case of orthoepic),

lexical(norms for the use of words, depending on their meaning),

phraseological(norms for the use of phraseological units),

derivational(rules for creating new words according to models known to the language),

morphological(privacy of education and change of parts of speech),

syntactic(rules for combining word forms into phrases and sentences). The last two norms are often combined under the general name - "grammatical norms", since morphology and syntax are closely interconnected.

Depending on the regulated form of speech, the norms are divided into:

- those that are characteristic only for oral speech(this is orthoepic and accentological;

- characteristic only for written speech(spelling, punctuation);

- regulating both oral and written speech(all other types).

The literary norm is characterized by obligatoryness for all native speakers, use in all spheres of public life, relative stability, prevalence in all tiers of the language system.

The main function of the norm is security, its purpose is to preserve the richness of the literary language.

Variants of literary language norms

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. What was the norm in the twentieth century, and even two years ago, may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 30s and 40s of the 20th century, the words diploma student and diploma student were used to express the same concept: "A student doing a thesis." The word diploma was a colloquial version of the word diploma. In the literary norm of the 50-60s. 20th century there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial graduate now denotes a student, a student in the period of defending a thesis, receiving a diploma. The word diplomat began to be called mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of reviews, competitions marked with a diploma (for example, a diplomat of the All-Union Piano Competition, a diplomat of the International Vocal Competition).

The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech, local dialects, vernacular, professional jargons, other languages.

The change of norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants that really exist in the language at a certain stage of its development, are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern literary language.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature lead to the constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

The process of changing language norms has become especially active in recent decades, so modern dictionaries record many options, for example:

Pronunciation options: in the word "dvoechnik" the sound combination [ch] is pronounced, but the pronunciation [shn] is allowed;

Stress options: the word "cemetery" has an outdated version of the stress "cemetery" shche;

Grammar variants: the gerund "torturing" has a colloquial variant "torturing".1

It is already clear from the examples that the variants, as a rule, differ stylistically (by the scope of use or color), in addition, one of the variants is more often marked as preferred, and the other as less used. literary language speech syntactic

If the norm allows double pronunciation, spelling, use, then it is called dispositive. A norm that does not allow variations is called imperative.

In the "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language" a significant number of orthoepic variants of words are recorded. Some options are equal (for example, barge and barge?), In other words, one of the options is the main one (for example, industry? I and additional outdated industry).

Conclusion

The norm of the literary language is a rather complex phenomenon that changes over time. Changes in the norm are especially noticeable in oral speech, since it is oral speech that is the most mobile layer of the language. The result of changing norms is the emergence of options. Therefore, the variability of the norms of pronunciation and stress has become a topical subject of study for the 21st century.

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Literary language and language norm

According to the interpretation of B. N. Golovin, the norm is the choice of the only one among the various functional variations of a linguistic sign, historically accepted within a certain linguistic community. In his opinion, she is the regulator of the speech behavior of many people.

The literary and linguistic norm is a contradictory and complex phenomenon. There are various interpretations of this concept in the linguistic literature of the modern era. The main difficulty in determining is the presence of mutually exclusive features.

Distinctive features of the concept under consideration

It is customary to distinguish the following features of language norms in literature:

1.Stability (stability), thanks to which the literary language unites generations due to the fact that the norms of the language ensure the continuity of linguistic and cultural traditions. However, this feature is considered relative, because the literary language is constantly evolving, while allowing changes in existing norms.

2. The degree of occurrence of the phenomenon under consideration. Nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that a significant level of use of the corresponding language variant (as a fundamental feature in determining the literary and linguistic norm), as a rule, also characterizes certain speech errors. For example, in colloquial speech, the definition of a language norm boils down to the fact that it is “frequently occurring”.

3.Compliance with an authoritative source(works of well-known writers). But do not forget that literary works reflect both the literary language and dialects, vernacular, therefore, when delineating norms, based on the observation of texts of predominantly fiction, it is necessary to distinguish between the author's speech and the language of the characters in the work.

The concept of a linguistic norm (literary) is associated with the internal laws of the evolution of a language, and on the other hand, it is determined by the purely cultural traditions of society (what is approved by it and protected, and what it fights and condemns).

Variety of language norms

The literary and linguistic norm is codified (acquires official recognition and is subsequently described in reference books, dictionaries that have authority in society).

There are the following types of language norms:

The types of language norms presented above are considered to be the main ones.

Typology of language norms

It is customary to distinguish the following norms:

oral and written forms of speech;
only oral;
only written.

The types of language norms related to both oral and written speech are as follows:

lexical;
stylistic;
grammatical.

Special norms of exclusively written speech are:

spelling standards;
punctuation.

The following types of language norms are also distinguished:

pronunciation;
intonation;
accents.

They apply only to the oral form of speech.

The language norms that are common to both forms of speech relate mainly to the construction of texts and linguistic content. Lexical ones (a set of norms of word usage), on the contrary, are decisive in the issue of the correct choice of a suitable word among linguistic units that are close enough to it in form or meaning and its use in a literary sense.

Lexical language norms are displayed in dictionaries (explanatory, foreign words, terminological), reference books. It is the observance of this kind of norms that is the key to the accuracy and correctness of speech.

Violation of language norms leads to numerous lexical errors. Their number is constantly growing. The following examples of language norms that have been violated can be cited:

Variants of language norms

They involve four steps:

1. The only form is dominant, and the alternative is considered to be incorrect, since it is beyond the boundaries of the literary language (for example, in the 18th-19th centuries the word "turner" is the only correct option).

2. An alternative variant sneaks into the literary language as an admissible one (marked "additional") and acts either colloquially (marked "colloquial") or equal in rights with respect to the original norm (marked "and"). Hesitation regarding the word "turner" began to appear at the end of the 19th century and continued until the beginning of the 20th century.

3. The original norm is rapidly fading away and gives way to an alternative (competing) one, it acquires the status of obsolete (marked “obsolete.”). Thus, the aforementioned word “turner”, according to Ushakov’s dictionary, is considered obsolete.

4. Competing norm as the only one within the literary language. In accordance with the dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language, the previously presented word "turner" is considered the only option (literary norm).

It is worth noting the fact that the only possible strict language norms are present in the announcer's, teaching, stage, oratorical speech. In everyday speech, the literary norm is freer.

The relationship between the culture of speech and language norms

Firstly, the culture of speech is the possession of the literary norms of the language in written and oral form, as well as the ability to correctly select, organize certain language means in such a way that in a particular situation of communication or in the process of observing its ethics, the greatest effect is ensured in achieving the intended objectives of communication. .

And secondly, this is the area of linguistics, which deals with the problems of speech normalization and develops recommendations regarding the skillful use of the language.

The culture of speech is divided into three components:

Language norms are a hallmark of the literary language.

Language norms in business style

They are the same as in the literary language, namely:

the word must be used according to the lexical meaning;
taking into account the stylistic coloring;
according to lexical compatibility.

These are the lexical language norms of the Russian language within the business style.

For this style, it is extremely important to match the qualities that determine the parameter of the effectiveness of business communication (literacy). This quality also implies knowledge of the existing rules of word usage, sentence patterns, grammatical compatibility, and the ability to delimit the scope of the language.

At present, the Russian language has many variant forms, some of which are used in the framework of book and written styles of speech, and some - in colloquial and everyday. In a business style, forms of special codified written speech are used due to the fact that only their observance ensures the accuracy and correctness of information transmission.

This may include:

wrong choice of word form;
a number of violations regarding the structure of the phrase, sentence;
The most common mistake is the use of incompatible colloquial forms of plural nouns in written speech that end in -а / -я, instead of normative ones in -и / -ы. Examples are presented in the table below.

literary norm	Colloquial speech
Treaties	Agreements
Correctors	Corrector
Inspectors	Inspector

It is worth remembering that the following nouns have the form with a zero ending:

paired items (boots, stockings, boots, but socks);
names of nationalities and territorial affiliation (Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Kyivans, Armenians, British, southerners);
military groups (cadets, partisans, soldiers);
units of measurement (volt, arshin, roentgen, ampere, watt, micron, but grams, kilograms).

These are the grammatical language norms of Russian speech.

Sources of the language norm

There are at least five of them:

The role of the norms under consideration

They help to preserve the literary language its integrity, general intelligibility. Norms protect him from dialect speech, professional and social slang, and vernacular. This is what makes it possible for the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

The norm depends on the conditions under which speech is realized. Language means that are appropriate in everyday communication may be unacceptable in official business. The norm does not distinguish between linguistic means according to the criteria "good - bad", but clarifies their expediency (communicative).

The norms under consideration are the so-called historical phenomenon. Their change is due to the continuous development of the language. The norms of the last century may now be deviations. For example, in the 30s and 40s. such words as diploma student and graduate student (a student who performs a thesis) were considered identical. At that time, the word "graduate student" was a colloquial version of the word "diploma student". Within the framework of the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a division of the meaning of the presented words: a diploma student is a student during the defense of a diploma, and a diploma student is a winner of competitions, competitions, reviews marked with a diploma (for example, a student of the International Review of Vocalists).

Also in the 30's and 40's. the word "applicant" was used to refer to persons who graduated from high school or entered a university. At present, those graduating from high school have begun to be called graduates, and the entrant in this sense is no longer used. They are called persons who take entrance exams to technical schools and universities.

Norms such as pronunciation are peculiar exclusively to oral speech. But not everything that is characteristic of oral speech can be attributed to pronunciation. Intonation is a rather important means of expressiveness, giving an emotional coloring to speech, and diction is not pronunciation.

As for stress, it refers to oral speech, however, despite the fact that this is a sign of a word or grammatical form, it still belongs to grammar and vocabulary, and does not act as a characteristic of pronunciation in its essence.

So, orthoepy indicates the proper pronunciation of certain sounds in the corresponding phonetic positions and in combination with other sounds, and even in some grammatical groups of words and forms or in individual words, provided that they have their own pronunciation features.

In view of the fact that language is a means of human communication, it needs to unify oral and written design. Just like spelling errors, mispronunciation draws attention to speech from its outside, which acts as a hindrance in the course of language communication. Since orthoepy is one of the aspects of the culture of speech, it has the task of contributing to the raising of the pronunciation culture of our language.

The conscious cultivation of precisely the literary pronunciation on the radio, in the cinema, the theater, and in school is of very significant importance in relation to the mastering of the literary language by the masses of many millions.

Vocabulary norms are such norms that determine the correct choice of a suitable word, the appropriateness of its use within the framework of a well-known meaning and in combinations that are considered generally accepted. The exceptional importance of their observance is determined by both cultural factors and the need for mutual understanding of people.

An essential factor determining the significance of the concept of norms for linguistics is the assessment of the possibilities of its application in various types of linguistic research work.

To date, there are such aspects and areas of research in which the concept under consideration can become productive:

Study of the nature of the functioning and implementation of various kinds of language structures (including the establishment of their productivity, distribution over various functional areas of the language).
The study of the historical aspect of language changes in relatively short time periods (“microhistory”), when both minor shifts in the structure of the language and significant changes in its functioning and implementation are revealed.

Degrees of normativity

A rigid, strict degree that does not allow for alternatives.
Neutral, allowing equivalent options.
A more mobile degree that allows the use of colloquial or obsolete forms.

Norm and variability of the norm

The language develops - the norm changes. In the question of variability, it should be taken into account that the literary norm does not prevent the existence of variants at each of the language levels. Their presence is an organic property of linguistic means, arising from the nature of the language system.

Variants of the norm are its modifications, which are recorded in the dictionary. The variability of the norm i.e., the presence of parallel ways of expressing the same content should be considered as a distinction between normative (literary / non-literary) and stylistic (appropriate / inappropriate) plans in statements of a different nature. Therefore, the possibility of using one or another variant can only be determined taking into account the context. V.V. Vinogradov believed that the functional use of the literary language "leads to functionally limited or stylistically justified - possible or acceptable - variations of the literary and linguistic norm."

The new form supersedes the old one, fixed in grammars, dictionaries, reference books, etc. If the trend towards a new use corresponds to the laws of language development, it will win.

It must be remembered that the variants of the norm and the speech error are different concepts. For example: phenomenon- admissible phenomenon(about a human); rain: [dosht"]- Moscow version of pronunciation; [dosh"]- Leningrad version of pronunciation; tunnel - tunnel; orangutan - orangutan; valerian - valerian; galosh - galosh; rake and rake(r.p. pl.); but stocking (stockings- incorrect, only in phraseology: blue stockings).

Speaking of linguistic and stylistic norms, it should be taken into account that the norm does not claim to be "universal domination" and allows deviations from the established canons. Norm is a category that involves the assessment of a given linguistic phenomenon in the process of communication, depending on the scope, conditions and goals of communication. It should also be remembered that a conscious and motivated violation of the norm may be a sign of the individual style of the author, lecturer. When working with a text, one must be able to determine the motivation for the deviations of the author's speech from the literary language.

A special role in the normalization of the literary language is played by lexicography, mainly normative explanatory, spelling, educational, grammatical dictionaries, special dictionaries of "correctness", "difficulties", etc.

In order to improve speech culture, it is advisable to constantly refer to explanatory dictionaries, which explains the main meaning of the word; to encyclopedic, special dictionaries by branches of knowledge, where a more detailed description of those phenomena that are indicated by words is given. You can expand your knowledge of special terms by referring to different dictionaries and other sources, according to which it can be traced how the scope of concepts denoted by these terms has expanded. For example, the word "bard". In the dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov says: "The bard is a singer-poet among the ancient Celts." In the “Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms”: “Singer-lyricist of the Celtic peoples (Irish, Welsh, Scots, Picts), who sang the feat of their king and his squad. Since the 18th century, the bard has been the same as the poet.” Nowadays the word "bard" began to be applied to poets who create lyrics, write music on them and perform them themselves. Thus, the norms are stable (fixed in dictionaries and reflected in the language of fiction, so they need to be followed) and dynamic.

Variants (or doublets) are varieties of the same language unit that have the same meaning but differ in form. Some variants are not differentiated either semantically or stylistically: otherwise - otherwise; stack - stack; workshops - workshops; sazhen - sazhen. However, the vast majority of options undergo stylistic differentiation: called - called, accountants - accountants, condition - condition, wave - wave (the second options, compared to the first, have a colloquial or colloquial connotation).

How and why do options arise? What phenomena can be considered variant, and what are not? What is the fate of variant modes of expression? These and other questions are constantly in the field of view of scientists.

We know that language is constantly changing. It is obvious. Let's compare a text written about 150 years ago with a modern one to see the changes that have taken place in the language during this time:

But as soon as dusk fell to the ground,

The ax rattled on the elastic roots,

And pets of centuries fell without life!

Their clothes were torn off by little children,

Their bodies were then chopped up,

And they burned them slowly until morning with fire.

(M. Lermontov)

Zeus throwing thunders

And all the immortals around the father,

Their bright feasts and houses

We will see in the songs we are blind.

(N. Gnedich)

In the above contexts, phenomena are presented that diverge from modern norms on certain grounds: phonetic, lexical, morphological, etc. Permanent, continuous language changes that occur in short periods of time are hardly noticeable. The stage of variation and the gradual replacement of competing modes of expression provide a less perceptible and less painful shift in the norm, contributing in no small measure to the well-known paradox: language changes while remaining itself.

L. V. Shcherba once wrote: “... in normative grammar, language is often presented in a petrified form. This corresponds to a naive philistine idea: the language has changed before us and will change in the future, but now it is unchanged” 1 .

The functioning of the language involves language changes, the replacement of one norm by another. V. A. Itskovich presents the process of changing norms as follows. The new enters the language contrary to the existing rules. It usually appears outside of literary use - in common speech, in professional speech, in colloquial everyday speech, etc. Then it gradually becomes fixed in the literary language 2 . Schematically, this can be represented as follows:

Scheme 1. Changing the norms of modern Russianliterary language

Initially, the X1 phenomenon is the norm, the X2 phenomenon is outside the KLA (used in colloquial speech, in common speech, in professional speech). At the second stage, there is a gradual convergence of these two phenomena, and is already beginning to be used in KLA, in its oral variety. The third stage is characterized by the fact that two phenomena are used on an equal footing, coexisting as variants of the norm. Then, at the fourth stage, there is a “shift” of the norm: the X2 variant gradually replaces the X1 variant, the latter is used only in the written speech of the KLA. And at the final stage, we observe a change in norms: the X2 phenomenon is the only form of the BLA, and X1 is already outside the norm. According to this scheme, there was, for example, a change in the endings of the nominative plural in the words lecturer - lecturers, factor - factors, caretaker - caretakers, compasses - compasses, corporal - corporal, etc. In the 70s. 19th century forms with the ending -а(-я) were normative, then gradually they were replaced by forms with the ending -ы(-и). It is interesting that for these and similar nouns the norm changed twice: the original ending -ы(-и) was replaced by -а(-я), and then again replaced this then new norm. This diagram shows the most common process of changing norms. But this is not always the case.

Several more trends stand out in the development of variance (see the works of L. K. Graudina, V. A. Itskovich and other researchers).

The first is a tendency towards stylistic differentiation of variants (differentiation in terms of stylistic coloring, marking). Such a stylistic stratification occurred, for example, in the 70-80s. 19th century with the majority of non-vociferous and full-voiced options (cooling - getting colder, gild - gild, middle - middle, etc.). As early as the beginning of the 19th century. they (and others like them) were considered stylistically neutral. Later, these pairs sharply diverged, separated: non-vowel variants began to be used in poetic speech and acquired the features of an elevated poetic vocabulary. We also see an increase in contrast in stylistic coloring in pronunciation options for back-lingual consonants. In the XVIII - early XIX century. the “solid” pronunciation of consonants was considered the norm, often this was also spelled out. In K. N. Batyushkov, for example, we observe the following rhyme:

In this hut wretched

Standing in front of the window

The table is dilapidated and tripod

With torn cloth.

But you, oh my poor

The cripple and the blind

Walking the road...

Throw my cloak wide

Arm yourself with a sword

And at midnight deep

Knock suddenly...

("My Penates")

A little later, P. A. Vyazemsky already used other forms for back-lingual consonants, which are widely used today:

The north is pale, the north is flat,

Steppe, native clouds -

Where was the sadness...

Now, where are those triplets?

Where is their smart escape?

Where's the uhar escape?

Where are you, lively bell,

Are you cart poetry?

(“In memory of the painter Orlovsky”)

Nowadays, the “hard” pronunciation of back-lingual consonants is observed only in stage speech (and even then inconsistently, more often among the actors of the Moscow Art Theater of the older generation): there is a steady tendency for spelling and pronunciation to converge. Thus, in the second half of the XX century. the ratio of forms with "hard" and "soft" pronunciation of back-lingual consonants is different compared to what it was in the 18th - early 19th centuries. 3

Along with such a stylistic differentiation of linguistic means, there is also an opposite trend - the neutralization of bookish and colloquial coloring. For example, in the 19th century units of measurement of physical quantities in the genitive plural had the usual ending -ov (amps, volts, watts). Then (obviously, under the influence of the law of economy) there was a shift in the norm: the form with zero inflection (ampere, watt, volt) was neutralized, in the modern language it became dominant in most technical units of measurement: ohm, watt, coulomb, ampere, erg, hertz. This stage began, according to L.K. Graudina, in the 80s. 19th century and ended in the first decade of the 20th century, i.e., with the change of one generation of physicists by another. In the same units of measurement as grams, kilograms, in the genitive plural, Zero inflection is common in oral form in a colloquial style, and in writing, due to strict editorial corrections, forms on -ov are still considered normalized: grams, kilograms. Thus, the process of “shifts” in the ratio of options is not straightforward; it often proceeds unevenly and unevenly.

Variants are classified according to different features. By belonging to the linguistic types of units, options are distinguished:

1) pronunciation (bulo [h '] naya - bulo [sh] naya, female [n '] china -
woman [n] china, wait [wait] eat - do [w’] eat and so on.);

2) inflectional (tractors - tractors, in the shop - in the shop, hectare - hectares, etc.);

3) derivational (cutting - cutting, stitching - stitching, stuffing - stuffing, etc.);

4) syntactic: a) prepositional control (to ride a tram - to ride a tram, a height of 10 meters - a height of 10 meters, remarks on someone's address - remarks on someone's address); b) unpredictable control (wait for the plane - wait for the plane, they cannot read a book - they cannot read books, two main questions - two main questions, etc.);

5) lexical (movie - motion picture - film, international - international, export - export, import - import, etc.).

It should be noted that phonetic, derivational and grammatical variants are essentially semantic doublets, while lexical variants stand somewhat apart 4 . As L. K. Graudina notes, the classification of variants according to their belonging to linguistic types of units is hardly appropriate; it is interesting only from the point of view of the relative frequency of variants of some types compared to others. R. M. Tseitlin classifies variants according to the types of stylistic relationships between members of pairs, highlighting, on the one hand, groups of pairs of variants in which one of the members is sharply stylistically colored (blato - swamp, breshchi - protect, helmet - helmet), and on the other - pairs, in which the options are closest to each other in stylistic terms (short - short, incessant - incessant, etc.).

This approach to variants is recognized by most researchers as fruitful. For example, M.V. Panov believes that the classification of variants should be based on the types of stylistic opposition. It does not matter whether the syntaxes, lexemes, morphemes of the phoneme vary. The main ones are stylistic patterns that govern their functioning in speech.

In the process of language development, the number of variants, according to most researchers, is noticeably and continuously reduced. This is due to the increase in the general literacy of the population, the strengthening of the influence of the mass media and propaganda on the culture of speech, the normalization activities of linguists, the constant unification in the field of spelling and orthoepy, the strengthening of book styles of language - speech, etc.

Notes:

1. Shcherba L.V. Next problems of linguistics // Izbr. works on linguistics and phonetics. L.G. 1958. T. 1. S. 15.

2. For more details, see: Itskovich V.A. language norm. M., 1968.

3. These forms are now in a transitional phase between the fourth and fifth positions (see Diagram 1).

4. Lexical variants differ from derivational, inflectional and syntactic ones in that they do not constitute a paradigm of a number of words united by a common grammatical meaning. Their commonality is only functional and stylistic.

T.P. Pleshchenko, N.V. Fedotova, R.G. Chechet. Stylistics and culture of speech - Mn., 2001.