Linguistic features of artistic speech. Art Style - Features and Language

With the help of the words of the artist In speech, the authors reproduce those individual features of their characters and the details of their lives that make up the objective world of the work as a whole. Words and phrases of the national language in artistic speech acquire the figurative meaning that they usually do not have in other types of speech. The speech of works of art always has emotional expressiveness - it is figuratively expressive speech.

Artistic speech does not always correspond to the norms of the national literary language. Of great importance is the principle of reflecting life in certain works - the principle of realistic or non-realistic. In the speech of literary and artistic works, it is necessary to distinguish between its semantic properties - various pictorial and expressive meanings of the words chosen by the writer, and its intonational-syntactic structure, in particular, its rhythmic phonetic organization, which corresponds to the reading of a poetic work. Intonation, the ability to keep the line, stepping.

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literary trends. The concept of a literary manifesto.

The literary direction is the works of writers of a particular country and era who have achieved high creative consciousness and adherence to principles, which are manifested in the creation of an aesthetic program corresponding to their ideological and creative aspirations, in the publication of "manifestos" expressing it. For the first time in history, a whole group of writers rose to the realization of their creative principles in the late 17th-early 18th century, when a very powerful literary trend emerged in France, which was called classicism. The strength of this direction lay in the fact that its adherents had a very complete and distinct system of civic-moralistic beliefs and consistently expressed them in their work. The manifesto of French classicism was Boileau's poetic treatise "Poetic Art": Poetry should serve reasonable purposes, the idea of moral duty to society, civil service. Each genre should have its own specific focus and corresponding art form. In developing this system of genres, poets and playwrights should rely on the creative achievements of ancient literature. At that time, the requirement was considered especially important that the works of drama included the unity of time, place and action. The program of Russian classicism was created in the late 1940s. 18th century the efforts of Sumarokov and Lomonosov and in many respects repeated Boileau's theory. An inalienable advantage of classicism: it required a high discipline of creativity. The principle of creative thought, the permeation of the entire figurative system with a single idea, the deep correspondence of the ideological content and artistic form are the undoubted advantages of this direction. Romanticism arose at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. Romantics considered their work as an antithesis to classicism. They opposed any "rules" restricting the freedom of creativity, fiction, inspiration. They had their own normativity of creativity - emotional. The creative force of their creativity was not reason, but romantic experiences in their historical abstraction and the resulting subjectivity. In the leading national literatures of Europe, almost at the same time, romantic works of a religious-moralistic and, in contrast, civic content arose. The authors of these works created appropriate programs in the process of their creative self-awareness and thus shaped literary trends. From the second half of the 20s. 19th century in liters of advanced European countries, an active development of a realistic image of life began. Realism is the fidelity of the reproduction of the social characters of the characters in their internal patterns, created by the circumstances of the social life of a particular country and era. The most important ideological prerequisite was the emergence of historicism in the public consciousness of leading writers, the ability to recognize the uniqueness of the social life of their historical era, and hence other historical eras. Demonstrating the cognitive power of creative thought in the critical exposure of the contradictions of life, the realists of the 19th century. at the same time, they revealed a weakness in understanding the prospects for its development, and hence in the artistic embodiment of their ideals. Their ideals, like those of the classicists and romantics, were to some extent historically abstract. Therefore, the images of positive characters were to some extent schematic and normative. Began its development in European liters of the 19th century. the realism that followed from the historicism of the thinking of the writers was a critical realism. Literary associations issue manifestos expressing the general sentiments of a particular group. Manifestos appear at the time of the formation of lit. groups. For literature n.20v. manifestos are uncharacteristic (symbolists first created, and then wrote manifestos). The manifesto allows you to look at the future activities of the group, immediately determine what it stands out for. As a rule, the manifesto (in the classical version - anticipating the activities of the group) turns out to be paler than lit. current, cat. he imagines.

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The direct expression by the author of an epic work of his thoughts and feelings is revealed in lyrical digressions. Such digressions occur only in epic works. Their compositional role is very diverse: with their help, writers enhance the necessary perception and assessment by readers of the characters, their characters and behavior. (Gogol about Plyushkin) \the author in them gives an assessment of the depicted life as a whole\reveal the nature and task of the work pursued by the author.\reveal the author's inner world and show his attitude to the events described. Lyrical digressions directly introduce the reader into the world of the author's ideal and help build the image of the author as a living interlocutor. Writers of the 19th century constantly resorted to the form of lyrical digressions. Gogol ("Dead Souls" - digressions about the road, about fat and thin landowners, about servility, about the Russian people - a trio bird, etc.), Pushkin in "Eugene Onegin" (about Moscow morals, Petersburg morals - balls, theaters) There is also a first-person form (when the author is present in the narrative). Remarks - author's remarks about the behavior or character of the characters.

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Literary criticism and literary criticism.

The subject of criticism is the study of art. works. The task of criticism is the interpretation and evaluation of the thin. works according to the views of the era. Literary criticism - explains and shows the objective and historical patterns of time. Criticism is subjective, interested in what is happening now, and casting is objective, presentation in the form of scientific truth. Lith-Ved sees the work in the evaluation of time, and the critic must first pick up the key to the work. Lit Ved knows the history of creative design, the critic deals with what the author himself makes worthy of attention. The critic analyzes the text, correlating it with today, Lit-Vedas - correlating it with other works. The Lit-Veda has the opportunity to evaluate the statements of other Lit-Vedas, this is not necessary for a critic. Criticism is a synthesis of science, journalism and art. For a critic, it is important to express the inner set of litas. works along with their point of view. Criticism is about analysis. This is the science of perceiving the shortcomings and merits of a work.

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Images-symbols and images-allegories. The difference between allegory and symbol. + card

From direct two-term figurative parallelism, such a significant type of verbal-objective representation as a SYMBOL occurred.

A symbol is an independent artistic image that has an emotional and allegorical meaning based on the similarity of life phenomena.

The appearance of symbolic images was prepared by a long song tradition. The image of the life of nature began to mark the life of man, it thus received an allegorical, symbolic meaning. Initially, symbolic images were images of nature, evoking emotional analogies with human life. This tradition is preserved to this day. Along with it, images of individual people, their actions and experiences, signifying some more general processes of human life, often began to receive allegorical, symbolic meaning in literature. (At Chekhov). Allegory is an allegorical image based on the similarity of the phenomena of life and can occupy a large, sometimes even central place in a literary work. (Similar to a symbol) Difference: a symbol depicts the phenomenon of life in a direct, independent meaning, its allegorical nature becomes clear only later, with the free penetration of emotional associations.\ Allegory is a biased and deliberate means of allegory, in which the image of one or another phenomenon of life immediately reveals its official, figurative meaning.

The speech of verbal and artistic works is much more than other types of utterances, and, most importantly, it necessarily gravitates towards expressiveness and strict organization. In its best examples, it is maximally saturated with meaning, and therefore does not tolerate any re-registration, restructuring. In this regard, artistic speech requires from the perceiver close attention not only to the subject of the message, but also to its own forms, to its integral fabric, to its shades and nuances. “In poetry,” wrote P.O. Jacobson, - any speech element turns into a figure of poetic speech.

In many literary works (especially poetic ones), the verbal fabric differs sharply from other kinds of statements (the verses of Mandelstam, the early Pasternak, extremely saturated with allegories); in others, on the contrary, it is outwardly indistinguishable from “everyday”, colloquial and everyday speech (a number of artistic and prose texts of the 19th–20th centuries). But in the works of verbal art there is invariably (albeit implicitly) expressiveness and orderliness of speech; here its aesthetic function comes to the fore.

Poetry and prose

Artistic speech realizes itself in two forms: poetic ( poetry) and non-lying ( prose).

Initially, the poetic form decisively prevailed both in ritual and sacred, and in artistic texts. The ability of poetic (poetic) speech to live in our memory (much greater) than that of prose is one of its most important and undeniably valuable properties, which determined its historical primacy in the composition of artistic culture.

In the era of antiquity, verbal art made its way from mythological and divinely inspired poetry (whether epics or tragedies) to prose, which, however, was still not really artistic, but oratorical and business (Demosthenes), philosophical (Plato and Aristotle), historical (Plutarch , Tacitus). Artistic prose, on the other hand, existed more as part of folklore (parables, fables, fairy tales) and was not promoted to the forefront of verbal art. She won the rights very slowly. Only in modern times did poetry and prose in the art of the word begin to coexist "on an equal footing", with the latter sometimes coming to the fore (such, in particular, was Russian literature of the 19th century, starting from the 30s).

Nowadays, not only the external (formal, proper speech) differences between poetry and prose (the consistently carried out rhythm of poetic speech; the need for a rhythmic pause between the verses that make up the main unit of rhythm - and the absence, at least the optionality and episodic nature of all this in artistic -prose text), but also functional dissimilarity.

The forms of poetic speech are very diverse. They have been carefully studied. Verse forms (primarily meters and sizes) are unique in their emotional sound and semantic content. M.L. Gasparov, one of the most authoritative modern versifiers, argues that poetic meters are not semantically identical, that a certain “semantic halo” is inherent in a number of metrical forms: “The rarer the size, the more expressively it reminds of the precedents of its use: the semantic richness of the Russian hexameter or imitations epic verse is great iambic tetrameter (the most common in Russian poetry.– W.H.) is negligible. In a wide range between these two extremes are located almost all sizes with their varieties. Let us add to this that the “tonality” and emotional atmosphere of the three-syllable (greater stability and rigor of the flow of speech) and two-syllable (due to the abundance of pyrrhias - great dynamism of rhythm and unconstrained variability in the nature of speech) are to some extent different; poems with a large number of stops (solemnity of sound, as, for example, in Pushkin's "Monument") and small (color of playful lightness: "Play, Adele, / Do not know sadness"). Further, the coloring of iambic and chorea is different (the foot of the latter, where its beginning is a rhythmically strong place, is akin to a musical beat; it is no coincidence that the melodious-dance part is always choreic), syllabo-tonic verses (given "evenness" of the speech tempo) and actually tonic, accent (necessary, predetermined alternation of speech slowdowns and pauses - and a kind of "patter"). Etc...

Techniques for changing the basic meaning of a word are called paths. Tropes tend to awaken an emotional attitude to the topic, inspire certain feelings, have a sensory-evaluative meaning. In tropes, two main cases are distinguished: metaphor and metonymy.

The verse form "squeezes" the maximum of expressive possibilities out of words, with particular force draws attention to the verbal fabric as such and the sound of the statement, giving it, as it were, the ultimate emotional and semantic richness.

But fiction also has its own unique and undeniably valuable properties, which poetic literature possesses to a much lesser extent. When referring to prose, the author reveals the wide possibilities of linguistic diversity, the combination in the same text of different ways of thinking and speaking: in prose artistry (most fully manifested in the novel), the “dialogical orientation of a word among other people’s words” is important, while poetry to heteroglossia, as a rule, is not inclined and is more monologue.

Poetry, therefore, is characterized by an emphasis on verbal expression; a creative, speech-creative principle is clearly expressed here. In prose, however, the verbal fabric can turn out to be, as it were, neutral: prose writers often gravitate toward a stating, denoting word, non-emotional and "non-styled." In prose, the visual and cognitive possibilities of speech are most fully and widely used, while in poetry its expressive and aesthetic principles are accentuated. This functional difference between poetry and prose is already fixed by the initial meanings of these words - their etymology ( other-gr. the word "poetry" is formed from the verb to make, "to speak"; "prose" - from lat. adjective "straight", "simple").

Narrative and its types. Narrator, narrator. Tale. Objective and subjective type of narration.

Composition- the location of the elements of the world and speech expressiveness, with the help of which a work of art is built.

Shcheglov - art reveals the world through the prism of expressive techniques that control the reader's reactions, subordinate him to himself and the will of the author. Traditionally, three compositional-speech forms are expressed - narration - narration, description - discrimination, reasoning. It is connected with the traditions of classical rhetoric, taking into account their experience. There is another list, which also includes, in addition to them, the statements / speech of the characters, as a separate block. Not all authors share this, see above.

Narration - a word and a term - occurs in two meanings - in the broad sense of the word and in the narrow one. The compositional speech form is narrow, covering a text or work. CRF is actually a narrative, which denotes a segment of the text that serves the event series, the plot component, always a story about actions and events (conditionally - one-time).

Description is the image of objects in their statics, as well as repeatedly repeated actions.

The so-called reasoning - it should be noted here that it is included in a more extensive area of author's digressions, for example, lyrical (author's digressions and their species groups), but this does not cover everything. Lyrical digressions - there is an author's "I", as a kind of judgment about the world in a frivolous, poetic intonation or sublime. In Gogol's prose - reasoning about the bird-troika, an appeal to Russia. In Dead Souls - there are no lyrical digressions, these are the so-called reasoning, which can be generally combined into the "reasoning" group. R can be used as a kind of author's commentary on the event part of the novel or, conversely, as some additional characterization of the character. In addition, there are inserted short stories, like author's digressions, or inserted stories (Gogol's story about Captain Kopeikin in "Dead Souls") - fragments of the general text that are not directly related to the eventfulness of the work itself, they clarify the author's will, do not fit into the logic of the narrative , are not directly included in the construction of the main plot.

Khalizev - statements of characters, direct speech, recorded by literature, which also has its own specifics, since the forms of dialogues are somewhat lifelike, but built on different principles. The semantics of the dialogue space is made up of many elements, and in literature it is mainly the word, and facial expressions and others - here the involvement is minimal. The function of the dialogue is to absorb as much of the semantics of a real dialogue as possible, but provides a different perspective of understanding, pursuing the author's goal. This is very specific, but it characterizes the work in a very important way, fixing the person speaking - fixes the literature and the work.

Basic modes of storytelling

Narration can be conducted from the 1st or from the 3rd person.

To fix the features of the narrative as CRF, the following concepts are used: omniscient author, personal narrator, narrator and skaz.

skaz- a certain type of storytelling. The theory of the tale was formed in Russian literary criticism at the beginning of the 20th century and was dictated by the presence in Russian literature of a certain type of texts that could not be described by traditional norms and forms, the techniques that we traditionally use (Leskov "Lefty", Gogol's Overcoat - a comic tale). The type of narration presupposes: the presence or implication is obligatory, or the narrator is directly present, it is very easy to reproduce - the requirement for the narrator is necessarily a person of pronounced democratic origin, a representative of a grassroots culture, lack of speech of literary correctness, the use of vernacular, regionalisms, etc. The narrator gives the level of his development. The tale is always set to orality , because claims to convey all the features of an oral speaking person, for example, the beginning of chattering, condensation of information, idiotic argumentation. Necessarily - a sense of the nature of the narrator.

skaz is focused on "non-literary" speech: oral, everyday, colloquial, which at the same time is alien to the writer, non-author's. The most important, essential property of a tale is “setting to reproduce the colloquial monologue of the hero-narrator”, “imitation of a “live” conversation, born as if this minute, here and now, at the moment of its perception”. This form of narration, as it were, returns the works to the world of a living language, frees them from the usual literary conventions. Most importantly, a tale, more than a narrative rooted in the traditions of writing, draws attention to the speaker - the narrator, highlighting his figure, his voice, his inherent vocabulary and phraseology. “The principle of the tale requires,” noted B.M. Eikhenbaum, “in order for the narrator’s speech to be colored not only with intonational-syntactic, but also lexical shades: the narrator must act as the owner of one or another phraseology, this or that dictionary, so that an orientation to the spoken word is carried out. In this regard, the tale very often (but not always) has a comic character. At the same time, a tale is “not just an oral story, it is always quiet conversation in a fairy-tale form of narration, the narrator trusts in the sympathy of the audience. Vivid examples of the tale are “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka” by N.V. Gogol, stories of the great connoisseur of Russian folk speech V.I. Dahl, "The Tale of the Lefty...", "The Enchanted Wanderer", "The Sealed Angel" by N.S. Leskov. The features of the tale are clear in the poem by A.T. Tvardovsky "Vasily Terkin". The range of meaningful functions of fairy tale narration is very wide. Here the narrowness and “clichédness” of the consciousness of the philistine and the layman can be ridiculed, the clearest example of which is Zoshchenko’s short stories, but more often (in the early Gogol, Dal, Leskov, Belov) the world of people living in the tradition of folk culture is captured and poeticized: their genuinely lively gaiety, sharp mind, originality and accuracy of speech. The skaz provided "the masses of the people with the opportunity to speak directly in their own name."

Features of the CRF - the point of view plays a very important role, even a defining one. Allocate:

Ideological (ideological, evaluative)

Phraseological

Spatial

Temporary

Ideological point of view as the author himself, the level of the author's emotionality, pathos. The point of view that this or that hero shows, in ideological novels, the hero's point of view becomes the basis for the development of the conflict, provokes a response from other points of view.

Phraseological. Assigning a certain speech tone to the character, which colors his speech.

Spatial- it can be both the point of view of the narrator, and the point of view of any hero from whom the story comes, enters the process of narration: general shot or close-up The appearance of cinema - close-up - a special way of expressiveness. A close-up is always evidence of the author's desire to draw the author's attention to his hero, so that the reader "approaching, gets closer" (Raskolnikov in Dostoevsky - in general terms at the beginning, and after the murder, the punishment zone moves the character closer, into a close-up, for example, immersion in his dreams, close-ups begin to dominate).

Temporary- this is actually a game of time in the narrative (present, past, future)

The past tense of the narration - this time is considered the main one for the narration, because. Aristotle also said that the past is epic time: the author is at a temporary distance about the events he narrates. Depicting the past time is probably the most interesting from the point of view of temporal construction, since there are opportunities to compress (time compression) and stretch (disproportionate to the physical analogue of the stretching of the time interval) time. There is a technique - retardation, or slowing down the narration, the narration is interrupted, a large block of description is wedged in, sounds, rustles, the configuration of the room, the goal is to escalate emotions and fear, but they can be diluted with psychological detail - these are the most typical examples (for example, building a culminating technique, or in a gothic novel).

Description. About the first person - a personal narrator or narrator enters. The personal narrator is most often not personified, he does not reproduce himself in the work, unlike the narrator, but is present as a bearer of points of view, characterizes others, revealing himself through the system of his own evaluative response. The narrator is always personified, because he needs an author's eyeliner. Mention his nature and features, contact with him, the conditions for the emergence of the story, he or the author of the manuscript, etc.

The narration from the 1st person is most often called subjective, colored by subjective narration, designed to capture the features of the personality of the narrator.

Description encroaches in the work on the external and internal world. The image of the outside world is called as a plastic principle / image or plasticity of a verbal image. D.S. Merezhkovsky in "Tolstoy and Dostoevsky": opposing them, he breeds as two clairvoyants - one is a clairvoyant of the flesh ("stuffy with meat" Turgenev about Tolstoy), the second - of the spirit. Tolstoy in Merezhkovsky and his "War and Peace" leaves feelings that are associated with the feeling of a burnt cork, with which Natasha and Sonya drew their mustaches, the corporality of even the main character is the main line of the novel (Natasha is fragile, charming, large-mouthed and the epilogue falls on the reader, where is she plump - “woman, female, mother”), how did she acquire such a form or formlessness? She fully expressed the idea of Tolstov, who knew the value of human organic life, he painted a female with a diaper, as a triumph of life, and this, guys, is an utter polar fox ... Dostoevsky, on the contrary. He has other plastic solutions (Raskolnikov's room looks like a coffin, he allowed himself a yellow haze, like atmospheric coloring of the action - consistently yellow, not corresponding to natural conditions, but here is his idea).

The psychological analysis of the work is very important for the narration and description to be accompanied by a complex of experiences.

Types of psychologism:

Verbal

Indirect

Psychological analysis (in the form of an internal monologue and improperly direct "inner speech")

Verbal or confessional - describes the hero or the author in his state. The author himself can get very close to his hero. Here - Tolstoy gravitated towards this principle.

indirect psychology. Master of indirect psychologism - Turgenev. (“The Noble Nest” by Liza and Fedor) “Point and pass by”

Psychological analysis is the conquest of later literature, in the form of an internal monologue, it is not a confession, but most often an introspection. Not actually direct inner speech - “it seemed”, “suddenly it became clear that”, is supplied with such comments by the author.

The concept of "dialectics of the soul" in Tolstoy's novels. "Dialectics of the soul" - the image of the soul as a struggle of conflicting feelings, to show the psychological maturation of certain decisions, the process of growing up, collecting the soul, what happens to the main characters - this refers to the late Tolstoy, from here the "stream of consciousness" begins to form - saturation with associative connections, an attempt to fix the orderliness of disordered consciousness, as the most adequate penetration into the inner world of the hero, as well as a person. Special thanks to the psychoanalyst Freud.

Types of CRF and the speech of heroes characterize literary roles (in speech genera).

Epic - all 4 meet.

Lyrics - narration (if it is plot lyrics, if it dominates, then a poem), description. Reasoning (meditative lyrics).

(VOCABULARY, TROPES, FIGURES)

The verbal structure of a literary work, its directly perceived verbal "texture" is usually called artistic speech.

First of all, it is necessary to understand the definitions, since they differ depending on the scientific discipline and on specific scientific approaches. This side of literary works is considered by both linguists and literary critics. Linguists are primarily interested in artistic speech as one of the forms of language application, characterized by specific means and norms (remember the difference between language, i.e. vocabulary and grammatical principles of their combination, and speech, i.e. language in action, the very process of verbal communication). At the same time, the key concept is "language of fiction"(or close in meaning "poetic language"), and the discipline that studies this language is called linguistic poetics. Literary criticism, on the other hand, operates more with the phrase "art speech", which is understood as one of the sides of the content form. Literary discipline, the subject of which is artistic speech, is called style(this term was originally rooted in linguistics, which invariably refers to the consideration of styles of speech and language).

For artistic speech typically continuous use of the aesthetic (poetic) function of language, subordinated to the tasks of translating the author's intention, while in other types of speech it appears only sporadically. AT artistic speech language acts not only as a means of displaying extralinguistic reality, but also as a subject of the image. Its originality is determined by the tasks that the writer faces. This implies, first of all, the inclusion in the horizons of the writer of the most diverse linguistic styles, which in linguistic practice are relatively strictly delimited depending on certain practical goals (scientific, business, colloquial, intimate, etc. speech), which gives speech a synthetic character. At the same time, in the work, the language is also motivated by the fact that it is associated with its specific carrier, conveys the originality of the character of a person’s personality, expressed in the originality of speech. The verbal expression of real grief in real life can be of any character; we still believe it, and it touches us. But in a novel or a drama, the “unskilful” expression of grief will leave us indifferent or cause laughter.

The artistry of speech does not consist in the use of these speech phenomena in itself (expressiveness, individualization, tropes, “special lexical resources”, syntactic figures, etc.), but in the character, in the principle of their use.

So, the speech of verbal and artistic works is much more than other types of utterances, and, most importantly, it necessarily gravitates toward expressiveness and strict organization. In its best examples, it is maximally saturated with meaning, and therefore does not tolerate any re-registration, restructuring. In this regard, artistic speech requires from the perceiver close attention not only to the subject of the message, but also to its own forms, to its integral fabric, to its shades and nuances. "In poetry," wrote P. O. Jacobson, - any speech element turns into a figure of poetic speech.

If we note the simplest, on the surface features of artistic speech, then they are associated with its main goal - to aesthetically express the objective and character world, the ideological and emotional attitude of the writer to the depicted. That is why the words and phrases of the national language are received in artistic speech figurative meaning, unlike other types of speech (scientific, legal, etc.), which convey conceptual thinking; that is why the speech of works of art always has emotional expressiveness - this figuratively expressive speech. In many literary works (especially poetic ones), the verbal fabric differs sharply from other kinds of statements (the verses of Mandelstam, the early Pasternak, extremely saturated with allegories); in others, on the contrary, it is outwardly indistinguishable from “everyday”, colloquial and everyday speech (a number of artistic and prose texts of the 19th–20th centuries). But in the works of verbal art there is invariably (albeit implicitly) expressiveness and orderliness of speech; here its aesthetic function comes to the fore.

The composition of artistic speech. themselves artistic and speech means diverse and multifaceted.

This is, firstly, lexical and phraseological means, i.e. selection of words and phrases that have different origins and emotional “sound”: both common and non-common, including neoplasms; both primordially domestic and foreign languages; both those that meet the standard of the literary language, and those that deviate from it, sometimes quite radically, such as vulgarisms and “obscene” vocabulary. Lexico-phraseological units adjoin morphological(proper grammatical) language phenomena. Such, for example, are diminutive suffixes rooted in Russian folklore. One of the works of P. O. Yakobson is devoted to the grammatical side of artistic speech, where an attempt is made to analyze the system of pronouns (first and third person) in Pushkin's poems “I loved you ...” and “What is in my name to you”. “Contrasts, similarities and contiguities of different tenses and numbers,” the scientist claims, “verbal forms and pledges really acquire a leading role in the composition of individual poems.” And he notices that in this kind of poetry (ugly, that is, devoid of allegories), “grammatical figures” seem to suppress images-allegories.

This, secondly, speech semantics in the narrow sense of the word: figurative meanings of words, allegories, tropes, primarily metaphors and metonyms, in which A.A. Potebnya saw the main, even the only source of poetry and imagery. In this aspect, artistic literature transforms and further creates those verbal associations with which the speech activity of the people and society is rich.

In many cases (especially characteristic of 20th-century poetry), the boundary between direct and figurative meanings is erased, and words, one might say, begin to wander freely around objects without directly designating them. In most of the poems, St. Mallarme, A. A. Blok, M. I. Tsvetaeva, O. E. Mandelshtam, B. L. Pasternak, not ordered reflections or descriptions prevail, but outwardly confused self-expression - “excited” speech, extremely saturated with unexpected associations. These poets liberated verbal art from the norms of logically organized speech. The experience began to be embodied in words freely and uninhibitedly.

The bow sang. And a stuffy cloud // He rose above us. And nightingales // We dreamed. And the obedient camp / Slipped into my arms ... / Not a nightingale - the violin sang, / When the string broke, / It sobbed and rang all around, / Like silence in a spring grove ...; // How is it, in the sobbing sounds // The May thunderstorm entered ... // Fearful hands approached, // And the adjacent eyes burned ...

The imagery of this Blok poem is multifaceted. Here is the image of nature - forest silence, the singing of a nightingale, a May thunderstorm; and an excited story-recollection of an outburst of love passion; and a description of the impressions of the sobbing sounds of the violin. And for the reader (at the will of the poet) it remains unclear what is reality and what is a product of the fantasy of the lyrical hero; where is the boundary between the designated and the mood of the speaker. We are immersed in the world of such experiences, which can only be described in this way - the language of hints and associations.

Verbal and artistic works are addressed to the auditory imagination of readers. “All poetry, at its very origin, is created for perception by ear,” Schelling noted. B. L. Pasternak argued: “The music of the word is not an acoustic phenomenon at all and does not consist in the harmony of vowels and consonants taken separately, but in the ratio of the meaning of speech and its sound.” In the light of such an interpretation of artistic phonetics (as it is often called - euphonies, or sound writing), the concept of paronymy widely used in modern philology. Paronyms are words that are different in meaning (single-root or heterogeneous), but close or even identical in sound (betray - sell, campaign - company). In poetry (especially of our century: Khlebnikov, Tsvetaeva, Mayakovsky) they act (along with allegories and comparisons) as a productive and economical way of emotionally-semantic saturation of speech.

A classic example of filling an artistic statement with sound repetitions is the description of a storm in the chapter “Maritime Mutiny” of B. L. Pasternak’s poem “The Nine Hundred and Fifth Year”:

Antediluvian expanse // Furious with foam and hoarse. // Quick surf // Satanic // From the abyss of work. // Everything diverges // And howls and dies in its own way, // And, swine from mud, // Beats the piles in its own way.

Phonetic repetitions are present in the verbal art of all countries and eras. A. N. Veselovsky convincingly showed that folk poetry has long been closely attentive to the consonance of words, that sound parallelism, often in the form of rhyme, is widely represented in songs.

The literary principle, which implies the conditionality of one or another artistic style by specific semantic tasks, explains why authors, as a rule, carefully choose the words that make up the character's speech structure. Most often in characterology, a speech feature, even in small details, helps to understand the character. Moreover, the speech features of the characters "suggest" the genre definition of the text. So, in the play by A. N. Ostrovsky "Our People - Let's Settle" the heroine Olimpiada Samsonovna, or simply Lipochka, appears in a strange mixture of the most disparate elements of her language: either the usual form of speech, reduced to everyday jargon, or the language that claims to be evidence of education heroines. Here is the source and motive of the genre definition of the play: comedy. The latter, as you know, represents the contradiction between the internal and external in man. An opposite example is the speech of another heroine in the work of Ostrovsky - Katerina from the play "Thunderstorm". Here the character is sublime, the image of a woman gravitating towards inner freedom is romantic to a certain extent, and therefore her language is full of elements of folklore aesthetics. Therefore, she perceives her seeming moral fall as a betrayal of God and, as a whole person, punishes herself for this, voluntarily leaving life. Therefore, the play can be called a tragedy.

The speech of the characters, of course, also depends on the artistic method: the further the writer is from realism, i.e. tendencies towards lifelikeness, the higher the chance that in the thoughts, feelings, actions, speech of his characters, not so much the essence of their characters will be revealed, but the ideological and emotional tendency of the whole work, but the features of the author's speech. For example, this is what a peasant girl says in Karamzin's story "Poor Liza": "Hello, dear shepherd boy! Where are you driving your flock? And green grass grows here for your sheep, and flowers bloom here, from which you can weave a wreath for your hat ". By emotion, by choice of vocabulary, by intonation, this is the speech of the writer himself, acting as a means of sentimental idealization of the character of the heroine.

The general rule when considering a word in a work of art is understanding the context of the speech element. The well-known literary theorist L. I. Timofeev gave an example of the diversity of contexts for one word in Pushkin's texts. "Wait," Salieri says to Mozart, who is drinking wine with poison. "Wait," whispers a young gypsy to Zemfira. “Wait,” Aleko shouts to the young man, striking him with a dagger. Each time the word is heard differently; it is necessary to find its systemic connections with everything that happens in the work.

Trail definition. one). “Techniques for changing the basic meaning of a word are called paths. <...>In the paths, the basic meaning of the word is destroyed; as a rule, through this destruction of the direct meaning, its secondary signs enter into perception. So, calling our eyes stars, we in the word “stars” feel a sign of brilliance, brightness (a sign that may not appear when using the word in its direct meaning, for example, “dim stars”, “faded stars” or in the astronomical context “stars from the constellation Lyra"). In addition, the emotional coloring of the word arises: since the concept of “star” refers to the circle of conditionally “high” concepts, we put some emotion of delight and admiration into the name of the eyes of the stars. Tropes tend to awaken an emotional attitude to the topic, inspire certain feelings, have a sensual-evaluative meaning.” ( Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. with. 52).

What exactly the meaning of the phrase is - you can find out in the context: "I ate porridge", "the performance represented porridge", "the car turned into porridge when it fell" - it is clear that in the second and third cases the word "porridge" exists in a figurative sense. In Fet's poem: "Spruce covered my path with a sleeve" - no one will take the sleeve literally. Tropes also occur in everyday speech: Ivan Petrovich - a smart head, golden hands, a mountain stream runs. But the paths of artistic speech are organized, systemic.

Metaphor - a type of trope based on an association by similarity or by analogy. So, old age can be called in the evening or autumn of life, since all these three concepts are associated according to their common sign of approaching the end: life, day, year. Like other types of tropes, metaphor is not only a phenomenon of poetic style, but also a general linguistic one.<...>metaphorical origin is revealed in separate independent words (skates, window, affection, captivating, formidable, advise), but even more often in phrases ( wings mills, mountain ridge, pink dreams, hang by a thread). On the contrary, a metaphor as a phenomenon of style should be spoken of in those cases when a word or a combination of words is recognized or felt both direct and figurative meaning. Such poetic metaphors can be: firstly, the result of a new word usage<...>(e.g., “And sink into the dark mouth year after year”<...>); secondly, the result updates, revitalization faded metaphors of language (for example, “You drink magic the poison of desire."

Metaphor is considered one of the most common tropes. It is based on the similarity of two objects or concepts, where, unlike the usual two-term comparison, only one term is given - the result of the comparison, that with which it is compared: "The east burns a new dawn." In this case, the comparison that became the basis of the replacement is implied and can be easily substituted (for example, "the bright light of the morning dawn gives the impression that the east is on fire"). This way of expressing familiar phenomena enhances their artistic effect, makes them perceived more sharply than in practical speech. For a writer who resorts to metaphors, the phraseological connections in which the author includes words are of great importance. For example, in Mayakovsky: "The cavalry of witticisms froze, raising their rhyming peaks." "Cavalry", of course, is not used here in the literal terminological sense.

Metonymy. Another important type of trope that constitutes figurativeness is metonymy. It, like a metaphor, is an assimilation of the aspects and phenomena of life. But in metaphor, similar facts are likened to each other. Metonymy, on the other hand, is a word that, in combination with others, expresses the likeness of phenomena adjacent to each other, that is, those that are in any connection with each other. “I didn’t close my eyes all night,” that is, I didn’t sleep. Closing the eyes is outwardly an expression of peace, here the connection of phenomena is obvious. Like a metaphor, this trope lends itself to classification. There are many types of metonymy. For example, there is a likening of an external expression to an internal state: sit back; as well as the above example. There is the metonymy of the place, that is, the assimilation of what is placed somewhere with what contains it: the audience is behaving well, the hall is boiling, the fireplace is burning. In the last two cases, there is a unity of metaphor and metonymy. The metonymy of belonging, that is, the likening of an object to the one to whom it belongs: to read Paustovsky (that is, of course, his books), to ride a cab. Metonymy as likening an action to its tool: to put to fire and sword, that is, to destroy; a lively pen, that is, a lively syllable. Perhaps the most common type of metonymic trope is a synecdoche, when instead of a part the whole is called, and instead of the whole - its part: "All the flags will visit us." We understand that visiting us in a new city - a port on the Baltic Sea - will not be flags as such, but ships from different countries. This stylistic device contributes to the conciseness and expressiveness of artistic speech. The use of synecdoche is one of the features of the art of the word, which requires the presence of imagination, with the help of which the phenomenon characterizes the reader and writer. Strictly speaking, synecdoche in the broadest sense of the word underlies any artistic reproduction of reality associated with a strict, strict selection, even in a novel. In everyday speech, such figurative elements as metonymy are very common, but we often do not notice them: a fur coat from the master's shoulder, the student now went conscious (or unconscious), hey, glasses! Poets either repeat ordinary metonymy: "The Frenchman is a child, he is joking to you" (A. Polezhaev), "Moscow, burned down by fire, is given to the Frenchman" (M. Lermontov). It is clear that we are not talking about one Frenchman. But the most interesting thing, of course, is to find new metonymic formations in literary texts. Lermontov: "Farewell, unwashed Russia and you, blue uniforms." Extensive metonymy also exists in art. They are usually called metonymic paraphrase, this is a whole allegorical turn of speech, which is based on metonymy. Here is a classic example - from "Eugene Onegin": "He had no desire to rummage / In the chronological dust / Genesis of the earth" (that is, he did not want to study history).

Perhaps another terminological definition of such a turnover should be sought. The fact is that there is a generic phenomenon in literature that needs to be defined by the word " paraphrase". This phenomenon is usually mistakenly called a parody. In fact, such a paraphrase is not just a metonymic trope, but a type of satire. Unfortunately, there is no such differentiation in any textbook. Unlike parody, the object of satire in a periphrase is a phenomenon that has no direct connection with the content of the work, the form of which is borrowed by the satirist. In such a paraphrase, the poet usually uses the form of the best, popular works, without intending to discredit them: this form is needed by the satirist in order to enhance the satirical sound of his work with its unusual use. Nekrasov in verse "Both boring and sad, and there is no one to cheat on cards in moments of pocket adversity" does not at all intend to ridicule Lermontov. In N. Dobrolyubov's poem "I leave the classroom thoughtfully" Lermontov is also not ridiculed: here we are talking about the reactionary school reform, which was started by the trustee of the Kyiv educational district N. I. Pirogov.

Often the metonymic paraphrase coexists in parallel with the main names in the form of appendices that give a figurative description of what is being described. Here the poet worries about whether every reader understands this kind of imagery, and "accompanies" it with ordinary words. Pushkin:

And now from the near town / Ripe young ladies idol,

The county mothers are a joy, / The company commander arrived.

And again Pushkin:

But you, scattered volumes / From the library of devils,

Magnificent albums, / Torments of fashionable rhymers.

But, of course, more interesting is the paraphrase, where there is no parallel main name, everyday prosaic speech means. The same Pushkin:

Have you heard the voice of the night beyond the grove / The singer of love, the singer of your sorrow.

The above examples show that tropes in artistic speech very often represent or prepare for broad artistic images that go beyond the boundaries of the proper semantic or stylistic structures. Here, for example, is a kind of allegorical figurativeness, when a whole work or a separate episode is built according to the principles of metaphor. This is about symbol- an image in which the comparison with human life is not expressed directly, but is implied. Symbol - initial in Greece, an identification mark in the form of one of the two halves of a broken object, which the partners in the contract, people connected by ties of hospitality, and the spouses divided into parts before parting and, at the subsequent meeting, folded for a new recognition (Greek. symballein- to compare), then - any event or object pointing to something higher, esp. traditional S. and religious ceremonies. societies that are understandable only to the initiated (for example, the banner, Christ. Cross and supper), often also artistic. sign, emblem generally. In poetry, a sensuously perceived and understandable sign endowed with figurative power, which points beyond itself as a revelation, making it clear and explained, to a higher abstract area; as opposed to rational, arbitrarily established allegory"symbol" with esp. penetrating effect on feeling, artist. strength and a widely spread circle of connections, which, in the embodiment of the individual, the special, hints and portends the unspoken universal and as an understandable replacement for the mysterious, beyond the image and located behind the sensually perceived world of phenomena of the imaginary sphere. Here is one of the famous examples - the image of a beaten horse in Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment", a symbol of suffering in general. The lyrical heroes in the poems "Sail" and "Pine" by Lermontov, the Demon in his poem "The Demon", Falcon, Uzh and Petrel by Gorky are represented by the same symbols. How did symbols originate? From direct parallelism in folk song. The birch is leaning - the girl is crying. But then the girl disappeared, and the bowing birch began to be perceived as a symbol of the girl. Symbols are not specific persons, they are generalizations.

The symbol has an independent meaning. Already and the Falcon can remain just a falcon and a snake, but if they lose their independent function, they will become allegory.

Allegory- a way of representation when a person, an abstract idea or an event denotes not only itself, but also something else. Allegory can be defined as an extended metaphor: a term often applied to a work of fiction where the characters and their actions are not initially understood in terms of their apparent characterization and apparent meaning. This inner layer or extended meaning contains moral and spiritual ideas greater than the story itself.

An allegory is an image that serves only as a means of allegory; it acts more on the mind than on the imagination. Allegories arose in fairy tales about animals - from parallelism. The donkey began to denote stupid people (which, in fact, is unfair), the fox - cunning. So there were fables with "Aesopian" language. It is clear to everyone here that animals are depicted only to convey human relationships. Allegories exist, of course, not only in fairy tales, like those of Saltykov-Shchedrin ("The Eagle-Maecenas", "The Wise Scribbler", "The Sane Hare"), and fables, but also in novels and short stories. One can recall the first three "dreams" of Vera Pavlovna from Chernyshevsky's novel What Is to Be Done? Dickens says in "Little Dorrit" that the carefree young polyp entered the "Ministry of Roundabouts" in order to be closer to the pie, and it is very well that the purpose and purpose of the ministry is "to protect the pie from the unrecognized."

In practice, it can be difficult to distinguish between symbol and allegory. The latter are more traditional images. If we are talking about animals, then there are stable qualities: a hare is cowardice. If there is no this stability, then the allegory becomes a symbol. This is the view of many literary theorists, in particular, LI Timofeev in his Fundamentals of the Theory of Literature. Other scientists believe that this is not entirely accurate and applies most of all to animals. It is better to establish the distinction in such a plane: the more abstract is a symbol, the more concrete is an allegory. Rabelais and Swift (Gargantua, Gulliver) create some countries of litigation (Procuracy), a country of scholastics (Laputia). And in the "History of a City" by Saltykov-Shchedrin, the city of Foolov refers to a specific country - Russia. This phenomenon is of an allegorical order, in contrast to the famous symbolic narratives of Rabelais and Swift.

In the "morphology" of artistic speech, naturally, allegorical forms are the most impressive. The noted universal forms of figurativeness (metaphorical and direct meaning) include such narrative forms that are characterized in literary stylistics as poetic irony. Irony- this is a word that, in combination with others, receives the opposite semantic meaning. I. Krylov: the fox asks the donkey: "From where, smart, are you wandering head?"

One of the forms of stylistic expression should be called parody. This is the satirical style of the "Aesopian language". It contains means of parodying views, concepts, traditions that are hostile to the artist and the people he represents, social groups and state institutions - everything that has somehow been molded into speech or writing. Parody is two-dimensional in nature. It consists of the reproduction of the external form and features of the object and the inner subtext that denies this object. Shchedrin in his satirical novel "Modern Idyll" talks about a certain "charter" that regulates behavior in the baths, the scale of the use of unprintable words, the length of the hairstyle, etc. For three hours, the academic meeting is subjecting Pushkin's "Black Shawl" to bibliographic development. “Usually we read like this: “I look silently at the black shawl and sadness torments my cold soul. And in Slenin (1831 ....) the last verse is printed like this: and sadness torments the smooth soul. And so they stopped in disbelief. Three parties have been formed.

A common type of verbal imagery is hyperbola. This is an extreme exaggeration: “a cucumber the size of a house”, “I will put the sun with a monocle into a widely splayed eye” (Mayakovsky). Such a hyperbole should not be confused with hyperbole as a principle of image construction. related in nature litotes- an extreme understatement: "a boy with a finger", "quieter than water, lower than grass." Hyperbole as a means of enhancing the impression is very common in folklore. Most often it is associated with an ironic assessment. Although there is also an opposite function: "A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper" (N. Gogol). Most often, hyperbole occurs when the phenomena themselves stand on its edge. In 1881, after the assassination of Tsar Alexander II, in the Moskovskie Vedomosti newspaper, a certain “Russian” expressed confidence that “every faithful and devoted son of Russia who has been searched ... will not be offended by this and will willingly endure this trouble ... for good holy cause - the salvation of the Fatherland. Shchedrin in the same "Modern Idyll" adds "a little bit" (this is art, according to the definition of one artist), and the line is violated, hyperbole arose. The hero of the novel, Glumov, directly offers to keep the keys to his apartments at the police station. The real St. Petersburg mayor Baranov proposed at that time to surround the city of St. Petersburg with light cavalry, and in the "Modern Idyll" Colonel Rededya "advises to put a cannon against each house." Hyperbole suggests exaggerated hyperbolic colors. In "The Tale of the Zealous Chief" the hero "hit the table with his fist, split it and ran away. He ran into the field. Goggled his eyes, took the roe deer from one plowman and smashed it to smithereens ... He ran up the bell tower and began to sound the alarm. The hour is ringing, another calls, but he doesn’t understand what the reason is. Shchedrin exaggerates the awe of the "philistines" ("they abandoned their jobs, hid in holes, they forgot the alphabet") and the audacity of the "scoundrels" ("it is necessary to close America again"). All the details of what is happening are exaggerated (“and the fields were mourned, and the rivers became shallow, and the herds were cut down by the anthrax, and the letters were gone”).

Among the completely paradoxical stylistic turns are not too often used, which are called oxymorons(or oxymorons) - from the Greek "witty-stupid". This turnover combines words opposite in meaning, most often adjectives and nouns defined by them, resulting in a new and completely meaningful concept. Turgenev: "Living relics"; L. Tolstoy: "The living corpse"; Nekrasov: "And how he loved, hating"; Herzen: "Young old men".

Among the expressive means are the so-called euphemisms. This is a blunt speech, when innocent substitutes are offered instead of forbidden words. In the end, this is also an allegorical turn of speech: "in the house of a hanged man they do not talk about a rope." For social and emotional reasons, instead of "to die" they say "passed away", "he rested in the Bose", "ordered to live long", "stretched his legs", "played the box". Instead of blowing your nose, Gogol's ladies say: "I managed with a handkerchief."

All these figurative means of speech eventually gave rise to short sayings, where the complete thought is expressed in a concise form. First of all, this aphorisms. Shchedrin: "When and what kind of bureaucrat was not convinced that Russia is a pie to which one can freely approach and have a snack? - none and never." Sometimes colloquial phraseology is used for aphorism, paraphrased for certain purposes. Shchedrin: "And caught, but not a thief, because who is to judge?" The great satirist wrote about the half-heartedness of the liberals: "On the one hand, it must be admitted, but on the other, it must be confessed." A. Herzen: “The past is not a proof sheet, but a guillotine knife; after its fall, much does not grow together and not everything can be corrected. It remains, as cast in metal, detailed, unchanged, dark, like bronze ... to meet Banquo's shadow. Shadows are not criminal judges, not remorse, but indestructible events of memory."

Such aphorisms are close to another form of figurativeness - pun. It consists in an unexpected combination ("game") of words that give a certain, most often ironic and satirical effect. Herzen wrote about political doctrinaires from Russian emigrants: “They, like the court clock of Versailles, show one hour, the hour in which the king died ... and they, like the Versailles clock, were forgotten to be translated from the time of the death of Louis XIX. Shchedrin in“ Modern Idyll "writes about a corrupt man" - a reporter for the newspaper "Verbal Fertilizer" (he once worked in a brothel where there were "corrupt women"). And now he committed a criminal offense and began to cooperate (deserved!) In the yellow press. A pun often represents the simultaneous use of two different meanings of the same word. The hero of N. Leskov's story "The Enchanted Wanderer" says (pretending that he does not understand the advice given to him): "And if I give up the habit of drinking, and someone picks it up and takes it, will it be easy for me then." In Dostoevsky's short story "The Crocodile" a character says: "As a son of the fatherland I say: that is, I speak not as a 'Son of the fatherland', but as a son of the fatherland"; here refers to the magazine "Son of the Fatherland". Amazing puns under the pen of poets with a tragic worldview. O. Mandelstam: "Take a bath, master, but also take guests."

The book sphere of communication is expressed through the artistic style - a multi-tasking literary style that has developed historically, and stands out from other styles through means of expression.

Artistic style serves literary works and aesthetic human activity. The main goal is to influence the reader with the help of sensual images. Tasks by which the goal of artistic style is achieved:

Creation of a living picture describing the work.
Transfer of the emotional and sensual state of the characters to the reader.

Art style features

Artistic style has the goal of emotional impact on a person, but it is not the only one. The general picture of the application of this style is described through its functions:

Figurative-cognitive. Presenting information about the world and society through the emotional component of the text.
Ideological and aesthetic. Maintenance of the system of images, through which the writer conveys the idea of the work to the reader, is waiting for a response to the idea of the plot.
Communicative. The expression of the vision of an object through sensory perception. Information from the artistic world is associated with reality.

Signs and characteristic linguistic features of the artistic style

To easily define this style of literature, let's pay attention to its features:

Original syllable. Due to the special presentation of the text, the word becomes interesting without contextual meaning, breaking the canonical schemes of constructing texts.
High level of text ordering. The division of prose into chapters, parts; in the play - the division into scenes, acts, phenomena. In poems, the metric is the size of the verse; stanza - the doctrine of the combination of poems, rhyme.
High level of polysemy. The presence of several interrelated meanings in one word.
Dialogues. The artistic style is dominated by the speech of the characters, as a way of describing the phenomena and events in the work.

The artistic text contains all the richness of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The presentation of the emotionality and imagery inherent in this style is carried out with the help of special means, which are called tropes - linguistic means of expressiveness of speech, words in a figurative sense. Examples of some trails:

Comparison is part of the work, with the help of which the image of the character is complemented.
Metaphor - the meaning of a word in a figurative sense, based on an analogy with another object or phenomenon.
An epithet is a definition that makes a word expressive.
Metonymy is a combination of words in which one object is replaced by another on the basis of spatial and temporal similarity.
Hyperbole is a stylistic exaggeration of a phenomenon.
Litota is a stylistic understatement of a phenomenon.

Where Fiction Style Is Used

The artistic style has absorbed numerous aspects and structures of the Russian language: tropes, polysemy of words, complex grammatical and syntactic structure. Therefore, its general scope is huge. It also includes the main genres of works of art.

The genres of artistic style used are related to one of the genera, expressing reality in a special way:

Epos. Shows external unrest, thoughts of the author (description of storylines).
Lyrics. Reflects the author's inner worries (experiences of the characters, their feelings and thoughts).
Drama. The presence of the author in the text is minimal, a large number of dialogues between characters. Theatrical performances are often made from such a work. Example - The Three Sisters of A.P. Chekhov.

These genres have subspecies that can be subdivided into even more specific varieties. Main:

Epic genres:

Epic is a genre of work in which historical events predominate.
The novel is a large manuscript with a complex storyline. All attention is paid to the life and fate of the characters.
The story is a work of a smaller volume, which describes the life case of the hero.
The story is a medium-sized manuscript that has the features of the plot of a novel and a short story.

Lyric genres:

Ode is a solemn song.
An epigram is a satirical poem. Example: A. S. Pushkin "Epigram on M. S. Vorontsov."
An elegy is a lyrical poem.
A sonnet is a poetic form of 14 lines, the rhyming of which has a strict construction system. Examples of this genre are common in Shakespeare.

Drama genres:

Comedy - the genre is based on a plot that ridicules social vices.
Tragedy is a work that describes the tragic fate of heroes, the struggle of characters, relationships.
Drama - has a dialogue structure with a serious storyline showing the characters and their dramatic relationships with each other or with society.

How to define literary text?

It is easier to understand and consider the features of this style when the reader is provided with an artistic text with a good example. Let's practice to determine what style of text is in front of us, using an example:

“Marat's father, Stepan Porfirievich Fateev, an orphan from infancy, was from the Astrakhan bandit family. The revolutionary whirlwind blew him out of the locomotive vestibule, dragged him through the Michelson plant in Moscow, machine-gun courses in Petrograd ... "

The main aspects confirming the artistic style of speech:

This text is built on the transfer of events from an emotional point of view, so there is no doubt that we have a literary text.
The means used in the example: “the revolutionary whirlwind blew it out, dragged it in” is nothing more than a trope, or rather, a metaphor. The use of this trope is inherent only in a literary text.
An example of a description of the fate of a person, the environment, social events. Conclusion: this literary text belongs to the epic.

Any text can be parsed in detail according to this principle. If the functions or distinguishing features that are described above are immediately evident, then there is no doubt that you have a literary text in front of you.

If you find it difficult to deal with a large amount of information on your own; the main means and features of a literary text are incomprehensible to you; task examples seem complicated - use a resource such as a presentation. A ready-made presentation with illustrative examples will intelligibly fill in knowledge gaps. The sphere of the school subject "Russian language and literature" serves electronic sources of information on functional styles of speech. Please note that the presentation is concise and informative, contains explanatory tools.

Thus, having understood the definition of artistic style, you will better understand the structure of works. And if a muse visits you, and there is a desire to write a work of art yourself, follow the lexical components of the text and the emotional presentation. Good luck with your study!

The peculiarity of the language of fiction is that it is an open system and is not limited in the use of any language features. The author of a literary text boldly uses all the resources of the language, and the only measure of the legitimacy of such use is only artistic expediency. Not only those lexical and grammatical features that are characteristic of business, journalistic and scientific speech, but also the features of non-literary speech - dialectal, colloquial, jargon - can be accepted by an artistic text and organically assimilated by it.

On the other hand, the language of fiction is more sensitive to the literary norm, it takes into account a large number of prohibitions (the meaning of the gender of inanimate nouns, subtle semantic and stylistic shades, and much more). In ordinary speech, the words "horse" and "horse" are synonymous, but in a poetic context they are irreplaceable: Where do you gallop, proud horse, and where will you lower your hooves? In the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "A golden cloud spent the night on the chest of a giant's cliff ..." the gender of the nouns cloud and cliff is contextually significant, serves as the basis not only for personification, but also for creating the artistic image of the poem, and if we replace them with synonyms, for example, mountain and a cloud, you get a completely different poetic work. The linguistic fabric in a literary text is created according to more stringent laws, which require taking into account the smallest stylistic and expressive properties of a word, its associative links, the ability to divide into constituent morphemes, and have an internal form.

A work of art may include such words and grammatical forms that are outside the literary language and are rejected in non-artistic speech. A number of writers (N. Leskov, M. Sholokhov, A. Platonov and others) widely use dialectisms in their works, as well as rather rude turns of speech characteristic of colloquial speech. However, replacing these words with literary equivalents would deprive their texts of the power and expressiveness that they possess.

Artistic speech allows any deviations from the norms of the literary language, if these deviations are aesthetically justified. There are an infinite number of artistic motives that allow the introduction of non-literary linguistic material into a literary text: this is the recreation of the atmosphere, the creation of the necessary color, the "decrease" of the object of narration, irony, means of designating the image of the author, and others. Any deviations from the norm in a literary text occur against the background of the norm, require the reader to have a certain "sense of the norm", thanks to which he can assess how artistically significant and expressive the deviation from the norm is in this context. The "openness" of a literary text brings up not disregard for the norm, but the ability to appreciate it: without a keen sense of the general literary norm, there is no full-fledged perception of expressive-tense, figurative texts.

The "mixing" of styles in fiction is due to the author's intention and the content of the work, i.e. stylistically marked. Elements of other styles in a work of art are used in an aesthetic function.