Language means of expression. Basic language means in Russian

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

NOU VPO "Ural Financial and Legal Institute"

Faculty of Law

Test

by discipline:

"Russian language and culture of speech"

On the topic: Purity, richness and expressiveness of speech

Yekaterinburg

Introduction

Purity of speech

Richness of speech

Expressiveness of speech

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The modern Russian language is the national language of the great Russian people, a form of Russian national culture. The national language is a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as social jargons.

The highest form of the national Russian language is the Russian literary language.

The concept of culture of speech is closely connected with the literary language. The ability to express one’s thoughts clearly and clearly, to speak competently, the ability not only to attract attention with one’s speech, but also to influence listeners, possession of a culture of speech is a peculiar characteristic of professional suitability for people of various professions: lawyers, politicians, journalists, teachers of schools and universities, radio and television workers, managers, journalists.

The culture of speech is understood as the possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form, in which the choice and organization of language means are carried out, which allow, in a certain situation of communication and while observing the ethics of communication, to ensure the necessary effect of achieving the goals of communication.

The culture of speech contains three components:

1.normative (language norm (literary norm) - rules for the use of speech means for a certain period of development of the literary language);

2.communicative (skills of selection and use of language means in the process of speech communication);

.ethnic (knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations).

Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture, so it is important to know the basic, communicative qualities of speech:

the accuracy of speech is the use of words and expressions in full accordance with its linguistic meaning;

intelligibility of speech - is mainly due to the totality of the listener's knowledge in the area to which the interlocutor's speech belongs in its content;

purity of speech - the absence in it of elements that are alien to the literary language for moral and ethical reasons, the social aspects of the issue of purity of speech;

the richness and diversity of speech is the wide and free use of language units in speech, allowing you to optimally express information;

expressiveness of speech is a quality that arises as a result of the implementation of the expressive possibilities inherent in the language.

All of the listed communicative qualities of speech must be taken into account in the process of speech interaction. In my work, I chose to study such communicative qualities of speech as purity, richness and expressiveness.

In the works of B.N. Golovin, including in his textbook for universities "Fundamentals of the Culture of Speech", it is argued that for the culture of speech, in general, only one communicative aspect is significant, in terms of which normativity should also be considered. The culture of speech is defined as a set of communicative qualities of good speech. These qualities are revealed on the basis of the correlation of speech with separate, as B. N. Golovin puts it, non-speech structures. Non-speech structures include: language as a certain basis that produces speech; thinking; consciousness; reality; the person is the addressee of the speech; communication conditions. This complex of non-speech structures requires the following good qualities from speech, that is, corresponding to these structures: correctness of speech (in other words, normativity), its purity (absence of dialectisms, jargon, etc., which also applies to the introduction of a normative aspect), accuracy , logic, expressiveness, figurativeness, accessibility, effectiveness and relevance. There is no doubt that all these qualities are really important for the evaluation of many specific texts in a communicative aspect. And the task of determining the text on a scale of "bad - good" in the communicative aspect could be considered solved if for this it would be enough to attach these nine features to any text.

Language performs different communicative tasks, serves different areas of communication. The language of science is one thing, and ordinary colloquial speech is quite another. Each sphere of communication, in accordance with the communicative tasks that are set "in it, makes its own requirements for the language. Therefore, it is impossible to speak in a communicative plan about the culture of language proficiency in general. We should talk about the culture of proficiency in different functional varieties of the language. What is good in one functional variety of language, it turns out to be completely unacceptable in another.

Purity of speech

Purity of speech implies consistent observance of stylistic and ethical norms. Purity is the quality of speech that, if not observed, is the most noticeable to listeners. It is interesting that the “contaminated” speech of others is noticed even by those who themselves do not comply with this requirement. The need for careful attention to the purity of speech in the language of the media is explained by the enormous influence that the printed word, and even more so the word spoken from the television screen, has on the mass audience. Publicistic speech forms the speech culture of the whole society. Why do weed words appear in our speech? This is the excitement during speaking, and the inability to think publicly, to choose the right words to frame their thoughts, and, of course, the poverty of the speaker's individual vocabulary. Taking care of the purity of speech improves the quality of speech activity.

Richness of speech

Wealth is the wide and free use of language units in speech, allowing you to optimally express information. The richness and diversity, the originality of the speech of the speaker or writer largely depends on how much he realizes what the originality of the native language is, its richness.

The Russian language is one of the most developed and processed languages ​​in the world, with the richest book and written tradition. What is the richness of the Russian language, what properties of the lexical composition, grammatical structure, sound side of the language create its positive qualities?

The richness of any language is determined, first of all, by the richness of the dictionary. The lexical richness of the Russian language is reflected in various linguistic dictionaries. Thus, the "Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language", published in 1847, contains about 115 thousand words. V. I. Dal included more than 200 thousand words in the “Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”, D. N. Ushakov in the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” - about 90 thousand words.

"Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language" in 17 volumes consists of more than 120 thousand words. The speaker needs to have a sufficient vocabulary to express his thoughts clearly and clearly. It is important to constantly take care of expanding this stock, to try to use the riches of the native language. The richness of the language is also determined by the semantic richness of the word, i.e. ambiguity. Is it important whether the word is chosen to express the thought? Does the listener understand what is being said, what does the speaker mean? Most often, one of the meanings of a polysemantic word is used in speech. However, polysemy can also be used as a method of enriching the content of speech. This allows you to make the content more capacious and expressive.

Our language is very rich in synonyms, that is, close in meaning. Synonyms make our speech more colorful, more diverse, help to avoid repeating the same words, allow us to figuratively express a thought. Often, synonyms, differing in a shade of meanings, single out one particular feature of the quality of an object, a phenomenon or some kind of sign of an action and contribute to a deeper comprehensive description of the phenomena of reality.

There are many words in the Russian language that convey the positive or negative attitude of the speaker to the subject of thought. The presence of emotionally colored words is explained by the fact that our language is rich in various suffixes that convey human feelings: affection, irony, neglect, contempt. M.V. Lomonosov wrote about this feature of the Russian language in the following way: “... derogatory names, like a courtyard, are paid, girl, not in every language equal contentment. Russian and Italian are very rich in them, German is poor, French is even poorer.

The Russian language is unusually rich in figurative phraseology. How much subtle folk humor, irony, the richest history of the Russian people is contained in them. Russian phraseology is presented in the "phraseological dictionary of the Russian language" edited by A.N. Molotkov. It contains four thousand dictionary entries. It is impossible not to pay attention to the amazing proverbs and sayings that the Russian language contains. So in the collection of proverbs of the Russian people, V.I. Dal’s five hundred sayings are devoted to the topic “Motherland” alone.

The Russian language compares favorably with other languages ​​in terms of diversity and quantity and the formation of new words. New words are created with the help of prefixes, suffixes, alternating sounds at the root, adding two or more words, by rethinking, splitting words into homonyms. The most productive is the morphological method of formation, with the help of which dozens of new words are created from the same root. As a result, the dictionary of the Russian language is constantly enriched with new words.

Poor, linguistically poor speech is perceived as a negative characteristic of a person, testifies to his superficial knowledge, low speech culture, and insufficient vocabulary. But the main thing: poverty, dullness, monotony of language is associated with poverty, dullness and not originality of thought.

Expressiveness of speech

culture speech communicative russian

The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of the listeners. It should be noted that in science there is no single definition of the concept of "expressiveness of speech". Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of the language of all its levels. Therefore, in the literature, expressiveness is distinguished pronunciation, accentological, lexical, derivational, morphological, syntactic, intonational, stylistic.

A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of oral speech largely depends on the situation of communication. B.N. Golovin names a number of conditions on which the expressiveness of the speech of an individual depends. He refers to them:

independence of thinking, activity of consciousness of the author of speech;

good knowledge of the language, its expressive possibilities;

good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles;

systematic and conscious training of speech skills;

the ability to control one's speech, to notice what is expressive in it, and what is stereotyped and gray;

Before talking about the visual means of language, which helps to make speech figurative, emotional, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, what possibilities it contains. Words serve as the names of objects, phenomena, actions, etc. However, the word also has an aesthetic function, it is able not only to name the object, the action of quality, but also to create a figurative representation of them. The word makes it possible to use it in its direct meaning, directly connecting with certain objects, the names of which it is. And in a figurative sense, denoting the facts of reality not directly, but through relation to the corresponding direct concepts. The concept of figurative use of a word is associated with such artistic means of expressive speech as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, which are widely used in oratory and oral communication. The metaphor is based on the transfer of names by similarity. Metaphor is formed according to the principle of personification, reification, abstraction, etc. Different parts of speech can act as metaphors: verb, noun, adjective. To give expressiveness to speech, metaphors must be original, unusual, and evoke emotional associations. Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If, in a metaphor, two identically named objects or phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then when using metonymy, words that have received the same name should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broadly closely related to each other. An example of metonymy is the use of the words audience, class, plant, collective farmto refer to people. Synecdochatrope, the essence of which lies in the fact that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of the part, the plural is instead of the singular.

The means of figurativeness and expressiveness of the language should also include comparison - a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature, epithets - artistic definitions, inversion - a change in the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose.

Increases the expressiveness of speech such a stylistic figure as repetitions, the use of question-answer techniques, the use of direct and indirect speech, rhetorical questions, phraseological turns, as well as proverbs and sayings.

All of the listed paths, figures, and techniques far from exhaust the whole variety of expressive means of Russian speech, but resorting to them, one should not forget that all these “highlights of the language” are good only when they seem unexpected to the listener, they come to the place and to time. It makes no sense to memorize them, but it is necessary to absorb them into oneself, developing and improving speech culture, taste and flair.

Conclusion

In the modern world, in today's realities of our country, the question of preserving the uniqueness of the Russian language is particularly acute. The apparent effectiveness of reducing and simplifying the language for the exchange of information is the philosophy of the "Cannibal Ellochka" from the immortal work of I. Ilf, E. Petrov.

We must appreciate all the diversity of our native language. The correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording, the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of figurative and expressive means of the language, proverbs and sayings, catchwords, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual dictionary, is the key to the effectiveness of communication, which determines the demand for a person in society, its competitiveness, prospects and opportunities.

Bibliography

1.B.N. Golovin "Fundamentals of speech culture". 2nd ed. - M., 1988.

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Exercise

Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous linguist V.V. Vinogradova: "All means of language are expressive, you just need to skillfully use them." Arguing your answer, give 2 (two) examples from the read text.

Option 1

The Russian language has a whole arsenal of expressive means, and the skill of the writer lies precisely in their skillful use.

Let us find in the text of O. Pavlova the arguments to this statement.

Thus, Annushka's experiences and sensations are recreated with the help of various means of expression.

For example, the repetition of the future tense verbs “I will go look for”, “I will know” in sentences 18, 20, 24 helps to understand: Annushka wants to prove to Grishka that if one day she does not see him in the playroom, she will not be inactive, and the boy will certainly be found in hospital. And the extended metaphor in sentence 29 makes it possible to feel how close the girl took the boy's experiences to her heart.

The linguist V.V. was right. Vinogradov, who argued that "all means of language are expressive, you just need to skillfully use them."

Option 2

“All the means of language are expressive, you just need to skillfully use them,” the linguist V.V. Vinogradov.

I understand this statement as follows: the richness of the Russian language lies in the fact that linguistic means can significantly expand the narrative and tell a lot about the character of the characters, and this depends only on the skill of the writer.

I will try to prove this idea by referring to the text of O. Pavlova.

It is interesting to see how Annushka's mood changes in the dialogue with the boy: her confidence and optimism disappear as he asks her questions. This is illustrated by the punctuation marks at the end of her answers: the exclamation point (proposition 18) turns into a dot (proposition 20) and then into an ellipsis (proposition 24), conveying the girl's confusion.

At the end of the story, we again see exclamation marks that complete each sentence (33-36) and reflect Annushka’s unshakable confidence that the boy will certainly recover, and the lexical repetition “no one ever disappears for good” reinforces this idea (propositions 35, 36 ) and emphasizes the excitement of the girl.

The examples given are evidence of the validity of the assertion of the scientist V.V. Vinogradov.

Option 3

Famous linguist Vinogradov V.V. believed that "all means of language are expressive, you just need to skillfully use them."

Indeed, evidence of the richness of the expressive means of the Russian language can be found in any literary text.

Let us turn to the story of O. Pavlova. In it, the fragility of the boy is conveyed with the help of morphemic means: diminutive-petting suffixes draw the image of the main character: “weak body”, “thin shoulders-Ki”. But the personification of “creeping ... terrible darkness” (proposition 31) reinforces the image of an invisible threat, which a defenseless child cannot oppose.

Thus, the skillful use of these linguistic means helped the author convey his sympathetic attitude towards the main character.

Text for work

(1) Annushka worked as a hospital clown; once a week, she and other volunteers came to the hospital and entertained seriously ill children who lived there for months. (2) She played with them, learned funny poems, and the kids, with all their hearts attached to her, were looking forward to their Nyusha, as she introduced herself to them.

(3) Parents and doctors did not allow all children to play with clowns: many children were forbidden to worry, to experience strong, even joyful emotions, because illnesses could cause complications.

(4) Fortunately, there were very few patients in November. (5) So this time only five came to the game room.

(6) Among them, as always, was Grishka - a thin and pale boy of ten years old in appearance. (7) 0n could not play outdoor games, because he was always forced to carry an iron stand with a dropper, from which life flowed drop by drop into his weak body. (8) Grishka called the rack a “giraffe” and tied his yellow checkered scarf on it, probably so that the “giraffe” would not catch a cold. (9) The boy always kept aloof and never laughed. (Yu) The head nurse, sighing sadly, once said to Nyusha: “He is unlikely to play with you, and don’t try to cheer him up: (11) The boy is seven spans in the forehead, and it would be great if he was also happy , but Grishenka is somehow on his own. (12) It will be easy to observe from the outside.

(13) That's why Nyusha was surprised when the boy approached her during a break between games and asked her to go out into the corridor with him for a while - "to learn something important."

(14) They left the playroom, closing the door behind them, and stood at the window.

(15) - Nyusha, aren't you scared?

(16) - Why should I be afraid?

(17) - That you will come one day, and I will not be with the children.

(18) - So, I will go to your room to look for you!

(19) - And I won't be in the ward either.

(20) - Then I'll go look for you to the big window near the dining room, where you like to stand.

(21) - And the window will not. (22) And it won't be in the other playroom. (23) Aren't you afraid that one day you will come, but I'm gone for good?

(24) - So, I will know that you have been discharged ... "

(25) - With a giraffe, - Grishka nodded at the stand with a dropper, - they won’t be discharged anymore.

(26) Grishka looked at Nyusha without blinking, and she, unable to withstand the gaze of those waiting only for an honest answer

eye, backed away to the window, sat on the windowsill and, gently pulling the boy to her, gently hugged him.

(27) - Grisha...

(28) They were alone in the empty cool corridor, and the light of the cooling, weakening November sun penetrated the corridor only a couple of meters. (29) Nyusha imagined: if the hospital building were suddenly cut in two, then in the very middle of the resulting cut, all people would see them - Nyusha, Grishka and a giraffe escaping from a long corridor of darkness in a narrowing sunbeam. (30) And Nyusha suddenly dunyal: and the sun is about to leave, and she is about to leave, and all the people will leave, but Grishka will remain. (31) One on one with terrible darkness creeping up on his thin shoulders.

(32) And then Nyusha began to speak firmly and loudly so that her voice could be heard even in the farthest and darkest corner of the corridor:

(33) - Such a day when I come, and you will not be for good, will never come! (34) Because you will always be! (Zb) Nobody ever, listen! (Zb) No one ever disappears for good, until ... until ... until he laughs in someone's heart!

(37) A treacherous lump in the throat made Nyusha sob unexpectedly loudly, which made Grishka shudder and frightened away from her. (38) The girl turned away, hastily, childishly - with her palms - wiped her tears and looked at him.

(39) - Oh-ee-oh-oh! (40) What are you ... - the boy seemed unable to find the words. (41) - What are you! (42) Like... a raccoon!

(43) And then Grishka laughed. (44) 3 was hit by no one before in the hospital with the first sonorous laughter not heard. (45) The hand with which he held on to the giraffe was shaking, and the giraffe was shaking with it, ringing subtly, as if echoing the boy's fervent laughter.

(46) Understanding nothing, Nyusha looked at her reflection in the window glass. (47) Wiping her tears, she smeared the leaking mascara with identical stripes from her eyes somewhere to her ears and really looked like a desperate raccoon who had just won a fight with the most predatory beast.

(48) The playroom door opened, and the head nurse appeared in the opening. (49) She probably wanted to ask something, but did not have time. (50) 0na saw the funny Nyusha the raccoon, saw Grishka and the giraffe shaking with laughter next to her, and - “Grishka is laughing!” - burst into happy laughter. (51) Everyone who was in the room poured into the corridor. (52) And laughter swept like a bright whirlwind in all corners, picking up the dumbfounded Nyusha.

(53) And Grishka laughed heartily and could not think of anything.

(54) All he wanted was to laugh and laugh further, just as easily, just as infectiously and loudly, and he was glad that other children were laughing with him. (55) And now he was not at all afraid. (56) Because he laughed in everyone's heart, and they laughed in his heart. (57) And this meant that none of them from now on will ever disappear for good ...

(According to O. Pavlova)

• Expressive possibilities of grammar.

Expressiveness and its basic conditions

The expressiveness of speech is understood as such features of its structure that make it possible to enhance the impression of what is said (written), to arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, to influence not only his mind, but also feelings, imagination. In other words, the expressiveness of speech is such a communicative quality that reflects the intentional strengthening by the speaker (writer) of the impression of what was said (written).
One of the main conditions of expressiveness is the independence of thinking of the author of the speech, which implies a deep and comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the subject of the message. Knowledge extracted from any sources must be mastered, processed, deeply comprehended. This gives the speaker (writer) confidence, makes his speech convincing, effective. If the author does not properly think over the content of his statement, does not comprehend the issues that he will present, his thinking cannot be independent, and his speech cannot be expressive.
The expressiveness of speech also depends on the attitude of the author to the content of the statement. The speaker's inner conviction of the significance of the statement, interest, indifference to its content gives the speech a special emotional coloring.
In direct communication, the relationship between the speaker and the listener is also essential, the psychological contact between them, which arises primarily on the basis of joint mental activity: the sender and addressee must solve the same problems, discuss the same questions: the first - setting out the topic of his message, the second - following behind the development of his thought. In establishing psychological contact, it is important to relate to the subject of speech of both the speaker and the listener, their interest, indifference to the content of the statement.
In addition to a deep knowledge of the subject of the message, the expressiveness of speech also implies the ability to convey knowledge to the addressee, to arouse his interest and attention. This is achieved by careful and skillful selection of language means, taking into account the conditions and tasks of communication, which in turn requires a good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities and features of functional styles.
The means of training speech skills is attentive reading of exemplary texts (fiction, journalistic, scientific), close interest in their language and style, attentive attitude to the speech of people who can speak expressively, as well as self-control (the ability to control and analyze one’s speech from the point of view of its expressiveness). ).
The expressive means of language usually include tropes and stylistic figures. However, the expressive possibilities of the language are not limited to this; in speech, any unit of the language of all its levels (even a single sound), as well as non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime) can become a means of expressiveness.

Phonetic means of expression. euphony of speech

As you know, sounding speech is the main form of the existence of a language. The sound organization of speech, the aesthetic role of sounds is dealt with by a special section of stylistics - phonics. Phonics assesses the peculiarities of the sound structure of the language, determines the conditions of euphony characteristic of each national language, explores various methods of enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech, teaches the most perfect, artistically justified and stylistically appropriate sound expression of thought.
The sound expressiveness of speech lies in its euphony, harmony, in the use of rhythm, rhyme, alliteration (repetition of identical or similar consonant sounds), assonance (repetition of vowel sounds) and other means.
First of all, phonics is interested in the sound organization of poetic speech, in which the significance of phonetic means is especially great.
In non-artistic speech, phonics solves the problem of the most expedient sound organization of linguistic material, which contributes to the accurate expression of thought, since the correct use of phonetic means of the language ensures a quick (and without interference) perception of information, eliminates discrepancies, and eliminates unwanted associations that interfere with the understanding of statements.
For fluency of understanding, the euphony of speech is of great importance, i.e. a combination of sounds that is convenient for pronunciation (articulation) and pleasing to the ear (musicality). One of the ways to achieve sound harmony is considered to be a certain alternation of vowels and consonants. At the same time, most consonant combinations contain sounds [m], [n], [p], [l], which have a high sonority.
However, the euphony of speech can often be disturbed. There are several reasons for this:
accumulation of consonants: a sheet of a defective book: [stbr]; competition of adult builders: [rsvzr], [khstr]. Usually, with the confluence of consonants in oral speech, in such cases, an additional "syllabicity" develops, a syllabic vowel appears: [rubl '], [m "etr], etc.
accumulation of vowels. Vowels give rise to euphony only in combination with consonants. The confluence of several vowels in linguistics is called gaping; it distorts the sound structure of Russian speech and makes it difficult to articulate: Tanya and Olya .. [iiuo].
repetition of the same combinations of sounds or the same words: ... They produce the collapse of relations (N. Voronov); Indication is the registration of some information; The inspection carried out by the commission caused great problems.
random rhyme in prose speech: In connection with the elimination of the measurement of the gap in the fourth section in a row, it was withdrawn; When they began to think about what to do to eliminate dampness in the pigsty, they suddenly remembered the forgotten steamer.
The aesthetic perception of texts is violated when real participles of the present and past tenses are used in speech, such as dragging, dragging, grimacing, grimacing, gritting, as they seem dissonant.

Vocabulary and phraseology as the main source of expressive speech

The expressive possibilities of a word are associated primarily with its semantics, with its use in a figurative sense. Their common name for all varieties of figurative use of words is paths (Greek tropos - turn; turnover, image).
The most common types of tropes are metaphor, personification, epithet, allegory, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, paraphrase. The typical function of the tropes is decorative, or pictorial, in other words, the main purpose of the tropes is associated with the creation of images.
The ability of a word to have not one, but several meanings of a usual nature, as well as the possibility of updating its semantics, its unusual, unexpected rethinking, is the basis of lexical figurative means. The novelty and freshness of the associative connections underlying metaphorical transfers are characterized, first of all, by poetic speech: Life is sniffed maliciously with the musical nostril of a mustang (A. Voznesensky); The calving sky is licked by a red heifer (S. Yesenin). Tropeization is largely characteristic of journalistic speech.
Vocabulary with emotionally expressive coloring is especially expressive. It affects our feelings, evokes emotions: This time, darling Lapidus decided to give a reception in honor of the Moscow silver youth, whose extravagance he was so imbued with on Albo-fashion (from the newspapers).
The expressiveness of speech is achieved through a motivated, purposeful clash of words of different functional-style and emotional-expressive coloring: “Secondly, the president signed a package of decrees on the “real transition of the country to a market economy”. And thus he drove an aspen stake into the state planning system ”(from the newspapers).
Polysemantics, homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, restricted vocabulary, archaisms, neologisms, etc. are used as means of expression: Mouths and lips are not the same thing. And the eyes are not peepers at all! For some, depth is available, for others ... - deep plates (A. Markov).
Synonyms can perform the function of comparison and opposition of the concepts they denote. At the same time, attention is often drawn not to what is common, which is characteristic of close objects or phenomena, but to the differences between them: Nikitin wanted ... not just to think, but to reflect (Yu. Bondarev).
As an expressive means of creating contrast, sharp opposition, antonyms are used in speech. They underlie the creation of antithesis (Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure built on a sharp opposition of words with the opposite meaning: Without tasting bitter, you will not recognize sweet (proverb). Gold pays for meanness. For courage - only lead (B. Mozolevsky).
Words-paronyms have considerable expressive possibilities. The deliberate “clash” of paronyms in one context (paronomasia) serves as a means of creating humor, irony, satire: There was a cult of personality, and now there is a cult of cash (from newspapers).
A vivid means of expressiveness in artistic and journalistic speech are individual author's neologisms (occasionalisms), which attract the attention of the reader (or listener) with their unexpectedness, unusualness. For example: Tankophobia disappeared. Our soldiers hit the "tigers" with direct fire (I. Ehrenburg).
Lexical repetitions (gemination, diaphora, dyad, chiasm) enhance the expressiveness of speech. They help to highlight an important concept in the text, to delve deeper into the content of the statement, give the speech an emotionally expressive coloring: Here the train passes the dump trucks, here the dump trucks pass the train ... Gardens, gardens, gardens, gardens, gardens ... Fields, fields, fields, fields, fields ... (B. Rakhmanin).
A living and inexhaustible source of expressiveness of speech are phraseological combinations characterized by figurativeness, expressiveness and emotionality, which allows not only to name an object or phenomenon, but also to express a certain attitude towards it: "Achilles' heel of our economy", journalistic articles).
Phrasemes are often used in a transformed form or in an unusual lexical environment, which allows increasing their expressive possibilities. The methods of using and creative processing of phraseological phrases for each artist of the word are individual and quite diverse: replacing one of the components, expanding or reducing the composition, contamination of two phraseological units, using it in its literal sense, etc.: “Chicken blindness”, “Two sides of the plate”, “The promised Vrubel has been waiting for three years”, “Long box” (titles of journalistic articles).
Increases the expressive possibilities of phraseological units, their ability to enter into synonymous relations with each other. The reduction of phrasemes into a synonymic series or the simultaneous use of lexical and phraseological synonyms significantly enhances the expressive coloring of speech: We are not a couple ... A goose is not a friend to a pig, a drunk sober is not related (A. Chekhov); They scratch their tongues all day, wash the bones of their neighbors (from colloquial speech).

The expressive power of grammar

Grammatical means of expressiveness are less significant and less noticeable in comparison with lexico-phraseological ones.
Grammatical forms, phrases and sentences correlate with words and to some extent depend on them. For this reason, the expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology comes to the fore, while the expressive possibilities of grammar are relegated to the background.
The main sources of speech expressiveness in the field of morphology are forms of a certain stylistic coloring, synonymy and cases of figurative use of grammatical forms.
A variety of expressive shades can be conveyed, for example, by using one form of the number of nouns instead of another. Thus, the forms of the singular number of nouns in the collective meaning vividly convey the generalized plurality. Such use of singular forms is accompanied by the appearance of additional shades, most often negative ones: Moscow, burnt by fire, is given to the Frenchman (M. Lermontov).
Expressiveness is characteristic of the plural forms of collective names used metaphorically to refer not to a specific person, but to a typified phenomenon:
We all look at the Napoleons (A. Pushkin)
The Molchalins are blissful in the world (A. Griboedov)
Usual or occasional use of the plural of nouns singularia tantum can serve as a means of expressing disdain: I decided to run courses, study electricity, all sorts of oxygen! (V. Veresaev).
Pronouns are characterized by richness and variety of emotional and expressive shades. For example, the pronouns some, some, some, used when naming a person, introduce a tinge of disdain into speech (some doctor, some poet, some Ivanov).
The ambiguity of the meaning of pronouns serves as a means of creating a joke, a comic: When his wife was an Astrakhan herring. I think - why would a lady with our smelly herring drag around Europe? He cut her belly (not a lady, of course, but a herring), so from there, dear mother, diamond after diamond fell like cockroaches (V. Pikul “I have the honor”).
Special expressive shades are created by contrasting the pronouns we - you, our - yours, while emphasizing two camps, two opinions, views, etc.:
Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness. Try it, fight with us! (A. Blok);
Verbal categories and forms with their rich synonymy, expression and emotionality, and the ability to use figuratively have great expressive possibilities.
The possibility of using one verb form instead of another makes it possible to widely use in speech synonymous replacements of some forms of tense, aspect, mood or personal forms of the verb with others.
The additional semantic shades that appear in this case increase the expression of the expression. So, to indicate the action of the interlocutor, forms of the 3rd person singular can be used, which gives the statement a disparaging connotation: He is still arguing!; 1st person plural Well, how are we resting? - in the meaning of ‘resting, resting’ with a hint of sympathy or special interest; an infinitive with a particle would have a touch of desirability: You should rest a little; You should visit him. The past perfect tense when used in the meaning of the future expresses a special categorical judgment or the need to convince the interlocutor of the inevitability of action: - Listen, let me go! Drop off somewhere! I disappeared completely (M. Gorky).
Many expressive forms of inclinations: May there always be sunshine!; Long live world peace! Additional semantic and emotionally expressive shades appear when some mood forms are used in the meaning of others. For example, the subjunctive mood in the meaning of the imperative has a shade of a courteous, cautious wish: You would go to your brother; the indicative mood in the meaning of the imperative expresses an order that does not allow objections, refusals: You will call tomorrow!; the infinitive in the meaning of the imperative mood expresses categoricalness: Stop the arms race!; Prohibit testing of atomic weapons!.
The particles yes, let, well, well, -ka, etc. contribute to the strengthening of the expression of the verb in the imperative mood: Well, is it sweet, my friend. // Judge in simplicity (A. Tvardovsky).
The expressive possibilities of syntax are associated primarily with the use of stylistic figures (in the most general definition of a figure - transformations of syntactic structures): antithesis, gradation, inversion, parallelism, ellipsis, default, polysyndeton, asyndeton, parcellation, segmentation, anaphora, epiphora, etc.
The expressive possibilities of “manipulations” with syntactic constructions, as a rule, are closely connected with the words that fill them, with their semantics and stylistic coloring. So, the stylistic figure of the antithesis, as noted above, is often created by using antonyms, that is, the lexical basis of the antithesis is antonymy, and the syntactic basis is the parallelism of the construction: Stronger is the one who loves less, Who loves more, that is weaker ... Who loves more, the richer, who loves less, the poorer (V. Soloukhin); An easy task is hard to write and speak, but it is easy to write and speak is a hard task (V. Klyuchevsky)
The stringing of synonymous words can lead to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (or weakens) the meaning of the previous one: She [German] was there, in a hostile world that he did not recognize, despised, hated (Yu. Bondarev); But the vast majority of the screen characters of Leonid Nevedomsky personify decency, nobility, chivalry (from the newspapers).
Anaphora and epiphora are based on lexical repetitions: The trumpeter plays a hymn, the trumpeter sweats in the scale, the trumpeter wheezes his own and coughs, wheezing (B. Okudzhava); Once upon a time there was one jug, He wanted to reach the heights, But he could not reach the heights, Because he is a jug (N. Glazkov).
The repetition of functional words represents the figure of polysyndeton, the intentional omission of unions - the figure of asyndeton: Oh, red summer! I would love you, If it were not for the zanoy, but mosquitoes, and flies (A Pushkin); ... that's really on the Tverskaya Vozok rushes through the potholes. Booths, women, Boys, shops, lanterns, Palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens, Merchants, shacks, peasants, Boulevards, towers, Cossacks, Pharmacies, shops, fashion (A. Pushkin) flash by.
Since the time of Ancient Greece, a special semantic type of phrases has been known - an oxymoron, some researchers consider it a trope, others consider it a stylistic figure, consisting in combining two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another: hot snow, ugly beauty, truth of lies, ringing silence ). Oxymoron allows you to reveal the essence of objects or phenomena, emphasize their complexity and inconsistency. For example:
Covered
Sweet despair
The pain of delight
By your eyes
Wide open
Like a goodbye
I saw myself
Young.
(V. Fedorov)
According to the apt definition of A. S. Pushkin, “language is inexhaustible in the combination of words”, therefore, its expressive possibilities are also inexhaustible. Updating links between words leads to updating verbal meanings. In some cases, this manifests itself in the creation of new, unexpected metaphors, in others, in an almost imperceptible shift in verbal meanings.
Such a shift can be created not by close, but by distant connections of words, separate parts of the text, or the entire text as a whole. This is how, for example, a poem by A.S. Pushkin “I loved you”, which is an example of expressiveness of speech, although it mainly uses words that do not have a bright expressive coloring and semantic connotations, and only one paraphrase: Love, perhaps, // In my soul has not completely died out.
The syntax of the Russian language, in addition, has a lot of emotionally and expressively colored constructions. So, infinitive sentences with a colloquial coloring are characterized by various modal-expressive meanings: You will not see such battles (M. Lermontov)
An emotional and evaluative attitude to the content of the statement can be expressed with the help of exclamatory sentences: How beautiful life seems to me when I meet restless, caring, enthusiastic, searching, generous-hearted people in it! (V. Chivilikhin); sentences with inversion: Fate's sentence has come true! (M. Lermontov), ​​segmented and packaged structures: Winter is so long, so endless; Where we will live, the forest is real, not like our grove ... With mushrooms, with berries (V. Panova), etc.
It enlivens the narrative, allows you to convey the emotional and expressive features of the author's speech, more clearly show his inner state, attitude to the subject of the message, direct and improperly direct speech. It is more emotional, expressive and convincing than indirect. For example, let's compare an excerpt from the story of A.P. Chekhov "Dear Lessons" in the first and second editions:
(I) Voronov ordered to ask, and less than a minute later, a young, very decently and elegantly dressed young lady entered the office.
(II) - Ask, - said Voronov. And a young, in the latest fashion, elegantly dressed young lady entered the office.
The expressive possibilities of syntactic (as well as other) means of the language are updated due to various stylistic methods of using them in speech. Interrogative sentences, for example, are a means of expression if they not only contain an incentive to receive information, but also express a variety of emotionally expressive shades: Is it morning?; So you won't come?; Again this nasty rain?; arouse the addressee's interest in the message, make them think about the question posed, emphasize its significance: How far will you sail on the wave of the crisis?
Rhetorical questions that are widely used in public speaking contribute to attracting the attention of the addressee and strengthening the impact of speech on his feelings. In fact, a rhetorical question is the use of an interrogative grammatical construction in a secondary function - the function of a message: a rhetorical question contains a negative or affirmative answer: Don't we have overflowing creativity? Don't we have a smart, rich, flexible, luxurious language, richer and more flexible than any of the European languages?
In the practice of oratory, a special technique for using interrogative sentences has been developed - a question-answer move (the speaker puts questions and answers them himself): How did these ordinary girls become extraordinary soldiers? They were ready for a feat, but they were not ready for the army. And the army, in turn, was not ready for them, because most of the girls went voluntarily (S. Aleksievich). The question-answer move dialogizes monologue speech, makes the addressee the interlocutor of the speaker, activates his attention. Dialogization enlivens the narrative, gives it expressiveness.
As a means of speech expressiveness in a certain situation, deviations from the norms of the literary language are deliberately used: the use of units of different stylistic coloring in one context, the collision of semantically incompatible units, non-normative formations of grammatical forms, non-normative construction of sentences, etc. This use is based on a conscious choice of language means based on a deep knowledge of the language.
It is possible to achieve speech expressiveness only with the correct correlation of the main aspects of speech - logical, psychological (emotional) and linguistic, which is determined by the content of the statement and the author's goal setting.

Our language is an integral and logically correct system. Its smallest unit is the sound, the smallest meaningful unit is the morpheme. Words are made up of morphemes, which are considered the main language unit. They can be considered from the point of view of their sound, as well as from the point of view of structure, as or as members of a sentence.

Each of these linguistic units corresponds to a certain linguistic layer, tier. A sound is a unit of phonetics, a morpheme is a unit of morphemics, a word is a unit of vocabulary, parts of speech are units of morphology, and sentences are units of syntax. Morphology and syntax together make up grammar.

At the level of vocabulary, tropes are distinguished - special turns of speech, giving it special expressiveness. Similar means at the level of syntax are figures of speech. As you can see, everything in the language system is interconnected and interdependent.

Lexical means

Let us dwell on the most striking language means. Let's start with the lexical level of the language, which - we recall - is based on words and their lexical meanings.

Synonyms

Synonyms are words of the same part of speech that are close in their lexical meanings. For example, beautiful - lovely.

Some words or combinations of words acquire a close meaning only in a certain context, in a certain language environment. This is contextual synonyms.

Consider the sentence: Day was august, sultry, painfully boring" . The words august , sultry, painfully boring are not synonyms. However, in this context, when describing a summer day, they acquire a similar meaning, acting as contextual synonyms.

Antonyms

Antonyms are words of one part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning: high - low, high - low, giant - dwarf.

Like synonyms, antonyms can be contextual, that is, to acquire the opposite meaning in a certain context. The words wolf and sheep, for example, out of context are not antonyms. However, in the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "Wolves and Sheep" two types of people are depicted - people-"predators" ("wolves") and their victims ("sheep"). It turns out that in the title of the work the words wolves and sheeps, acquiring the opposite meaning, become contextual antonyms.

Dialectisms

Dialectisms are words that are used only in certain localities. For example, in the southern regions of Russia beet has a different name beetroot. In some areas, the wolf is called a biryuk. Veksha(squirrel), hut(house), towel(towel) - all these are dialectisms. In literary works, dialectisms are used most often to create local color.

Neologisms

Neologisms are new words that have recently come into the language: smartphone, browser, multimedia etc.

obsolete words

In linguistics, words that have gone out of active use are considered obsolete. Obsolete words are divided into two groups - archaisms and historicisms.

Archaisms- These are obsolete names of objects that exist to this day. Other names, for example, used to have eyes and a mouth. They were named accordingly. eyes and mouth.

historicisms- words that have fallen into disuse due to the disappearance of the concepts and phenomena they designate. Oprichnina, corvee, boyar, chain mail- there are no objects and phenomena called such words in modern life, which means that these are historic words.

Phraseologisms

Phraseologisms are adjoining lexical linguistic means - stable combinations of words reproduced equally by all native speakers. Like snow fell on your head, play spillikins, neither fish nor meat, work carelessly, turn up your nose, turn your head ... What kind of phraseological units are not in the Russian language and what aspects of life they do not characterize!

trails

Tropes are turns of speech based on a game with the meaning of a word and giving speech a special expressiveness. Consider the most popular trails.

Metaphor

Metaphor - the transfer of properties from one object to another on the basis of any similarity, the use of a word in a figurative sense. Metaphor is sometimes called a hidden comparison - and for good reason. Consider examples.

Cheeks are burning. The word is used figuratively are burning. Cheeks seem to burn - that's what a hidden comparison is like.

Sunset bonfire. The word is used figuratively bonfire. The sunset is compared to a fire, but it is compared hiddenly. This is a metaphor.

Expanded metaphor

With the help of a metaphor, a detailed image is often created - in this case, not one word, but several, acts in a figurative sense. Such a metaphor is called expanded.

Here is an example, the lines of Vladimir Soloukhin:

“The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun through the infinite Universe.”

The first metaphor Earth is a cosmic body- gives birth to the second - we, people are astronauts.

As a result, a whole detailed image is created - astronauts make a long flight around the sun on the ship-Earth.

Epithet

Epithet– colorful artistic definition. Of course, epithets are most often adjectives. Moreover, adjectives are colorful, emotionally evaluative. For example, in the phrase golden ring word golden is not an epithet, this is a common definition that characterizes the material from which the ring is made. But in the phrase golden hair, golden soul - golden, golden- epithets.

However, other cases are also possible. Sometimes a noun acts as an epithet. For example, frost-voivode. Governor in this case, the application is, that is, a kind of definition, which means that it may well be an epithet.

Often epithets are emotional, colorful adverbs, for example, funny in the phrase merrily walks.

Permanent epithets

Permanent epithets are found in folklore, oral folk art. Remember: in folk songs, fairy tales, epics, the good fellow is always kind, the girl is red, the wolf is gray, and the earth is damp. All these are constant epithets.

Comparison

Assimilation of one object or phenomenon to another. Most often it is expressed by comparative turns with unions as, as, exactly, as if or comparative clauses. But there are other forms of comparison. For example, the comparative degree of an adjective and an adverb, or the so-called instrumental comparison. Consider examples.

Time flies, like a bird(comparative turnover).

Brother is older than me(comparative turnover).

I younger brother(comparative degree of the adjective young).

meanders snake. (creative comparisons).

personification

Endowing inanimate objects or phenomena with the properties and qualities of living things: the sun is laughing, spring has come.

Metonymy

Metonymy is the replacement of one concept by another on the basis of contiguity. What does it mean? Surely in geometry lessons you studied adjacent angles - angles that have one common side. Concepts can also be related, for example, school and students.

Consider examples:

School went out on Saturday.

Kisses plate ate.

The essence of metonymy in the first example is that instead of the word pupils the word is used shko la. In the second example, we use the word plate instead of the name of what is on the plate ( soup, porridge or something similar), that is, we use metonymy.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is similar to metonymy and is considered a variation of it. This trope also consists in replacement - but in a replacement necessarily quantitative. Most often, the plural is replaced by the singular and vice versa.

Consider examples of synecdoche.

"From here we will threaten to the Swede… ”- thinks Tsar Peter in A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Bronze Horseman”. Of course, I didn't mean just one. Swede, a Swedes- that is, the singular is used instead of the plural.

And here is a line from Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin": “We all look at the Napoleons”. It is known that the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte was alone. The poet uses synecdoche - he uses the plural instead of the singular.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole is an extreme exaggeration. "In a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned", - writes V. Mayakovsky. And Gogolevsky had trousers "as wide as the Black Sea."

Litotes

Litota is a trope, the opposite of hyperbole, an overstatement: a boy with a finger, a man with a fingernail.

Irony

Irony is called hidden mockery. At the same time, we put into our words a meaning that is directly opposite to the true one. "From off, smart, you wander your head", - such a question in Krylov's fable is addressed to the Donkey, which is considered the embodiment of stupidity.

paraphrase

We have already considered paths based on the replacement of concepts. At metonymy one word is replaced by another according to the adjacency of concepts, with synecdoche the singular is replaced by the plural or vice versa.

Paraphrase is also a substitution - a word is replaced by several words, a whole descriptive phrase. For example, instead of the word "animals" we say or write "our smaller brothers." Instead of the word "lion" - the king of beasts.

Syntactic means

Syntactic means are such linguistic means that are associated with a sentence or phrase. Syntactic means are sometimes called grammatical, since syntax, along with morphology, is part of grammar. Let's dwell on some syntactic means.

Homogeneous members of a sentence

These are sentence members that answer the same question, refer to one word, are one member of the sentence, and, in addition, are pronounced with a special enumeration intonation.

grew in the garden roses, chamomile,bells . — This sentence is complicated by homogeneous subjects.

Introductory words

These are words that more often express an attitude to what is being reported, indicate the source of the message or the way the thought is framed. Let's analyze the examples.

Fortunately, snow.

Unfortunately, snow.

Maybe, snow.

According to a friend, snow.

So, snow.

The above sentences convey the same information. (snow), but it is expressed with different feelings (fortunately, unfortunately) with uncertainty (maybe), indicating the source of the message (according to a friend) and way of thinking (so).

Dialog

A conversation between two or more people. Let us recall, as an example, a dialogue from a poem by Korney Chukovsky:

— Who is speaking?
- Elephant.
- Where?
- From a camel...

Question-answer form of presentation

This is the construction of the text in the form of questions and answers to them. "What's wrong with a piercing gaze?" - the author asks at the same time. And he answers himself: “And everything is bad!”

Separate members of the sentence

Secondary members of a sentence, which are distinguished by commas (or dashes) in writing, and by pauses in speech.

The pilot talks about his adventures, smiling at the audience (a sentence with a separate circumstance, expressed by a participial turnover).

The children went out into the field illuminated by the sun (a sentence with a separate circumstance, expressed by participial turnover).

Without a brother his first listener and admirer, he would hardly have achieved such results.(offer with a separate common application).

None, except for her sister didn't know about it(offer with a separate addition).

I will come early at six o'clock in the morning (a sentence with a separate clarifying circumstance of time).

Figures of speech

At the level of syntax, special constructions are distinguished that give expressiveness to speech. They are called figures of speech, as well as stylistic figures. These are antithesis, gradation, inversion, parcellation, anaphora, epiphora, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, etc. Consider some of the stylistic figures.

Antithesis

In Russian, antithesis is called opposition. As an example of it, we can cite the proverb: “Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness.”

Inversion

Inversion is reverse word order. As you know, each of the members of the proposal has its "legitimate" place, its position. Thus, the subject must come before the predicate, and the definition must come before the word being defined. Certain positions are assigned to the circumstance and addition. When the order of words in a sentence is violated, we can talk about inversion.

Using inversion, writers and poets achieve the desired sound of the phrase. Remember the poem "Sail". Without the inversion, his first lines would sound like this: "A lonely sail turns white in the blue mist of the sea". The poet used inversion and the lines sounded amazing:

White sail lonely

In the mist of the blue sea...

gradation

Gradation - the arrangement of words (as a rule, which are homogeneous members, in ascending or descending order of their meanings). Consider examples: "This is optical illusion, hallucination, mirage« (a hallucination is more than an optical illusion, and a mirage is more than an optical illusion). Gradation is both ascending and descending.

Parceling

Sometimes, to enhance expressiveness, the boundaries of the sentence are deliberately violated, that is, parceling is used. It consists in fragmenting the phrase, in which incomplete sentences are formed (that is, such constructions, the meaning of which is unclear out of context). An example of parceling can be considered a newspaper headline: “The process has begun. Back" ("The process went back" - this is how the phrase looked before crushing).

The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of listeners. It should be borne in mind that in science there is no single definition of the concept of "expressiveness of speech". There are different approaches to describing this quality of speech. Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of the language of all its levels. Therefore, in the literature, expressiveness is distinguished pronunciation, accentological, lexical, derivational, morphological, syntactic, intonational, stylistic *
A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of oral speech largely depends on the situation of communication. So, A. N. Vasilyeva writes:
Obviously, the expressiveness of the proof of the theorem and the expressiveness of the advertisement are essentially different both in content and in form. Therefore, one should first of all distinguish between informational expressiveness (object-logical, logical-conceptual) and expressiveness of sensory expression and influence. Moreover, both of these types can have subspecies: open (expressive) and hidden (impressive) forms of expression. The ratio of these species AND SUB-TYPES according to the main styles is different.
B. N. Golovin names a number of conditions on which the expressiveness of the speech of an individual depends. He refers to them:
independence of thinking, activity of consciousness of the author of speech;
indifference, the interest of the author of the speech to what he speaks or writes about, and to those for whom he speaks or writes;
good knowledge of the language, its expressive possibilities;
good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles. lei;
systematic and conscious training of speech skills;
the ability to control one's speech, to notice what is expressive in it, and what is stereotyped and gray;
the conscious intention of the author of the speech to speak and write expressively, the psychological target setting for expressiveness.
Special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional.
Before analyzing various visual means of language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, the main tool of the speaker, the main building material, what possibilities does yo include?
Words serve as names of objects, phenomena, actions
that is, everything that surrounds a person * However, the word also has an aesthetic function * it is able not only to name an object, action, quality * but also to create a figurative representation of them.
The concept of figurativeness of a word is associated with the phenomenon of ambiguity * It is known that Words that name only one object are considered unambiguous (pavement, sidewalk, trolley bus, tram), and words denoting several objects, phenomena of reality * - ambiguous * Polysemy in some then the degree reflects those complex relationships that exist in reality * So * if an external resemblance is found between objects or some hidden common feature is inherent in them, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become a name and another. For example: needle - sewing, spruce, hedgehog; fox - an animal and a mushroom; flexible cane - flexible person - flexible mind*
The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones are figurative.
Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are *
Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.
For example, the word lacquer has two meanings: direct - “cover with varnish” and figurative - “embellish, represent something in a better way than it actually is” * The figurative use of the word is most often associated with the concept of the figurative meaning of the word. For example, in the word splinter, a direct meaning is distinguished - “a thin, sharp, small piece of wood stuck into the body”, and figuratively - “a harmful, corrosive person” * The figurative nature of the figurative meaning of the word is obvious. Speaking of a large amount of something, you can use the word a lot in its literal sense, or you can use other words in a figurative sense - a forest of pipes, a hail of blows, an abyss of books, a cloud of mosquitoes, an abyss of affairs and g * d *
The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, which are widely used in oratory and oral communication. The metaphor is based on the transfer of the name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (water runs), reification (nerves of steel), distraction (field of activity), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Quite often, metaphors are used in everyday speech. Often we hear and say ourselves: it is raining, the clock has become steel, iron character, warm relations, sharp eyesight. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.
Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand, represent an event or phenomenon. Here, for example, what metaphors were used in the farewell speech to freshmen by the outstanding physiologist Academician A. A. Ukhtomsky:
Every year, new waves of young people come from different condos to the university to replace their predecessors. What a powerful wind drives these waves here, we begin to understand, remembering the sorrows and hardships that we had to experience, breaking through barriers to these cherished walls. With the power of instinct, young people rush here. This instinct is the desire to know, to know more and more deeply.
There are several metaphors in this passage: waves of youth, what a powerful wind drives these waves here, breaking through barriers, to these treasured walls. They create a certain emotional mood of the listeners, make them feel the significance of what is happening.
A special effect is achieved when the direct and metaphorical meanings of the word collide in speech. For example, the following phrase sounds intriguing: “We have a sad anniversary today. Exactly one year ago, our city was shocked by a tragic event: a train wreck occurred at the railway station.” In this sentence, the verb shocked has a direct meaning (“make tremble, shake, hesitate”) and figuratively (“strongly excite, make a great impression”).
However, the use of metaphors, direct and figurative meanings of words do not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors, "Too shiny
syllable, - wrote Aristotle, - makes imperceptible both characters and thoughts.
The abundance of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content.
Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If in metaphor two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other.
In K. M. Simonov, in one of the poems we read: “And the hall rises, and the hall sings, and it is easy to breathe in the hall.” In the first and second cases, the word hall means people, in the third - "room". Therefore, here the name of the room is used to name those who are in it. Examples of metonymy are the use of the words audience, class, school, apartment, house, factory, collective farm to refer to people.
The word can be called the material and products from this material (Sgold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: “Our athletes got gold and silver, the French got bronze.”
Quite often, geographical names are used in a metonymic sense / For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of “government of the country”, “ruling circles”: “negotiations between London and Washington”, “Paris is worried”, “Warsaw has made a decision”, etc. The names refer to the people who live in the area. So, Belarus is synonymous with the combination of the Belarusian people, Ukraine - the Ukrainian people.
Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which is that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of the part, the plural is instead of the singular.
An example of the use of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M. A. Sholokhov about the character of a Russian person. Using the word man and his own name Ivan, the writer means the whole people:
The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who without hesitation gave the last piece of bread and thirty grams of front-line sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, saving him from inevitable death, a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland.
Good name Ivan!
Comparison. This is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three data: firstly, what is being compared (“object”), secondly, with what it is compared (“image”), thirdly, on the basis of which one is compared with another (“feature” ).
So, A. V. Lunacharsky, speaking at the First All-Union Congress of Teachers, spoke about the organic connection of all levels of education, about the role of science in the life of the country. Explaining his idea, he resorted to a simple and convincing comparison for that time:
Just as a building cannot be built without cement, so it is now impossible to direct state or economic affairs without science.
In this example, science (“object”) is compared with cement (“image”), without which a building cannot be built (“sign”).
Since comparison implies the presence of not one, but two images, the listener receives two information that are interconnected, that is, one image is complemented by another. With the help of comparison, the speaker highlights, emphasizes an object or phenomenon, pays special attention to it. All this leads to better assimilation and memorization of what was said, which is very important for the listener. When a book or an article is read, then an incomprehensible place can be re-read, returned to it again. When a speech is listened to, then, as a rule, only after its completion can one be asked to explain something that turned out to be incomprehensible.
Comparison will be effective only when it is organically connected with the content, when it does not obscure the idea, but explains it, makes it simpler. The power of comparison is in
originality, unusualness, and this is achieved by bringing together objects, phenomena or actions that, it would seem, have nothing in common with each other, P * Sergeyich in the book "The Art of Speech in Court" writes:
The greater the differences in the objects of comparison, the more unexpected the similarities, the better the comparison.
Originally, for example, I. P. Pavlov showed the role of facts in science, referring to young scientists:
Accustom yourself to restraint and patience * Learn to do the dirty work in science * Study, compare, accumulate facts.
No matter how perfect the wing of a bird, it could never lift it into the air without leaning on the air.
Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to take off* Without them, your "theories" are empty attempts*
But in studying, experimenting, observing, try not to remain at the surface of the facts. Don't become archivists of facts. Try to penetrate the mystery of their origin* Persistently seek the laws that govern them.
In oral presentations, comparisons are often used to draw the attention of listeners to the subject of conversation * To do this, they resort to a complex, detailed comparison that allows the listener to better understand the problem being covered, to better understand the topic of conversation *
Vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special poetic quality. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their figurativeness and turned into speech clichés. It is unlikely that such common expressions will evoke positive emotions in anyone: “brave as a lion”; "cowardly as a hare"; “reflected as in a mirror”; “go through the red thread”, etc. It is bad when false comparisons are used in speech * Such comparisons make it difficult to understand the main idea of ​​the speaker, divert the attention of listeners from the content of the speech *
Epithets - artistic definitions * They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement * Pay attention to what expressive epithets he finds
A.E. Fersman to describe the beauty and splendor of green stones:
A brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green, comparable only to the stones of Colombia; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, that beautiful sparkling demantoid stone, which was so valued abroad, and traces of which were found in the ancient excavations of Ecbatana in Persia. A whole gamut of tones connects slightly greenish or bluish beryls with dense green dark aquamarines of the Ilmensky mines, and no matter how rare these stones are, their beauty is almost unparalleled (emphasized by us. - Auth.).
As with other means of speech expressiveness, epithets are not recommended to be abused, as this can lead to beautiful speech at the expense of its clarity and intelligibility. The advice of A.P. Chekhov may be useful in this respect. In one of his letters he noted:
... when reading proofs, cross out, where possible, definitions of nouns and verbs. You have so many definitions that it's hard for the reader's attention to sort out and gets tired. It is understandable when I write: “A man sat down on the grass”, this is understandable, because it is clear and ps delays attention. On the contrary, it is incomprehensible and hard for the brain if I write: “A tall, narrow-chested, medium-sized man with a red beard sat down on the green grass, already crushed by pedestrians, sat silently, looking around timidly and timidly.” It does not immediately fit into the brain.
A complete and generally accepted theory of the epithet does not yet exist. There is no common understanding of the content of the term epithet. In the scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general language (constantly used in the literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined: biting frost, quiet evening, fast running); folk-poetic (used in oral folk art: red maiden, open field, wolf earrings); individually-author's (created by the authors: marmalade mood (A. Chekhov), chumpy indifference (D. Pisarev).
Great help in the selection of fresh epithets and their successful use can be provided by the Dictionary of Epithets of the Russian Literary Language by K. S. Gorbachevich, E. P. Khablo (L., 1979).
For clarity, we will cite materials from the dictionary entry for the word authority, omitting the examples of the use of epithets in works of art given there.
Authority, With a positive assessment. Boundless, big, important (outdated *), universal, high, enormous, - deserved, healthy, exceptional, unshakable, unshakable, unlimited, irrefutable, indisputable, infallible, adamant, indisputable, universally recognized, huge, justified, recognized, lasting, holy (obsolete), solid, stable, good*
With a negative rating. Penny (colloquial), cheap (colloquial *), exaggerated (colloquial), fake (spacious), low, unjustified, soaked (colloquial), undermined, staggering, doubtful, shaky.
Rare epithets - Gothy, doctoral, fiery.
To enliven speech, give it emotionality, expressiveness, figurativeness, they also use the techniques of stylistic syntax, the so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc. *
Since ancient times, orators have introduced these figures into their speech. * For example, Marcus Tullius Cicero delivered several speeches against Lucius Sergius Catiline, a patrician by birth, who led a conspiracy to seize power by force. Addressing the quirites (as full-fledged Roman citizens were officially called in Ancient Rome), Cicero said:
... A sense of honor is fighting on our side, on that - impudence; here - modesty, there - debauchery; here - fidelity, there - deceit; here is valor, there is crime; here - steadfastness, there - fury; here - an honest name, there - shame; here - restraint, there - licentiousness; in a word, justice, moderation, courage, prudence, all virtues fight against injustice, depravity, laziness, recklessness, all kinds of vices; finally, abundance fights poverty, decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, finally, good hopes - with complete hopelessness.
In speech, sharply opposite concepts are compared: honor - impudence, shame - depravity, loyalty - deceit, valor - crime, steadfastness - furious
good name - disgrace, restraint - licentiousness, etc. This has a special effect on the imagination of listeners, arouses in them vivid ideas about the named objects and events. Such a technique, based on a comparison of opposite phenomena and signs, is called antithesis. As P. Sergeyevich said:
... the main advantages of this figure are that both parts of the antithesis mutually illuminate one another; thought wins in strength; at the same time, the thought is expressed in a compressed form, and this also increases its expressiveness.
The antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings: “The courageous one blames himself, the cowardly blames his comrade”; “Great in body, but small in deed”, “Labor always gives, but laziness only takes”; "It's thick on the head, but the head is empty." To compare two phenomena, proverbs use antonyms - words with the opposite meaning: courageous - cowardly, great - small, labor - laziness, thick - empty. Many lines from artistic, journalistic, poetic works are built on this principle. Antithesis is an effective means of speech expressiveness in public speech.
Here is an excerpt from A. Solzhenitsyn's Nobel lecture. The use of antithesis, the comparison of opposing concepts allowed the writer to express the main idea more vividly and emotionally, to more accurately express his attitude to the described phenomena:
What, according to one scale, seems from a distance an enviable prosperous freedom, then on another scale, close up, it feels like an annoying compulsion calling for overturning buses. What in one region would be dreamed of as implausible prosperity, in another region revolts as wild exploitation, requiring an immediate strike. Different scales for elemental. disasters: a flood of two hundred thousand victims seems smaller than our urban case. There are different scales for insulting a person: where even an ironic smile and a move away are humiliating, where severe beatings are excusable as a bad joke. Different scales for punishments, for atrocities. According to one scale, a month's arrest, or exile to the village, or a "punishment cell" where they are fed with white buns and milk - staggers the imagination, fills the newspaper pages with anger. And on a different scale, they are familiar and easier -
us - and prison terms of twenty-five years * and punishment cells, where
walls of ice, where people are stripped to their underwear, and lunatic asylums for the healthy, and frontier executions of countless unreasonable people, all for some reason running somewhere.
A valuable means of expression in a speech is inversion, i.e., changing the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose * So, if the adjective is placed not before the noun to which it refers, but after it, then this enhances the meaning of the definition, the characteristic of the subject . Here is an example of such an arrangement: He was passionately in love not just with reality, but with reality that is constantly evolving, with reality forever new and unusual.
To draw the attention of listeners to one or another member of the sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to placing the predicate in the declarative sentence at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end. For example: The hero of the day was honored by the whole team; As difficult as it is, we must do it.
Thanks to all sorts of permutations in a sentence, even if it consists of a small number of words, it is often possible to create several versions of one sentence, and each of them will have different semantic shades * Naturally, when permuting, it is necessary to monitor the accuracy of the statement.
Often, to strengthen the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetitions. There are many different forms of repetition. Start several sentences with the same word or group of words. Such a repetition is called an anaphora, which in Greek means monogamy. Here is how this technique was used by L. I * Leonov in a report dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the birth of A. S. Griboyedov:
There are books that are read; there are books that are studied by patient people; there are books that are kept in the heart of the nation. My liberated people highly appreciated the noble wrath of "Woe from Wit" and, setting off on a long and difficult journey, took this book with them ***
The writer repeated the combination three times there are books in the same syntactic constructions and thus prepared the listeners for the idea that the work of A, S, Griboyedov “Woe from Wit” occupies a special place in the hearts of Russian people.
Repetitive words are service units, for example, unions and particles. Repeating, they perform an expressive function* Here is an excerpt from A* E* Fersman's lecture "Stone in the Culture of the Future". Repeatedly repeating the interrogative particle is it, the scientist enhances the intonational coloring of speech, creates a special emotional mood;
And when we try to characterize the future of technology in this way, you involuntarily guess the role that our precious stone will play in whom.
Does it not, more than anything else, meet precisely these qualities? Are not the precious stones themselves the emblem of firmness, constancy and eternity? Is there anything harder than diamond that can match the strength and indestructibility of this form of carbon?
*..Aren't corundum in its numerous modifications, topaz and garnet the main grinding materials, and only new artificial products of human genius can be compared with them?
Are not quartz, zircon, diamond and corundum among the most stable chemical groupings of nature, and do not the fire resistance and invariability of many of them at high temperatures far exceed the fire resistance of the vast majority of other bodies?
Sometimes whole sentences are repeated several times in order to emphasize, highlight, make more visual the core thought contained in them,
In oral speech, repetitions are also found at the end of a phrase. As at the beginning of a sentence, individual words, phrases, speech constructions can be repeated. Such a stylistic figure is called an epiphora. Here is an example of an epiphora from an article by V. G. Belinsky:
For such poets, it is most unprofitable to appear in transitional epochs in the development of societies; but the true ruin of their talent lies in the false conviction that feeling is enough for a poet.*. This is especially harmful for the poets of our time: now all poets, even the great ones, must also be thinkers, otherwise talent will not help either.*. Science, living, modern science, has now become the tutor of art, and without it, inspiration is weak, talent is powerless!*.
If you ask the question: “What form of speech does a lecture, report, speech at a meeting refer to? Is it a dialogue or a monologue?”, no one will think for a long time. Everyone will say: “Of course, a monologue * Only one person speaks, his speech is not designed for the verbal reaction of the interlocutor. The performance, moreover, can be long. But is it good? After all, listeners also want to say something: to object to the speaker or agree with him, ask to clarify some thought, clarify something, explain an incomprehensible word. How to proceed in such a case? There is an exit*
In the practice of oratory, techniques have been developed that not only enliven the narrative, give it expressiveness, but also dialogize monologue speech.
One of these techniques is the question-and-answer move. It lies in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself and answers them himself. The question-answer move turns a monologue speech into a dialogue, makes listeners the speaker's interlocutors, activates their attention, and engages them in a scientific search for truth.
Skillfully and interestingly posed questions attract the attention of the audience, make them follow the logic of reasoning. The question-answer move is one of the most accessible oratorical techniques. The proof of this is the lecture “Cold Light”, read by the largest master of popularization of scientific knowledge S. I. Vavilov:
The question arises, why does an alcohol flame, into which table salt is introduced, glow with a bright yellow light, despite the fact that its temperature is almost the same as the temperature of a match? The reason is that the flame is not absolutely black for any colors * Only the yellow color is absorbed to a greater extent by nm, therefore, only in this yellow part of the spectrum does the alcohol flame behave as a warm emitter with the properties of a black body.
How does the new physics explain the amazing properties of "cold light"? The tremendous advances made by science in understanding the structure of atoms and molecules, as well as the nature of light, made it possible, at least in general terms, to understand and explain luminescence.
How, finally, is the quenching of the "cold light" that we see in experience explained? The reasons in different cases are significantly different.
The effectiveness of this technique is especially noticeable if the corresponding part of the speech is pronounced without interrogative sentences.
The question-answer move is used not only to make speech expressive and emotional, but also used as an effective tool in hidden polemics. If the speech sets out a controversial issue that may cause doubt among the audience, then the speaker, foreseeing this, resorts to a question-answer technique.
The lecture is also enlivened by the replicas of the audience supposed by the speaker, with whom he either agrees or argues. These lines also introduce elements of dialogue into the monologue. Thus, the well-known Russian historian V.O. Let us quote the passages from his lecture:
Except for the rare eccentrics, we usually try to surround and present ourselves in the best possible way, to seem to ourselves and others even better than we really are. You will say: this is vanity, vanity, pretense* So, absolutely so. Let me just draw your attention to two very nice impulses.<..>
And look how she (the noblewoman Fedosya Prokofievna Morozova * - Auth.), Left a young widow, in a "pacified manner", in our mourning, left the house: she was put into an expensive carriage, decorated with silver and mosaics, at six or twelve horses with rattling chains; She was followed by servants, slaves and slaves of a hundred people, and with a particularly solemn train from two hundred and three hundred, protecting the honor and health of their empress mother. The queen of Assyria, and only, you will say, is a slave of a superstitious and conceited magnificent age. Good*
In excerpts, V. O. Klyuchevsky highlights the opinion of the audience with the words you will say and then formulates his attitude to this: So, absolutely so. Good.
Techniques of dialogization of a monologue, characteristic of oratory, have become widespread in journalism and fiction.
In addition to the question-answer method, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not require an answer, but serves to emotionally affirm or deny something. Addressing the audience with a question is an effective technique.
The rhetorical question uttered by the speaker is perceived by the audience not as a question that needs to be answered, but as a positive statement. This is precisely the meaning of the rhetorical question in the final part of A.E. Fersman's lecture "Green Stones of Russia":
What could be more interesting and beautiful than this close connection between the deep laws of the distribution of chemical elements in the earth's crust and the spread in it of its inanimate flowers - a precious stone?!
The glory of the Russian green stone is rooted in the deep laws of Russian geochemistry, and it is no accident that our country has become a country of green gems.
The rhetorical question enhances the impact of speech on the listeners, awakens in them the corresponding feelings, carries a great semantic and emotional load.
The means of expression include direct speech, which is introduced into the speech. This speech can be accurate or approximate, and sometimes even fictional. Literally transmitted someone else's speech is called a quotation. Sometimes it seems that quoting does not require special skill. However, this also has its own characteristics, its positive and negative sides, which must be taken into account. For example, some people build their speech on some quotes. Such speeches cause bewilderment, that is, listeners want to know the opinion of the speaker himself, the results of his observations. In addition, the abundance of quotations tires the audience, since it is difficult to hear by ear what is said belongs to the author, and what to those whom he quotes . Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to select the most interesting, informative, original or least known from the quotations chosen for the presentation.
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Speakers do not always skillfully introduce a quote, do not take into account how it is perceived by ear.
It is necessary to present the quotation in such a way that it is easy to catch where it begins and ends.
It is very important not to distort the thought of the cited author. After all, a single sentence or several sentences may have a different meaning than in the context.
It is impossible to arbitrarily change the text, i.e., rearrange words, enter another instead of one word, change the grammatical form of words.
The quotation must be accurate.
It is necessary to know who the quoted words belong to, what source they are taken from, what the output of the source is. Sometimes this information is given after the quotation, when the literature used is called, or when questions from the audience are answered if anyone present asks about it.
In conversations on various topics in which you have to discuss other people's thoughts, actions, actions, talk about people's feelings, approximate (or fictional) direct speech is mainly used. It enlivens the statement, makes it emotional, attracts the attention of listeners. The introduction of direct speech helps to dialogize the statement. Successfully, for example, used direct speech in the lecture "Scientific and technological progress and mathematics" Academician B. V. Gnedenko;
After we demonstrated the machine and our guests worked with it themselves, Professor Ivanov, whom I told you about, said: “Come work with us, we can diagnose well, with us you will be able to create a machine that will diagnose no worse world's best diagnostician.
The general practitioner, a specialist in the diagnosis of diseases of the digestive tract, said differently: “Why did you take on such a difficult task as diagnosing heart diseases. Let's work together and we will create a machine that will diagnose with virtually no errors.
Finally, psychiatrists reacted like this: “Well, why did you take up the diagnosis of heart disease,” they said. - Every engineer will tell you that the heart is a simple pump that drives fluid through the pipes. But no one knows the human psyche. Let's work with us. Things cannot go on here without mathematicians. And any step in the field of studying higher nervous activity will be the greatest boon for mankind. Not only human diseases are associated with the psyche. All daily human activity depends on it. We do not know the possibilities of the human psyche, we do not know how much we can contaminate it. We do not know whether we are teaching people correctly, whether we are treating them correctly.”
Experienced speakers not only introduce direct speech into the text, but also comment on someone else's statement, determine their attitude to it, and sometimes enter into a debate with a specific (or fictional) person whose speech is quoted. Let us give an example of the use of this technique in the lecture "On the most important subjects of education", read by the professor of Moscow University P * S, Aleksandrov:
Yesterday, the statement of one of the greatest contemporary physicists, the old Goettingen professor Max Born, burst into my hands: “The future of science depends on whether this need, impulse and striving for creativity can be harmonized and brought into harmony with the conditions of social life and ethics” *
To these words one can only add that not only the fate of science, but, perhaps, the fate of mankind depends on this.
As a form of transferring someone else's statements into speeches, indirect speech is also used, which conveys someone's words from a third person. An example of the introduction of indirect speech is found in the above-mentioned lecture by P. S. Aleksandrov;
Tchaikovsky spoke of music as a special means of communication between people, which cannot be replaced by any other means of communication. I remember one concert at the conservatory: they gave Beethoven's First Symphony* I noticed the expression on the faces of our students.
Indirect speech, compared to direct speech, is less expressive and expressive * As rightly noted by P * Sergeicht
... to convey in a completely understandable way someone else's feeling, someone else's thought is incomparably more difficult in descriptive expressions than in those words in which this feeling or thought is expressed directly. * * The last way of expression is both more precise and understandable, and, most importantly, more convincing for listeners.
A good effect is given by a skillful combination of direct and indirect speech in the speech * On the one hand, this avoids abundant quoting, and on the other hand, it makes the statement more diverse and vivid. As an example, we use an excerpt from a lecture on the work of N, A * Nekrasov:
We are convinced that truly innovative creations always cause conflicting opinions, ambiguous assessments of contemporaries. Remember the critics' rejection of The Thunderstorm, the struggle and controversy surrounding the novel Fathers to Sons*, * The same fate befell Nekrasov's lyrics. The opinions and assessments of readers and critics are sharply divided *
So, a connoisseur of elegance, a well-known esthete critic Vasily Botkin, argued that Nekrasov’s poems cannot “truly excite - what a rude syllable, clumsy phrases.*, as if it were not a sculptor who sculpted from noble marble, but a peasant chopped a log with an ax”,
At the same time, Belinsky "gave his head to cut off that Nekrasov has talent", that he is "a poet - and a true poet." Turgenev "in a moment of irritation assured that "poetry did not spend the night in Nekrasov's verses," but he also admitted that the poem "I'm going at night ..." he "completely lost my mind": "I repeat this amazing work and have already learned by heart.
Nekrasov himself exclaimed contritely: “You have no poetry of your own. but my harsh, clumsy verse"* And Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov called him "the only fine hope of our literature*," the most beloved Russian poet*.
Which of them is right? How to reconcile the seemingly irreconcilable? Where is the truth?
The work that we will do today will allow us to approach the solution of this issue.
Rich material for speeches contains oral folk art * Proverbs and sayings are a real treasure for the speaker. These are well-aimed figurative folk expressions with an edifying meaning, summarizing various phenomena of life * In short sayings, the people expressed knowledge of reality, attitude to its various manifestations * They help to understand the history of our people, teach to love the Motherland, to be honest and fair. Proverbs magnify work, condemn laziness, ridicule greed, strengthen faith in goodness and justice, call to respect knowledge and books. “And what a luxury, what a meaning, what is the use of every saying of ours! What a gold!” - this is how A. S. Pushkin spoke about Russian proverbs *
Proverbs and sayings are clots of folk wisdom, they express the truth, proven by the centuries-old history of the creator people, the experience of many generations. “The proverb is not said in vain,” says folk wisdom. They express joy and sorrow, anger and sadness, love and hate, irony and humor. Therefore, in speech, proverbs and sayings acquire special significance * They not only enhance the expressiveness of speech, give sharpness, deepen the content of speeches, but also help find a way to the hearts of listeners, win their respect and location.
What attracts proverbs and sayings? Why are they recommended for use in oral presentations?
The generalizing nature of proverbs and sayings allows expressing the essence of the statement in a figurative and extremely brief form. Folk sayings are also given to formulate individual provisions of the statement.
Often proverbs and sayings serve as a starting point for starting a speech, developing a topic, revealing a position, or they are the final chord, a conclusion, they are used to summarize what has been said * Here, for example, how A. Solzhenitsyn ended the Nobel lecture:
In Russian, proverbs about truth are favorite * They persistently express a considerable difficult folk experience, and sometimes amazingly:
ONE WORD OF TRUTH WILL DRAW THE WHOLE WORLD*
It is on such an imaginary violation of the law of conservation of mass and energy that my own activity and my appeal to writers all over the world are based*
Proverbs and sayings are also given as illustrations, figurative parallels to what is being said. This use of proverbs and sayings allows you to express the idea more vividly and convincingly. Figurative illustrations are remembered for a long time by listeners. Interestingly, M.A. Sholokhov beat a folk saying in one of his speeches:
An old folk saying, long born where swift mountain streams seethe, says: "Only small rivers are noisy."
The meetings of regional and regional writers' organizations, meetings filled with sharp polemics and fervent speeches, died down. Republican conventions were held at a more restrained level.
An example of the use of proverbs as figurative parallels that reinforce the idea is contained in the speech of G. E. Nikolaeva:
“A fisherman brings a fisherman from afar,” there is such a proverb. Talent from afar will see talent. The mind from afar recognizes the mind and reaches out to it. Principledness recognizes principles from afar and is drawn to it. Limitedness and unscrupulousness also from afar recognize limitedness and unscrupulousness and are also drawn to each other. Therefore, it is dangerous when people who are in charge of a creative organization are mediocre and unprincipled, who do not know the value of genuine ascetic writing work, are limited in their convictions and are not capable of a masterly, objective view of literature.
In this speech, the proverb is not only an illustration. The subsequent sentences have the same syntactic structure, close to that of the proverb. A slightly different word order creates a greater contrast and is explained by the fact that nouns have talent, intelligence, adherence to principles, limitedness, unscrupulousness in spelling and sounding of the form of the nominative and accusative cases. Compare: "A fisherman sees a fisherman from afar", but "Talent from afar will see talent." The closeness of the structure of the folk proverb and the author's sentences makes the latter aphoristic, authentic. The meaning of the proverb extends to other phenomena of life, at the same time expanding and concretizing.
Proverbs and sayings enliven the statement, attract the attention of listeners, creating a certain psychological mood.
Sometimes proverbs and sayings are attracted to give the statement a playful-ironic connotation. In this sense
In addition, the proverb is found in the speech of S. V * Mikhalkov at the congress of writers, in which he speaks of satirical and comedic genres:
Too often we have to listen to such arguments: “Where have you seen such fools in our reality? Such official balls are not typical for our state apparatus*. But after all, we know that there are such fools, and that they spoil our whole life in order, and if the viewer laughs heartily at them, then this is exactly what is required. After all, it’s not for nothing that the popular proverb says: “Fear the cow in front, the horse in the back, and the fool on all sides” *
The above proverb gives the words an ironic connotation, enlivens the performance and arouses the approval of people.
The success of using proverbs and sayings in speech depends on how well the necessary proverbs and sayings are chosen * No wonder it says: "A proverb is good in harmony and in color."
The phraseology of the Russian language is used to create imagery and emotionality of speech. It is unusually rich and diverse in its composition, has great stylistic possibilities, due to its internal properties, which make up the specifics of phraseological units * This is semantic capacity, emotionally expressive coloring, a variety of associative links * Expression of an emotional, subjective beginning in speech * appraisal, semantic saturation of phraseological units act constantly, regardless of the will of the speaker *
Phraseological units help to say a lot with a few words, since they define not only the subject, but also its attribute, not only the action, but also its circumstances * The complexity of the semantics of phraseological units distinguishes them from single-word synonyms * So, a stable combination in a big way means not just “rich” , but "richly, luxuriously, not embarrassed by means." Phraseologism to cover up traces means not just “destroy, eliminate something”, but “eliminate, destroy what can serve as evidence in something” *
Phraseology attracts speakers with its expressiveness, the potential ability to positively or negatively evaluate the phenomenon, express approval or condemnation, ironic, mocking or other attitude towards it. This is especially pronounced in the so-called phraseological units-characteristics, for example: a white crow, a decoy duck, a prodigal son, an intimidating dozen, a berry in a field, a dog in the hay.
Phraseologisms deserve special attention, the evaluation of which is due to their origin. Indeed, in order to understand the accusatory nature of phraseological units, for example, the gifts of the Danes, the scapegoat, one must know the history of the emergence of a stable phrase. Why are the gifts of the Danaans "insidious gifts that bring death to those who receive them", what is the history of the appearance of this phraseological unit? The expression is taken from the Greek legends about the Trojan War. “The Danes, after a long and unsuccessful siege of Troy, resorted to a trick: they built a huge wooden horse, left it near the walls of Troy, and pretended to swim away from the shore of the Troad. The priest Laocoon, seeing this horse and knowing the tricks of the Danaans, exclaimed: “Whatever it is, I am afraid of the Danaans, even those who bring gifts!” But the Trojans, not listening to the warnings of Laocoön and the prophetess Cassandra, dragged the city out. At night, the Danaans, who hid inside the horse, went out, killed the guards, opened the city gates, let in their comrades who returned on ships, and thus captured Troy.
The origin of the expression scapegoat is also noteworthy. It is found in the Bible and is associated with a special rite among the ancient Jews to lay the sins of the whole people on a living goat, which is why they call a person who is blamed for someone else's guilt, who is responsible for others.
Phraseologisms, originating from ancient mythology, are quite diverse. Each such phraseologism evokes certain associative links, it relates to the images of the heroes of antiquity, which determines their semantic richness and expressiveness. So, the stable phrase Damocles sword in the meaning of “imminent, threatening danger” is associated with the ancient Greek legend about Damocles, who was one of the associates of the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius the Elder and enviously spoke of him as the happiest of people. Dionysius decided to teach the envious man a lesson and seated him in his place during the feast. And here Damocles saw a sharp sword hanging over his head, hanging on a horsehair. Dionysius explained * that this is a symbol of the dangers to which he, as a ruler, is constantly exposed, despite the seeming happy life *
Phraseologism Procrustean bed comes from the nickname of the robber Polypemon. In Greek mythology, it is said that Procrustes laid all those he caught on his bed and chopped off the legs of those * who did not fit, and for those for whom the bed was long, he extended his legs * The Procrustean bed means “that which is a measure for something, to which something is forcibly adjusted or adapted.
Ancient phraseological units serve as an excellent means for conveying the author's irony, ridicule. Such a function is performed by the revolutions of the exploits of Hercules, the Trojan horse, Sisyphean labor, Pandora's box, between Scylya and Charybdis, Pyrrhic victory, Aesopian language, Babylonian pandemonium.
The stylistic use of many emotionally expressive phraseological units is determined by the peculiarity of the relationship between the general meaning of a phraseological unit and the meaning of its components. Phraseological units are of particular interest, the figurativeness of which acts as a reflection of the visibility, “pictureness” contained in the freest phrase * on the basis of which a phraseological unit is formed. For example, when preparing for work, we roll up our sleeves to make it easier to do the job; meeting dear guests, we spread our arms wide, showing that we are ready to wrap them in our arms; when counting, if it is small, for convenience, we bend our fingers. Free phrases naming such actions of people have visibility, “picturesqueness”, which “by inheritance” is transmitted to homonymous phraseological units: roll up your sleeves - “diligently, diligently * vigorously do something”; with open arms - "friendly, cordial (to receive, meet someone)"; count on fingers - "very little, little."
The picturesqueness of a phraseological unit, due to the visibility of a free phrase homonymous to it * becomes especially visible when the direct and figurative meaning is played out at the same time. This is one of the stylistic devices. Let us give an example of such use of a phraseological unit in one of the journalistic articles; "Emergency exit" - advice to the owners of companies that are threatened by takeovers, mergers and other digestive functions of competition. True, an emergency exit does not guarantee against disappearance in the element of competition. You pull yourself together, and they take you by the throat. Breathing stops, hands drop.
You pull yourself together - a phraseological unit with the aim of "achieve complete self-control", and take it by the throat means "oppress, force you to act in a certain way." In the cited text, a phraseological unit is used, but the direct meaning of the free phrase “take by the throat” shines through it. The phrase “hands down” has a direct meaning, but the meaning of a phraseological unit pulsates in it - “to lose the ability or desire to act, to do something”.
This chapter contains only some of the tropes, figures, techniques that help make speech figurative and emotional. However, they do not exhaust the whole variety of expressive means of native speech. When resorting to them, one should not forget that all these “flowers of eloquence”, as the prominent master of Russian judicial eloquence P.S. Porohovshchikov (P.Sergeich) called them, are good only when they seem unexpected to the listener. They cannot, and do not need to be memorized, they can only be absorbed into oneself along with folk speech, developing and improving speech culture, speech taste and flair.
The culture of speech is not only a sign of a person's high culture, but also due to the latter, so it is important to systematically engage in self-education. Of great importance for improving speech culture is the work with reference literature, familiarity with various linguistic dictionaries. An invaluable service will be rendered by an appeal to domestic literature, especially to poetry.
For great writers, every single word is chosen consciously, with a specific goal - P. S. Porokhovshikov taught young speakers, - every single turn is deliberately created for a given thought.<..>We<...>must know Pushkin by heart; whether we like poetry or not, it doesn't matter; are obliged to know their native language in all its abundance. Try to get rich daily.
It must be remembered that the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording - the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of figurative and expressive means of the language, proverbs and sayings, catchwords, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual dictionary increase the effectiveness of communication, increase the effectiveness spoken word*