Why are punctuation marks needed? A reminder of punctuation marks.

Helping to structure the written text. Their use is regulated by punctuation rules that are specific to each language. They are not always easy to learn, so there are a lot of mistakes in this section. So, when learning foreign languages, very few programs include punctuation. However, this section is no less important than grammar or spelling, although it is only needed in So what are the punctuation marks?

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The main punctuation units in any language are the period, comma, and question and exclamation marks. With their help, you can correctly express your thought, although not always with sufficient accuracy. In total, ten icons are used in modern Russian: in addition to those already mentioned, these are a dash and a colon, which will be discussed separately. In addition, these are brackets and quotes that have a separator function. Also, the ellipsis, which ends the thought, and the semicolon, which play the same role, but within the same sentence.

As you can see, the list is small, but each of the listed punctuation units has its own purpose. Sometimes they are interchangeable, but more often they are not.

Classification

There are several options for separating punctuation units. First, on the basis of pairing. That is, in the case of setting one punctuation mark, it is necessary to supplement it with a second one. Parentheses, quotation marks, as well as double commas and dashes can be classified as paired.

According to the second classification, all punctuation marks can be divided into 3 categories. For example, these:

1. Selection marks. They are intended to mark the boundaries of various syntactic constructions and isolation. It is to this category that paired signs belong. They allow you to clearly structure the proposal and see its significant parts.
2. Department signs. They mark the boundary between independent sentences, including those in complex structures. In addition, they indicate the type. This includes everything that was not included in the first paragraph.
3. Sometimes a red line is highlighted separately. It denotes a change in topic or a new twist in a story or discourse.

Functions

It may seem that in the modern world punctuation is already an atavism. As a rule, sentences can be distinguished even without dots, and even without commas, it is most often clear what is at stake. What can we say about other signs that are much less common? And yet, it is extremely difficult to do without them.

First, they allow you to make mental pauses and delimit phrases without turning the text into a meaningless jumble of letters and words. Secondly, they convey a huge number of different shades - uncertainty, half-assertion, etc. Without such a powerful tool as punctuation, this would be very difficult to achieve. In addition, it would be extremely difficult to understand official documents, agreements and contracts without punctuation marks. A comma placed in the wrong place can completely change the meaning of the whole sentence - and this is not a joke.

So the role of punctuation marks is important, no matter how their opponents argue the opposite. After all, many linguists are of the opinion that any unnecessary introductions to a language simply don't stick, while the meaningful parts are kept anyway. And then, the famous "execution cannot be pardoned" - this is just one example, but in fact there are thousands of them. Any punctuation mark is an important part of a sentence that should not be neglected.

History of origin and development

It is difficult to imagine how one can do without punctuation, but the current situation has developed relatively recently, and perhaps the process of development of this language section is still ongoing. Nevertheless, it is very interesting to observe how the origin and development of punctuation took place.

The most ancient punctuation mark is a dot, which is found in ancient Russian written monuments. But its use was not regulated in any way, and the location on the line was different - not at the bottom, but in the middle. The rules of its production became more similar to modern ones around the 16th century.

The comma became widespread approximately in the 15th century. Its name comes from an obsolete verb meaning stop, delay. In this case, the word "stammer" will be the same root. And the most observant will notice one more thing. For example, the fact that "punctuation" etymologically goes back to the same root.

Most of the other signs were introduced into wide use before the 18th century. Lomonosov, Karamzin and many other prominent scientists contributed to their popularization. The modern punctuation rules of the Russian language were adopted in 1956 and are still in effect.

Correct use of punctuation units

Putting punctuation marks is not always easy. At the end of a sentence, there are four options to choose from, and even within a phrase ... It's no wonder that so much time is devoted to the study of punctuation. Remembering all the rules, perhaps, will be somewhat difficult, but the main ones are simply necessary.

Commas: correct usage

Since this sign is the most common, it is not surprising that it accounts for the most problems. A comma is a sign that separates simple sentences from complex ones. It is also used in enumerations, to highlight introductory constructions, applications, to separate participial, adverbial and comparative phrases, and for many other purposes. To list them all, perhaps, is quite difficult, since this is a huge part of the school curriculum. However, keep in mind that the comma also always sets off the treatment. Punctuation marks require careful attention to themselves, and neglecting the rules for their placement for a native speaker is, first of all, disrespect for one's own person.

Direct speech and dialogue

It is this topic that causes the greatest difficulty for both schoolchildren and adults. And if there are fewer problems with the dialogue, because dashes are simply put before each line, then punctuation marks in direct speech become just a stumbling block, especially if introductory words are still used.

In order to properly format this part of the text, you need to know that the replica itself, along with its own punctuation marks, is highlighted with quotation marks. If introductory words are used, then a comma is used instead of a period, which in this case is taken out of the statement. Interrogative and always saved. As for the design of the author's words, it depends on the articulation of the replicas. If they are a single sentence interrupted by an explanation, then it is written with a small letter and is separated with a dash and a colon. Only one pair of quotes is put - at the beginning and at the end of direct speech. It probably sounds a little confusing in theory, but it's easy to figure it out in practice.

Using dashes and colons

Grammar in the Russian language implies the existence and this means the demand for the above punctuation marks. Their purpose is about the same, and they both can be replaced by a comma, which, however, will not convey the desired shades.

A colon is necessary if the next part or even a whole simple sentence more fully reveals the meaning of the previous one, adds details, etc. A dash - in the reverse situation. Of course, they have other functions, but it is also a fairly large part of the school curriculum, which deserves detailed consideration.

Differences in punctuation of Russian and European languages

When studying our native language, we do not always think about what punctuation marks exist in foreign dialects, and whether they have the same function. Of course, the rules of punctuation are also different, but we are not talking about them now.

Spanish is a prime example. Interrogative and exclamatory sentences in it are highlighted more noticeably, because the corresponding signs are placed not only at the end, but also at the beginning of phrases, so they are paired along with quotation marks or brackets.

By the way, in English, you can often find a dash instead of an ellipsis at the end of direct speech. And the Greeks can put [;] instead of a question mark. It's hard to guess without knowing. So it is not always worth thinking about the rules that the Russian language sets. Punctuation marks and how they are used are different everywhere.

Oriental languages

Japanese and Chinese remain true to tradition despite European influences. So, the point looks like a circle and is sometimes placed in the center of the line, and sometimes in the same way as a regular one. This was done to avoid confusion, since the European sign could be mistaken for part of the last hieroglyph.

There are also two types of commas: regular and teardrop. The first, for example, separates simple sentences as part of a complex one, and the second - homogeneous members.

Little-known punctuation marks

It may seem that the above list is more than exhaustive. But, oddly enough, this is not the case. So, what are the punctuation marks that few people know about, and they are practically not used? A little more than a dozen of the most famous are distinguished:

• Interrobang. This combination of a question mark and an exclamation mark in one unit looks exotic, but interesting. Of course, it is easier and more familiar to write "?!", especially since the meaning will be the same, but supporters of the introduction of interrobang believe that it looks more representative in writing.
• Rhetorical It was in use for about 20 years at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. In fact, it is a mirror image of the usual question mark.
• Asterism. Previously, the chapters or their parts were separated from each other by this very sign, which is three asterisks arranged in the form of a triangle. But quite a long time ago they were replaced by the same asterism, but located in the form of a straight segment.
• ironic sign. It may seem that it is too similar to rhetorical, although it is smaller, located above the line and has a completely different function, as the name implies. It was invented in the 19th century.
• Love sign. Its function is also obvious from the name, and it itself is a combination of two interrogatives, mirrored to each other, with one dot.
• Consent sign. It is a combination of two exclamations with one dot. Expresses a show of goodwill or greeting.
• Confidence sign. Performs the function of emphasizing a strong opinion regarding the stated statement. It is an exclamation mark with a short horizontal line through it.
• Interrogative comma. It is used to emphasize interrogative intonation within a single sentence. By analogy with it, there is an exclamation point.
• Sarcastic sign. It is a kind of snail with a dot inside and is protected by copyright. It is used to emphasize separately that the sentence it follows contains sarcasm.
• Snark sign. It can also be typed on a regular keyboard, since it's just a dot followed by a tilde - [.~]. It is used to show that the sentence it follows is not to be taken literally and has a hidden meaning.

Quite an interesting set, but for many it seems redundant. And although the role of some of these signs seems to be necessary, language eventually displaces inappropriate and unused things from itself. This is probably what happened in this case.

However, natural languages ​​are far from the only discipline that has the concept of punctuation. However, this topic requires separate consideration. It would be much more appropriate to consider the influence of modern trends on punctuation.

Punctuation and netiquette

Since communication on the Internet initially most often implies informality, some simplification and disregard for the rules of the Russian (and not only) language are quite natural. There was even a concept of network etiquette, which includes the question of how to punctuate.

So, for example, a period at the end of a long dialogue is a sign that the interlocutor wants to close the topic. In other cases, it looks rude and cold. A large number of exclamation points means, depending on the context, violent negative or positive emotions. An ellipsis can show despair, thoughtfulness, melancholy, and some other shades of mood that can hardly be called positive. The arrangement of commas in network communication is rarely the subject of serious reflection, because the goal is to convey the essence to the interlocutor, and the design of thought in this case is secondary. Nevertheless, it is impossible to neglect the placement of question marks - this is bad manners.

Although these rules are different from the general ones, they are easy to remember. And, of course, it must be taken into account that they do not concern business and official correspondence, which must be drawn up correctly and competently. The punctuation mark is a powerful tool that must be used carefully.

FUNCTIONS OF PUNICATION

Punctuation is an important means of writing writing. Punctuation marks indicate semantic , structural and intonational articulation of speech. It is known that punctuation marks not only organize the written text to facilitate its perception by the reader, but also directly convey part of the information contained in the text. In particular, sometimes punctuation, by disambiguating, serves as the only available means of choosing the correct interpretation of the text.

According to their functions First of all, the signs separating (separating)(dot; question mark, exclamation mark, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, ellipsis) and highlighting (two commas, two dashes, brackets, quotes).

DOTS

An ellipsis can be a "pause" in sentence expansion and can end a sentence.

The ellipsis, along with the general separating function, has a number of specific, diverse meanings, which most often reflect the emotional coloring of speech.

The ellipsis conveys understatement, reticence, interruption of thought, often its difficulty caused by great emotional stress.

An ellipsis can convey the significance of what was said, indicate subtext, hidden meaning.

With the help of an ellipsis, the author, as it were, signals the reader about his feelings, impressions, asks to pay attention to the next word or the previous one, to the written (to unexpected or especially important information), conveys the excitement of the hero, etc.

An ellipsis is a punctuation mark in the form of three dots placed next to each other. In most cases, it denotes an unfinished thought or a pause.

Morphology is a section of grammar that studies parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.) and their forms. One cannot do without knowing the parts of speech in Russian.

Firstly, the written literacy of a person depends on the knowledge of parts of speech, because many spelling rules are based on the ability to determine the part of speech of a particular word. For example, the use of a soft sign at the end of a word after hissing depends primarily on what part of speech the given word is. If this is a 3rd declension noun, then "b" is written at the end (daughter, luxury, etc.), and if it is, say, a short adjective, then "b" is not written (mighty, dense). Or the noun "burn" is written with the vowel "o" after the hissing in the root, and the verb "burn" - with the vowel "e".

Secondly, knowledge of the parts of speech forms a person's punctuation literacy. For example, such a part of speech as an interjection (oh, ah, well, etc.) is always separated by commas in writing.

Thus, morphology is a very important branch of the science of language.

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K. G. Paustovsky in the book "Golden Rose" told such a story. In his youth, he worked in the Odessa newspaper "Sailor". The writer Andrei Sobol collaborated with this newspaper at that time. One day he brought his story to the editor - "torn, confused, although interesting in terms of the topic and, of course, talented." It was impossible to print it in this form. Undertook to help the proofreader of the newspaper Blagov. He promised to “go over the manuscript,” but not to change a single word in it. The next morning, Paustovsky read the story. “It was transparent, cast prose. Everything became convex, clear. There was no shadow left of the former crumpledness and verbal confusion. At the same time, not a single word was really thrown out or added.

You guessed, of course, what happened? Yes, the proofreader simply placed all the punctuation marks correctly, and especially carefully - points and paragraphs. And that's it.

The fact is that punctuation marks have a special function in written speech - semantic. With their help, the writer expresses certain meanings and shades, and the reader perceives and understands these meanings and shades. And since all writers act as readers and vice versa, punctuation marks are the same for all literate native speakers of the Russian language. According to the linguist A. B. Shapiro, any rule about punctuation marks is, as it were, a point of agreement between the writer and the reader.

Now, when Internet users are constantly communicating in writing, there is an increasing need to convey messages accurately and concisely, and it is punctuation that helps the author to "pack" the information in the text in the most understandable way.

What, besides school rules, do you need to know about punctuation marks in order to be adequately understood? Actually not so much.

In its own way roles in writing all punctuation marks are divided into three groups: signs endings, dividing and excretory. These names are "speaking".

Termination marks ( dot, exclamation point, question mark, ellipsis) are placed at the end of sentences, complete them.

separator characters ( comma, semicolon, colon, dash) - separate semantic segments inside the sentence from each other (homogeneous members, parts of a complex sentence), they are put on the border these semantic segments, share them.

And punctuation marks ( two commas, two dashes, brackets, quotes) allocate one semantic segment within another or within a sentence. Participles and participles, single participles, appeals, introductory words and sentences are distinguished from two sides (if they stand in the middle of a sentence). By the way, if you know this, you will never put only one comma in participial turnover: it must highlight commas, which means there should be two of them, on both sides - at the beginning and at the end.

Finally, test yourself. Determine the function of the punctuation marks in this sentence. One day (it was, I think, in 2003) I received a strange letter: it was in a crumpled yellow envelope, without a return address, handwritten, illegible.

Answer. In this offer end sign- dot; separating marks- commas between homogeneous members of a sentence and a colon between parts of a non-union complex sentence; highlight marks- two commas highlighting the introductory word seems, and two parentheses that mark an interstitial sentence.

General information

In russian language 10 punctuation marks. They play an important role, allow you to correctly understand written speech, provide the writer and reader with an unambiguous understanding of the meaning of the statement and the emotional nuances of the sentence. In general, without punctuation marks, the text would be a collection of words. They have a varied range of uses. At first glance, it is difficult to understand their staging, but you can learn this, you just need to know the punctuation rules.

Functions of punctuation marks

1.Meaning-distinctive(they help to correctly convey the meaning of the statement; without a punctuation mark, the phrase would remain incomprehensible; it gives an unambiguous meaning to the phrase; without them, the text would be equivalent (equal) to an obscure set of characters; they help us make sure that we are understood unambiguously)

2.Intonation-expressive(punctuation at the end of the sentence indicates the purpose of the statement (message, question or motivation for action) and the intonation of the speech, since Z.P. also place emotional accents: admiration, dissatisfaction, joy, surprise, etc.).

Types of punctuation marks

1.Completion signs(dot, question and exclamation marks, ellipsis, combination of characters: question mark with exclamation point; question mark with ellipsis; exclamation point with ellipsis). Meaning of use: a) help to indicate the completeness, completeness of a phrase, expression; b) unambiguously convey the meaning of the statement (narration about something, a question addressed to someone, an incentive to act), i.e. indicate intonation, place emotional accents: admiration, discontent, joy, surprise, etc.

2.Separation marks(comma, colon, semicolon, dash). Meaning of use: help to place semantic accents on a word or phrase in a sentence.

3.Emphasis marks(comma, quotation marks, brackets, dash). Meaning of use: help to place semantic accents on a word or phrase in a sentence.

Essay Sample

Period and ellipsis are important punctuation marks in written speech

The period and ellipsis are important signs of written speech. A period is one of the signs of completion; it denotes the intonation of the end of a statement and is placed at the end of a declarative sentence that expresses a complete thought. Without this sign, we would not pause between statements, and therefore would not understand where one thought ends and another begins. The dot indicates the intonation of the end. An ellipsis can also end a phrase, but the function of the punctuation mark is different. Arguing on any topic, telling about something, the author of the speech, sometimes, does not dare to express his thought completely, he is silent about something. An ellipsis is needed to express this understatement and reflection. However, it can be combined with both question and exclamation marks. In the first case, the author asks about something, in the second he expresses emotions (surprise, joy, etc.). In addition, it happens that this sign is also used inside a sentence when quoting
someone's statement is incomplete. We put ellipsis in place of missing words.
Let's look at an excerpt from the text. Drawing his hero, the author describes his speech (sentence No. 24), pays special attention to his voice (sentence No. 25), the manner of communicating with people. Having spoken, N. Heinze completes his thoughts, which are narrative sentences, so at the end we see dots. Talking about the impression Bersenyev made on those around him, the writer cites the words of some of them as an example: “How can I tell you ... I don’t know ... but he is charming.” The dots here are no coincidence. With its help, it is emphasized how women reflect, try to understand what the hero attracted to himself. Yes, and N. Heinze himself, immersed in his thoughts, wonders what is the charm of Berseniev: “In his mind? .. In his eyes? .. Or in his voice? ..” These questions he, thinking, asks himself, but not immediately ready to answer them, and therefore here the ellipsis is combined with a question mark.
So, dot and ellipsis are important signs of written speech.

Punctuation.

Punctuation is a set of rules about punctuation marks. The purpose of punctuation is to provide the reader with a correct understanding of the meaning of what is written. The basis of punctuation is the semantic articulation of speech. Often semantic division corresponds to its grammatical division, and in oral speech and its intonational division; in other words, semantic articulation is expressed grammatically and intonationally. In this case, we can talk about the coincidence of the semantic, grammatical and intonation bases for punctuation marks, or about the structural and semantic basis of punctuation.

However, there are cases when the three indicated bases: semantic, grammatical and intonation - may not coincide. So, often the semantic and grammatical articulation of speech does not coincide with its intonational articulation. Often the main and subordinate parts with the union "what" do not divide intonation: They say that he will arrive soon. And on the contrary, sentences that are integral from a semantic and grammatical point of view are often divided intotonation; for example, there is almost always a pause between the fairly common subject and predicate (Two-story merchant houses of the middle of the last century ll despondently stretched along the entire embankment) and between the prepositive fairly common circumstance and the rest of the sentence (At six o'clock on a clear May morning ll Maya went out into the garden) and other sub. In all such cases, as the above examples show, punctuation marks are placed (or not put) depending on the semantic and grammatical division (or its absence) and regardless of intonational division (or its absence).

On the other hand, there are also frequent cases when the semantic articulation does not find support in the grammatical, i.e. gram. division is not expressed in special forms. In these cases, the only reason for punctuation is the semantic articulation; the corresponding grammatical and intonational articulation suggests punctuation marks. So, for example, the segment of speech “the sun is shining, the birds are singing” can be grammatically and intonationally represented as two independent sentences (The sun is shining. The birds are singing) and as a complex sentence (The sun is shining, the birds are singing). Thus, the grammatical and intonation division of a given segment of speech depends on its semantic interpretation, expressed by punctuation marks. An exception is a recording of oral speech from a voice - a dictation - when intonation can tell the writer the semantic articulation of speech. Ultimately, both homogeneous and heterogeneous definitions differ in meaning, sometimes introductory words and sentence members (He may be at school and He may be at school) and other constructions.

Finally, there are cases where the semantic (and intonational) articulation contradicts the grammatical one. For example: She reminded me to take a basin and a shaving brush. And shoe polish. And a brush. From the point of view of the grammatical combination “both cream for boots and a brush” are homogeneous additions, however, the author singles them out in meaning and intonation into independent sentences and expresses this punctuationally.

Thus, in all the cases considered, the basis for punctuation marks is precisely the semantic division of speech, which may coincide with grammatical and intonation divisions, but may not coincide with one of them and even contradict it.

Punctuation marks and their functions.

The following punctuation marks are used in Russian punctuation: dot, question mark, exclamation mark, ellipsis, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, brackets, quotation marks. The function of a punctuation mark is also performed by a paragraph indent, or a red line.

Punctuation marks perform two main functions: 1) separation, 2) selection. Some of the punctuation marks serve only for separation (separating punctuation marks) - these are single punctuation marks: period, semicolon, exclamation and question marks, ellipsis, colon; this also applies to paragraph indentation. With the help of these signs, sentences, predicative parts of some complex sentences, sometimes homogeneous members and other constructions are separated from each other.

Other punctuation marks serve only for emphasis (highlighting punctuation marks) - these are double characters: brackets and quotation marks. With the help of these signs, introductory and intercalary phrases and sentences (brackets) and direct speech (quotation marks) are distinguished.

The third punctuation marks (comma and dash) are multifunctional, i.e. can act both as separating and as distinguishing, depending on the specific conditions in which they are used.

So, with the help of a comma, both parts of a complex sentence and homogeneous members can be separated from each other; with the help of a dash, in a number of cases, parts of complex sentences, homogeneous members from a generalizing word, some members of a sentence from others in some incomplete sentences and in other constructions are separated.

With the help of commas, various isolated turns, appeals, introductory words are distinguished; with the help of a dash, introductory and interstitial sentences can be distinguished.

In some cases, as, for example, in sentences with direct speech, complex combinations of distinguishing and separating signs are used.

These basic functions of punctuation marks are often complicated by more private, meaningful functions. Thus, the signs of the end of a sentence not only separate one sentence from another, but also express what the given sentence is in terms of the purpose of the utterance or in terms of the degree of emotionality: He will not come. He will not come? He will not come! Indicative in this respect is the use of punctuation marks in non-union sentences, in which punctuation marks also carry a semantic load, signaling the grammatical meaning of non-union sentences. So, for example, in the sentence "He does not come, she is waiting" the enumeration relations are expressed, and in the sentence "He does not come - she is waiting" - the relations are opposite.

The main functions of all punctuation marks, as well as their semantic functions, are described in the set of rules of Russian punctuation.

Ways of transmitting someone else's speech

In the process of communication, it often becomes necessary to convey someone else's speech (this term usually refers to both the speech of another person and one's own speech delivered earlier). At the same time, in some cases it is important to convey not only the content, but also the very form of someone else's speech (its exact lexical composition and grammatical organization), and in others - only the content; therefore, in some cases, the exact reproduction of someone else's speech is necessary, while in others it is not necessary.

In accordance with these tasks, special ways of transmitting someone else's speech have been developed in the language: 1) forms of direct transmission (direct speech); 2) forms of indirect transmission (indirect speech). Sentences with direct speech are specifically designed to accurately reproduce someone else's speech (its content and form), and sentences with indirect speech - only to convey the content of someone else's speech. These are the most common forms of transmission of someone else's speech.

In addition to them, there are other forms intended to convey only the topic, the subject of someone else's speech, to include elements of someone else's speech in the author's speech and to solve other, expressive-stylistic tasks. Thus, we can talk about a whole system of forms of transmission of someone else's speech.

Direct speech.

Sentences with direct speech are an union-free (intonational and semantic) combination of parts, in one of which - the author's words - the very fact of someone else's speech is established and its source is called, and in the other - direct speech - someone else's speech itself is reproduced. For example: Kirov replied: "Astrakhan will not be surrendered."

In addition to words indicating the very fact of someone else's speech and its source, the author's words may include words indicating the addressee of direct speech, various circumstances accompanying it, as well as words characterizing the person pronouncing it, the manner of pronunciation, etc. For example: - What it is? Sokolovich asked sternly and even anxiously, stopping.

Words that introduce direct speech can accurately denote processes of thought or speech (said, ordered, thought, asked, etc.). Such words usually require mandatory dissemination; the part containing direct speech makes up for their semantic insufficiency. The connection between the author's words and direct speech in such sentences is closer.

In other cases, the words that introduce direct speech do not denote the processes of speech and thought themselves, but the actions or feelings that accompany them (grin, stand up, wink; be happy, upset, horrified, etc.). Such words usually do not need to be distributed by the part containing direct speech; therefore, the connection between the author's words and direct speech in these cases is less close. This way of transmitting someone else's speech is close to the direct inclusion of someone else's speech in the author's narration.

1) When prepositioning the author's words, the sentence can be divided: a) into two parts (author's words - direct speech) or b) into three parts (author's words - direct speech - continuation of the author's narration). In these cases, direct speech explains, reveals the content of the word in front of it with the meaning of speech or thought. When the author's words are prepositioned, the order of the main members in them, as a rule, is direct: the subject is in the first place, and the predicate is in the second.

2) With the postposition of the author's words, the sentence is divided into two parts: PR - AC. In this case, direct speech is explained by the author's words, which are less independent here than with preposition. With the postposition AS, the order of the main members in them is reversed: the predicate is in the first place, the subject is in the second.

3) With the interposition of the AC, the sentence is divided into three parts: PR - AC - continuation of the PR. With the interposition of the AC, they are close in their role to the introductory sentences. The order of principal terms in this case is reversed. In interpositive AS, there can be two verbs with the meaning of speech or thought, the first of which refers to direct speech before the words of the author, the second - after the words of the author. Such cases are a mixture of the positional types discussed above.

Direct speech is designed to accurately reproduce someone else's speech. It may include one or more sentences, different in structure, intonation, modality, temporal plan. In PR, any constructions of live colloquial speech are reproduced, including those that include interjections, appeals, introductory words and other elements. In PR, pronouns are used not from the point of view of the author who conveys someone else's speech, but from the point of view of the one to whom it belongs.

Indirect speech.

Sentences with indirect speech are NGN with subordinate explanatory-objective: Petya asked me not to be late.

Sentences with CR do not reproduce someone else's speech, but convey its content. Many forms of live colloquial speech cannot be included in the CG, for example, appeals, interjections, many modal words and particles, imperative mood forms, a number of infinitive constructions, etc.

In CR, the intonational originality of someone else's speech cannot be expressed. Pronouns and personal forms of verbs in CR are used not from the point of view of the person who owns someone else's speech, but from the point of view of the author who conveys the content of someone else's speech.

In the main part of such sentences, the same information is given as in the words of the author in the PR. The subordinate clause containing the RC refers to one of the main words that needs to be disseminated. Therefore, the circle of words introducing CR is much narrower than the circle of words introducing PR: CR is introduced only with words that directly indicate speech or thought (says, said, thought, asked, asked, ordered, question, thought, etc.).

In sentences with CR, the part that conveys the content of someone else's speech is more often in postposition.

Sentences with various conjunctions are intended to convey the content of different types of foreign speech in their modality. Proposals with the union " what" convey the content of declarative sentences with an affirmative or negative modality. Sentences with conjunctions “as if, as if” also convey the content of declarative sentences, but with a touch of uncertainty, presumption. Sentences with the union "to" convey the content of the incentive sentences of someone else's speech.

Sentences with various allied words (interrogative-relative pronouns) convey the content of interrogative sentences of someone else's speech (indirect question). If the question in someone else's speech is framed only intonation or with the help of interrogative particles, then in an indirect question the particle-conjunction "whether" or the combination "whether ... or" is used: I was asked if I would agree to give another lecture.

Improperly direct speech.

In this case, someone else's speech, as it were, merges with the author's, not delimiting directly from it either by words indicating the fact of uttering someone else's speech and its source (with PR and CR), or by changing the pronominal plan (with PR and direct inclusion of someone else's speech in the narrative) , nor a special form of a subordinate clause (with KR). In such cases, the author, as it were, reincarnates in his characters and, talking about their thoughts, conveying their speech, resorts to those grammatical, lexical and phraseological means that his characters would resort to in the situation depicted. Such a transfer of someone else's speech (NPR) is a literary technique with which the writer can introduce the specific speech of the characters into the author's narrative, thereby characterizing his characters.

NPR has no special syntactic forms. It is brought closer to CR by the use of pronouns, and to PR by comparative freedom in conveying the features of someone else's speech. Much more freely than in the indirect, various phraseological turns and non-free syntactic models, characteristic of live colloquial speech, are transferred to the NPR.

NPR is usually an independent sentence or a series of sentences that are directly included in the author's narration, or continue one of the ways to convey someone else's speech, or follow the mention of the subject, topic of someone else's speech, developing this topic. For example: “She was surprised that time went so slowly, and was horrified that there were still six hours left until midnight. Where to kill these six hours? What phrases to say? How to behave with your husband? Here, the description of the thoughts and feelings of the heroine is replaced by NPR.

In the form of NPR, the unspoken thoughts of the hero are more often conveyed. Therefore, in the previous sentences, verbs such as “think, remember, feel, regret, worry” are often (but not always) used.

The transfer of the subject, the theme of someone else's speech.

The subject of someone else's speech can be expressed in a simple sentence with the help of additions to verbs with the meaning of speech or thought. The topic, the subject of someone else's speech can be indicated in the subordinate explanatory part, if in the main it corresponds to demonstrative words with the prepositions "about, about" (about that, about that). For example: And mother told about the elephant and how the girl asked about his legs.

Citation.

A quotation is a verbatim excerpt from some essay that the author of another essay cites to confirm or clarify his thought. Along with this, it can also play an emotionally expressive role - to reinforce what was said earlier, to give it a particularly expressive character. Also, a quote can be a source, a starting point for reasoning, especially if the work from which it is taken is the subject of special consideration.

By its structure, a quotation can be a sentence, a combination of sentences, a phrase and words that are key to a given text.

1. Sentences with a quote are two-part (the words of the author are a quote) and in their structure and punctuation are no different from sentences with direct speech. If the sentence, which is a quotation, is not given in full, then an ellipsis is put in place of the omitted members of the sentence.

2. Quotations can be included in the text as relatively independent parts of it, without the words of the author.

3. Citations can be entered in the BR. In this case, the quotation usually follows the explanatory conjunction and begins with a lowercase letter.

4. When quoting, special introductory words and sentences can also indicate the source.

To include quotes in the text, the forms of quoted words, such as nouns, verbs, etc., can be changed.