The conquests of Alexander the Great began a new period. Conquests of Alexander the Great

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ALEXANDER THE GREAT (MAcedonian)(356–323 BC), king of Macedonia, founder of the Hellenistic world power; the most famous general of antiquity. Born at the end of July 356 BC in Pella, the capital of Macedonia. The son of the Macedonian king Philip II (359–336 BC) and Olympias, daughter of the Molossian king Neoptolem. He received an aristocratic upbringing at the Macedonian court; studied writing, mathematics, music and playing the lyre; acquired a broad knowledge of Greek literature; especially loved Homer and the tragedians. In 343–340 BC in Miez (a Macedonian city on the Strymon river) he listened to lectures by the philosopher Aristotle specially invited to him on ethics, politics, and natural science. From a young age, he showed a strong-willed character and prudence; possessed great physical strength; tamed the skittish horse Bukefala, which no one managed to curb - this horse became his constant companion in all military campaigns.

In 340 BC, when Philip II, having gone to fight with Perinth, a Greek city on the European coast of the Propontis (modern Sea of Marmara), entrusted the fourteen-year-old Alexander with the management of the state, he discovered a military gift, decisively suppressing the uprising of the tribe of the Medes in Northern Paeonia . At the age of sixteen, he played a key role in the victory of the Macedonians over the Greeks at Chaeronea (Boeotia) on August 2, 338 BC, which led to the establishment of Macedonian hegemony in Hellas (). Successfully carried out a diplomatic mission to Athens, one of the main centers of anti-Macedonian resistance, offering the Athenians honorable terms of peace; was awarded Athenian citizenship.

Came into conflict with Philip II after his divorce from Olympias and fled to Illyria. Through the mediation of the Corinthian Demaratus, he reconciled with his father and returned to Pella. However, their relationship worsened again when Philip II opposed Alexander's marriage to Ada, the daughter of the influential and wealthy Carian king Pixodar, and expelled his closest friends from Macedonia.

first years of government.

After the murder of his father in the spring of 336 BC. (in which, according to one version, he was involved) became the Macedonian king with the support of the army; destroyed potential contenders for the throne - his half-brother Karan and cousin Aminta. Having learned that many Greek policies refused to recognize him as the hegemon of Hellas, in the early summer of 336 BC. moved to Greece, achieved his election as the head of the Thessalian Union and the Delphic Amfiktyony (the religious association of the states of Central Greece) and obedience from Athens and Thebes. He convened in Corinth a congress of the Pan-Hellenic (pan-Greek) league created by Philip II, at which, on his initiative, it was decided to start a war against the Achaemenid state (); for its conduct, he was appointed strategist-autocrator (supreme commander) of Hellas. His famous meeting with the Cynic philosopher Diogenes also took place there: in response to Alexander’s question if he had any request, Diogenes asked the king not to block the sun for him. Upon returning to his homeland, he committed in the spring of 335 BC. victorious campaign against the mountainous Thracians, Triballians and Illyrians, securing the northern borders of Macedonia.

A false rumor about the death of Alexander in Illyria caused a widespread anti-Macedonian uprising in Greece, led by the Thebans. Having interrupted the northern campaign, he swiftly invaded Central Greece and took Thebes by storm; some of the inhabitants were killed, the survivors (more than 30 thousand) were sold into slavery, and the city was razed to the ground. The rest of the policies, frightened by the fate of Thebes, submitted to Alexander.

Persian campaign.

conquest of Asia Minor.

In the winter of 334/333 BC moved along the southern coast of the peninsula and conquered Lycia and Pamphylia, and then turned north and invaded the interior of Asia Minor. Having defeated the Pisids, he occupied Phrygia; according to legend, in Gordia, the ancient Phrygian capital, he cut the tangled knot that fastened the chariot of the mythical king Midas with a sword blow - there was a belief that the one who untied it would become the ruler of the world.

Despite the attempt of the Persians to prevent the further advance of the Macedonians by transferring hostilities to the Aegean basin (the capture of the islands of Chios and Lesvos), Alexander continued his campaign deep into the Persian state. He crossed Paphlagonia and Cappadocia without hindrance, crossed the Taurus Range through the pass of the Cilician Gates and subjugated Cilicia. In the summer of 333 BC the conquest of Asia Minor was completed.

Conquest of Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine and Egypt.

Abandoning the pursuit of Darius III, who managed to escape across the Euphrates, Alexander headed south in order to cut off the Persians from the Mediterranean Sea, prevent their contacts with anti-Macedonian circles in Greece and gain a foothold in the conquered territories. Most of the cities of Phoenicia (Arvad, Byblos, Sidon, etc.) submitted to him, which deprived the Persians of the Phoenician fleet and the hope of conducting active naval operations in the Eastern Mediterranean. Only Tire refused to allow the Macedonians into its walls. In July-August 332 BC after a heavy seven-month siege, the city fell; its defenders were exterminated, and those who had taken refuge in the temples were sold into slavery. At the same time, Alexander's military leaders finally broke the resistance of the Persians in the Aegean: they defeated enemy detachments in the west of Asia Minor, destroyed the Persian fleet near the Hellespont, and captured the entire island of Greece. Military successes allowed Alexander to reject, against the advice of the aged commander Parmenion, the peace proposals of Darius III, who promised to give him part of the Persian state and the hand of one of his daughters.

Having taken Tire, the Greco-Macedonian army entered the borders of Palestine. The power of Alexander was recognized by the Samaritans, but Judea and the South Palestinian city of Gaza remained loyal to the Persians. The capture and defeat of Gaza by the Macedonians, however, forced the Jewish elite to submit; at the same time, Judea managed to maintain political autonomy and even receive tax breaks.

In December 332 BC. Alexander freely took possession of Egypt (). In Memphis, the ancient Egyptian capital, he was proclaimed pharaoh. He pursued a flexible policy towards the local population: he showed respect for Egyptian temples in every possible way, tried to observe native customs. He left the civil administration of the country to the Egyptians, but transferred the army, finances and border areas under the control of the Macedonians and Greeks. In the Nile Delta he founded Alexandria, which became the stronghold of the Greek-Macedonian influence in Egypt (he was personally involved in the planning of the new city). He made an expedition to the Siwa oasis in the desert west of the Nile, where the sanctuary of the supreme Egyptian god Ammon, whom the Greeks identified with Zeus, was located; the temple oracle declared him the son of Ammon. However, he had to give up his intention to make the idea of divine origin the basis of his political propaganda, since it was received with hostility by his environment; in the Macedonian army, opposition began to form, led by Parmenion.

Conquest of Mesopotamia and Iran.

In the spring of 331 BC. Alexander moved to Phenicia, where he crushed the Samaritan uprising. Planning to create New Macedonia, which would defend Palestine from nomads and guard the trade route along the eastern bank of the Jordan to South Arabia, he founded several cities in the north of Transjordan (Dion, Gerasa, Pella), populating them with his veterans and Greek-Macedonian colonists. In order to acquire rights to the Persian throne, he married Barsina, a relative of Darius III. In September 331 BC, with 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry, he crossed the Euphrates near Fapsak, then across the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient Assyrian capital of Nineveh, and on October 1, he utterly defeated the Persian army near the village of Gavgamela, numbering, according to data ancient historians, up to 1 million people. The military power of the Persian state was broken; Darius III fled to Media. The satrap of Babylonia Mazeus opened the gates of Babylon to the Macedonians; Alexander made generous sacrifices to the Babylonian gods and rebuilt the temples destroyed by Xerxes (486–465 BC). In December 331 BC Susiana's satrap Abulit handed over to him Susa (the official capital of the Achaemenid state) and the state treasury. After defeating the satrap of Persis, Ariobarzanes, Alexander captured Persepolis, the dynastic seat of the Achaemenids, and the personal treasury of Darius III; as punishment for the Hellenic shrines desecrated by Xerxes during the Greco-Persian wars, he gave the city to the soldiers for plunder. At the end of May 330 BC. set fire to the luxurious royal palace in Persepolis. On the other hand, he actively pursued a policy of rapprochement with the local Persian aristocracy, giving them high positions in the administration; retained control of Babylonia and Susiana for Mazey and Abulit, and appointed the noble Persian Frasaorta as the satrap of Persia.

In June 330 BC moved to the central regions of Iran. Darius III fled to the east, and the Macedonians, without meeting resistance, occupied Media and its main city, Ecbatana. Here Alexander released the Greek warriors to their homeland, emphasizing by this act that the all-Greek war against the Achaemenid power was over and that from that moment he began the campaign as the “king of Asia”.

conquest of Central Asia.

In the spring of 329 BC. Alexander crossed the Oxus; Sogdian aristocrats gave him Bessus, whom he sent to be killed by the relatives of Darius III. The Macedonians occupied Marakanda, the main city of Sogdiana, and reached the river. Yaksart (modern Syr Darya). However, soon the Sogdians, led by Spitamen, revolted against the conquerors; they were supported by the Bactrians and the Saka nomads. For two years, Alexander tried with the most severe measures to suppress the anti-Macedonian movement. He managed to win the Sakas over to his side. In 328 BC Spitamenes fled to the Massagetae, who, fearing reprisals from the Macedonians, killed him. In 327 BC Alexander captured the Sogdian Rock - the last center of the uprising. As a sign of reconciliation with the local nobility, he married Roxana, the daughter of the Bactrian nobleman Oksiart. To strengthen his power in this region, he founded the city of Alexandria Eskhata (Extreme; modern Khodjent) on Jaxart and conquered the mountainous country of Paretaken southwest of Sogdiana. ( Cm. AFGHANISTAN).

After the capture of Mesopotamia, Alexander, in an effort to ensure the loyalty of the conquered regions, increasingly entered into the image of an eastern sovereign: he tried to assert the idea of \u200b\u200bhis divine origin, established a magnificent court ritual, started a harem of three hundred concubines, observed Persian customs and wore Persian clothes. The distance of the king from the Macedonians caused great irritation among the soldiers, who were already dissatisfied with the continuation of the difficult campaign, as well as part of his entourage, mostly from Lower Macedonia. Autumn 330 BC the conspiracy of Philotas to kill the king was revealed; by decision of the Macedonian army, the conspirators were stoned to death; Alexander also ordered the death of Parmenion, the father of Philotas. In order to remove the most potentially rebellious part of the army from it, he sent home veterans and soldiers who were not fit for further service.

During the uprising in Sogdia, his relations with the Greek-Macedonian environment became even more aggravated. In the summer of 328 BC at a feast in Maracanda, Alexander killed one of his closest friends, Cleitus, who publicly accused him of neglecting his compatriots. There was an increase in autocratic tendencies, the ideological justification of which was the concept of the permissiveness of the monarch, formulated by the court philosopher Anaxarchus. Alexander's attempt to introduce the Persian rite of proskinesis (prostration to the monarch) became the reason for a new conspiracy drawn up by young Macedonian aristocrats from the king's personal guard ("conspiracy of pages"); their ideological inspiration was the philosopher and historian Callisthenes, a student of Aristotle. Only chance saved Alexander from death; the conspirators were stoned to death; Callisthenes, according to one version, was executed, according to another, he committed suicide in prison.

Hike to India.

Fascinated by the idea to reach the “edge of Asia” and become the ruler of the world, Alexander decided to undertake a campaign in India. In the late spring of 327 BC, having set out from Baktra, he crossed Paropamis and the river. Coffen (modern Kabul). Most of the kingdoms on the right bank of the Indus, including the strong state of Taxila, voluntarily submitted to him; their rulers retained their power and political autonomy, but were forced to accept the presence of Macedonian garrisons in their cities. Having defeated the Aspasians and Assakens (Ind. Asawaks), Alexander crossed the Indus and invaded the Punjab, where he faced fierce resistance from King Pora (Ind. Paurava), who owned a vast territory between the rivers Gidasp (modern Jelam) and Akesina (modern Chenab) . As a result of a bloody battle on the Hydaspes (late April - early May 326 BC), Porus's army was defeated, and he himself was captured. Alexander became the master of the Punjab. In an effort to make Time an ally, he not only left him his possessions, but also significantly expanded them. Having founded the cities of Nicaea and Bukefalia (in honor of his deceased horse) on the Hydaspes, he moved east: crossing the river. Hydraot (modern Ravi), conquered the Cathays and approached the river. Hyphasis (modern Sutlej), intending to invade the Ganges valley. However, the soldiers rebelled - they were tired of the endless campaign, hard to endure the natural and climatic conditions of India, and they were frightened by the prospect of war with the powerful state of the Nandas. Alexander had to turn back and give up his dream of world domination. He actually gave up control of the lands east of the Indus, handing it over to local rulers.

On the Hydaspes, the land army met the Macedonian fleet under the command of Nearchus and moved with it to the Indian Ocean. During the campaign, Alexander made a successful military expedition against the Malli and Oxidraks (Ind. Shudraka), who lived east of Hydraot, and subjugated the regions of Musikana, Oksikana and Samba. At the end of July 325 BC. reached Patala (modern Bahmanabad) and the Indus Delta.

Return to Babylonia.

Having completed the campaign, he began to streamline his huge power, which included Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Iran, Central Asia and Northwestern India. He tried harsh measures to deal with the abuses of the Macedonian and Persian officials. He continued the policy of merging multilingual tribes into one whole; sought to create a single elite from the Greek-Macedonian and Persian elite. Ordered ten thousand Macedonian soldiers to marry women of local origin; married about eighty of his associates to Persian aristocrats. He himself married Stateira, daughter of Darius III, and Parisatis, daughter of Artaxerxes III Och (358–338 BC), legitimizing himself as the heir of the Achaemenids. Wanting to dilute the purely Macedonian composition of the guard, he actively enrolled noble Iranians in it; organized a special native corps, which included thirty thousand young men from the eastern regions of his empire. This increased the dissatisfaction of the Macedonian soldiers, which could not be extinguished by generous cash payments. In 324 BC in Opis (on the Tigris), where Alexander arrived with part of the army, the soldiers, having learned about his decision to dismiss veterans and unfit for service, raised a rebellion, which he managed to pacify with great difficulty.

To consolidate his power in Greece (especially after the unsuccessful campaign of the Macedonian commander Zopyrion in the Northern Black Sea region and the anti-Macedonian uprising in Thrace) in the summer of 324 BC. issued a decree on the return to the Greek policies of all political emigrants (except for the enemies of Macedonia) and on the restoration of their property rights. Seriously limited the powers of the Achaean, Arcadian and Boeotian unions (and maybe even completely dissolved). He achieved from the Greek states the recognition of himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon; in Hellas began to build the sanctuary of Alexander.

In the winter of 324/323 BC conducted his last campaign - against the Cossians (Kassites), who carried out robbery raids on Mesopotamia. After its successful completion, he led the army to Babylon, where he began to prepare for a campaign to the west: he intended to defeat Carthage, capture Sicily, North Africa and Spain and reach the Pillars of Hercules (modern Strait of Gibraltar). He also developed plans for military expeditions around the Hyrcanian (modern Caspian) Sea and to the south of the Arabian Peninsula; already announced the collection of the fleet and army. However, at the beginning of June 323 BC, having been at the feast of his friend Media, he fell ill: perhaps he caught a cold and got pneumonia, complicated by tropical malaria; there is a version that he was poisoned by Iola, the son of Antipater, whom he was going to deprive of the post of governor of Macedonia. He managed to say goodbye to the army and on June 13, 323 BC. died in his Babylonian palace; he was only thirty-three years old. The king's body was transported by one of his associates, Ptolemy Lagos, the ruler of Egypt, to Memphis and then to Alexandria.

Both sons of Alexander - Hercules (from Barsina) and Alexander IV (from Roxana) - died during the wars of the Diadochi (Alexander's generals who divided his Empire): Hercules was killed in 310 BC. by order of the imperial regent Polysperchon, Alexander IV in 309 BC. by order of the ruler of Macedonia, Cassander.

Ivan Krivushin

Unfortunately, the military conflicts in Greece did not stop forever. The exhausting Peloponnesian wars did not put an end to the eternal rivalry between Athens and Sparta, the Greek policies, immersed in internecine struggle, became easy prey for another conqueror: Philip II of Macedon at the battle of Chaeronea in 388 BC. put an end to the independence of Greece, and in the same place, in Chaeronea, the star of the eighteen-year-old son of Philip Alexander rose, under whose leadership the Theban cohort was utterly defeated.

In 336 BC. after the death of his father, Alexander, having dealt with rivals who claimed the throne, began to strengthen the Macedonian kingdom, which during his reign knew great victories and power.

The territory of Greece and Persia, conquered by the Macedonians.

The young monarch, distinguished by his brilliant mind, inexhaustible zest for life and extraordinary abilities as a commander, had great teachers: Leonidas instructed him in the art of war, Lysimachus was engaged in his literary education, Aristotle gave him what he could, from his deep knowledge of science, history, geography, he taught the young Alexander the rudiments of rhetoric and ethics.

Freed from relatives who encroached on the throne, Alexander proclaimed himself commander-in-chief at the all-Hellenic council in Corinth (in 335 BC), then subjugated the peoples who rebelled against him in the north of Macedonia, and defeated the Illyrians, pushing them back to the Danube.

After that, Alexander crushed the armed uprising of the Greeks, razing Thebes to the ground, but sparing Athens. Having celebrated a triumph in Greece, he began to prepare an expedition to Asia, conceived by his father. In 334 BC. Alexander entrusted power in Macedonia to one of his governors, and he himself crossed the Hellespont with an army of forty thousand infantry and five thousand horsemen, of which only half of the soldiers were Macedonians: the rest of the army were Greeks, mostly Spartans.

Greek coin of the 2nd century. BC.; on the reverse side of it is the head of Alexander.

At the Granik River, the Macedonian king inflicted a crushing defeat on the Persian army and thus established his own dominance throughout Asia Minor, freeing the Ionian Greek cities and returning them to democratic rule instead of the oligarchic pro-Persian one. Then Alexander continued the campaign and cut the Gordian knot in Gordion: long before that, the oracle predicted dominance in Asia Minor to a man who would untie the most complicated knot stored in the temple of Zeus, connecting the yoke to the tongue of the royal chariot.

Further, Alexander crossed the Taurus and at Issus defeated the army of Darius III (333 BC); Darius fled to Babylon, but Alexander captured his family (mother, wife and three children), who, according to Persian custom, accompanied the king on a campaign.

Dramatic battle at Issus with the army of Alexander: Macedonian expansion meant the end of the political independence of Greece.

Rejecting the peaceful conditions of the defeated Persian king, who even gave him one of his daughters as his wife, Alexander opened the gates to the East for himself, however, fearing strikes from the rear, he decided to start the conquest from the eastern coast of the Mediterranean; thus he subjugated Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, passing through the Libyan desert to the temple of Amun, where the Egyptian priestesses called him "the son of Zeus," a title honored by the pharaohs. In Egypt, the Macedonian king founded the city of Alexandria (332 BC), which later became the center of Hellenistic culture.

In 331 BC. Alexander's army resumed the campaign to the East, rushing to Persia: having crossed the Tigris and Euphrates, in the battle of Gaugamel, Alexander finally defeated the army reassembled by Darius, occupied Babylon and Susa and entered Persepolis, which was then burned. Having revealed the conspiracy of the Macedonian nobility, Alexander ordered the execution of Bessus, the Persian commander who had dethroned and killed Darius. The military campaign against Persia ended, and from that moment Alexander was awarded the title with which he went down in history - Alexander the Great.

The myth about the invincibility of the great Macedonian had already begun to be created, during his lifetime he was attributed to the host of immortal gods, but this tireless commander seemed not at all going to be content with what he had achieved. He was preparing a new expedition and together with it once again moved to the East. Having reached India, Alexander the Great subjugated the outskirts of the Persian Empire and conquered Parthia, Icarnia and Bactria, where he founded a city named after his beloved horse Bucephalus.

In incessant battles, he continued to move into the depths of India and, approaching the Ifasi River, announced his intention to move on, but exhausted soldiers, threatening a rebellion, forced him to curtail the campaign. Alexander with the army moved back, while the fleet, led by Nearchos, landed to survey the coast. In 324 BC. Alexander the Great entered Susa in triumph and set about rebuilding his great empire.

A year later, while planning an expedition to Arabia, he died of a malarial fever. This happened on June 13, 323 BC.

Alexander the Great on his deathbed

The greatest commander of antiquity, who tried to unite the entire known world under one crown, was thirty-four years old. The empire he created did not long outlive him; Alexander's generals divided the lands and provinces among themselves, founding various kingdoms and destroying his dream of connecting East with West.

Alexander the Great (Macedonian) (356-323 BC), king of Macedonia, founder of the Hellenistic world power; the most famous general of antiquity. Born at the end of July 356 BC in Pella, the capital of Macedonia. The son of the Macedonian king Philip II (359–336 BC) and Olympias, daughter of the Molossian king Neoptolem. He received an aristocratic upbringing at the Macedonian court; studied writing, mathematics, music and playing the lyre; acquired a broad knowledge of Greek literature; especially loved Homer and the tragedians. In 343–340 BC in Miez (a Macedonian city on the Strymon river) he listened to lectures by the philosopher Aristotle specially invited to him on ethics, politics, and natural science. From a young age, he showed a strong-willed character and prudence; possessed great physical strength; tamed the skittish horse Bukefala, which no one managed to curb - this horse became his constant companion in all military campaigns.
In 340 BC, when Philip II, having gone to fight with Perinth, a Greek city on the European coast of the Propontis (modern Sea of Marmara), entrusted the fourteen-year-old Alexander with the management of the state, he discovered a military gift, decisively suppressing the uprising of the tribe of the Medes in Northern Paeonia . At the age of sixteen, he played a key role in the victory of the Macedonians over the Greeks at Chaeronea (Boeotia) on August 2, 338 BC, which led to the establishment of Macedonian hegemony in Hellas. Successfully carried out a diplomatic mission to Athens, one of the main centers of anti-Macedonian resistance, offering the Athenians honorable terms of peace; was awarded Athenian citizenship.
Came into conflict with Philip II after his divorce from Olympias and fled to Illyria. Through the mediation of the Corinthian Demaratus, he reconciled with his father and returned to Pella. However, their relationship worsened again when Philip II opposed Alexander's marriage to Ada, the daughter of the influential and wealthy Carian king Pixodar, and expelled his closest friends from Macedonia.

first years of government.

After the murder of his father in the spring of 336 BC. (in which, according to one version, he was involved) became the Macedonian king with the support of the army; destroyed potential contenders for the throne - his half-brother Karan and cousin Aminta. Having learned that many Greek policies refused to recognize him as the hegemon of Hellas, in the early summer of 336 BC. moved to Greece, achieved his election as the head of the Thessalian Union and the Delphic Amfiktyony (the religious association of the states of Central Greece) and obedience from Athens and Thebes. He convened in Corinth a congress of the Pan-Hellenic (general Greek) league created by Philip II, at which, on his initiative, it was decided to start a war against the Achaemenid state; for its conduct, he was appointed strategist-autocrator (supreme commander) of Hellas. His famous meeting with the Cynic philosopher Diogenes also took place there: in response to Alexander’s question if he had any request, Diogenes asked the king not to block the sun for him. Upon returning to his homeland, he committed in the spring of 335 BC. victorious campaign against the mountainous Thracians, Triballians and Illyrians, securing the northern borders of Macedonia.
A false rumor about the death of Alexander in Illyria caused a widespread anti-Macedonian uprising in Greece, led by the Thebans. Having interrupted the northern campaign, he swiftly invaded Central Greece and took Thebes by storm; some of the inhabitants were killed, the survivors (more than 30 thousand) were sold into slavery, and the city was razed to the ground. The rest of the policies, frightened by the fate of Thebes, submitted to Alexander.

Persian campaign.

conquest of Asia Minor.

Having distributed all the property to his entourage and warriors and entrusted the administration of Macedonia to the strategist Antipater, in the spring of 334 BC. at the head of a small Greek-Macedonian army (about 30 thousand infantry and 5 thousand horsemen), Alexander crossed the Hellespont (modern Dardanelles) to Asia Minor and entered the Achaemenid state. In early June, he defeated the sixty-thousandth army of Persian satraps in Asia Minor in the battle on the river Granik (modern Bigachai), showing great personal courage in it, and captured the Hellespontian Phrygia and Lydia. His power was voluntarily recognized by almost all Greek cities on the western coast of Asia Minor, in which he overthrew the pro-Persian oligarchic and tyrannical regimes and established a democratic system; by force he had to take only Miletus and Halicarnassus. After the subjugation of Caria, where Alexander took advantage of the struggle for power of local aristocratic groups, the entire western part of Asia Minor was in his hands.
In the winter of 334/333 BC moved along the southern coast of the peninsula and conquered Lycia and Pamphylia, and then turned north and invaded the interior of Asia Minor. Having defeated the Pisids, he occupied Phrygia; according to legend, in Gordia, the ancient Phrygian capital, he cut the tangled knot that fastened the chariot of the mythical king Midas with a sword blow - there was a belief that the one who untied it would become the ruler of the world.
Despite the attempt of the Persians to prevent the further advance of the Macedonians by transferring hostilities to the Aegean basin (the capture of the islands of Chios and Lesvos), Alexander continued his campaign deep into the Persian state. He crossed Paphlagonia and Cappadocia without hindrance, crossed the Taurus Range through the pass of the Cilician Gates and subjugated Cilicia. In the summer of 333 BC the conquest of Asia Minor was completed.

Conquest of Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine and Egypt.

In the autumn of 333 BC a huge army (more than 200 thousand) of the Persian king Darius III Kodoman (336-330 BC) advanced to Cilicia and occupied the city of Iss. Not far from him on the river. Pinar On November 12, a battle took place in which Alexander, with only 60 thousand infantry and 5-7 thousand horsemen, won a brilliant victory over the Persians; the richest booty was captured, the mother, wife, young son and two daughters of Darius III were captured. Alexander gave the royal family an honorable position and generously endowed his army. The victory at Issus made him the ruler of the entire Western Asian Mediterranean.
Abandoning the pursuit of Darius III, who managed to escape across the Euphrates, Alexander headed south in order to cut off the Persians from the Mediterranean Sea, prevent their contacts with anti-Macedonian circles in Greece and gain a foothold in the conquered territories. Most of the cities of Phoenicia (Arvad, Byblos, Sidon, etc.) submitted to him, which deprived the Persians of the Phoenician fleet and the hope of conducting active naval operations in the Eastern Mediterranean. Only Tire refused to allow the Macedonians into its walls. In July-August 332 BC after a heavy seven-month siege, the city fell; its defenders were exterminated, and those who had taken refuge in the temples were sold into slavery. At the same time, Alexander's military leaders finally broke the resistance of the Persians in the Aegean: they defeated enemy detachments in the west of Asia Minor, destroyed the Persian fleet near the Hellespont, and captured the entire island of Greece. Military successes allowed Alexander to reject, against the advice of the aged commander Parmenion, the peace proposals of Darius III, who promised to give him part of the Persian state and the hand of one of his daughters.
Having taken Tire, the Greco-Macedonian army entered the borders of Palestine. The power of Alexander was recognized by the Samaritans, but Judea and the South Palestinian city of Gaza remained loyal to the Persians. The capture and defeat of Gaza by the Macedonians, however, forced the Jewish elite to submit; at the same time, Judea managed to maintain political autonomy and even receive tax breaks.
In December 332 BC. Alexander took control of Egypt without hindrance. In Memphis, the ancient Egyptian capital, he was proclaimed pharaoh. He pursued a flexible policy towards the local population: he showed respect for Egyptian temples in every possible way, tried to observe native customs. He left the civil administration of the country to the Egyptians, but transferred the army, finances and border areas under the control of the Macedonians and Greeks. In the Nile Delta he founded Alexandria, which became the stronghold of the Greek-Macedonian influence in Egypt (he was personally involved in the planning of the new city). He made an expedition to the Siwa oasis in the desert west of the Nile, where the sanctuary of the supreme Egyptian god Ammon, whom the Greeks identified with Zeus, was located; the temple oracle declared him the son of Ammon. However, he had to give up his intention to make the idea of divine origin the basis of his political propaganda, since it was received with hostility by his environment; in the Macedonian army, opposition began to form, led by Parmenion.

Conquest of Mesopotamia and Iran.

conquest of Central Asia.

Pursuing Darius III, Alexander passed the Caspian Gates and entered Central Asia. In this situation, the local satraps Bess and Barsaent plotted against Darius III; they took him into custody, and when the Macedonians overtook the retreating Persians, they stabbed him to death (late June - early July 330 BC); Bess fled to his satrapy (Bactria and Sogdiana) and, referring to his kinship with the Achaemenids, proclaimed himself the new Persian king Artaxerxes IV. Alexander ordered the solemn burial of Darius III in Persepolis and declared himself an avenger for his death. Having passed through Parthia, Hyrcania, Aria and defeated the satrap of Aria Satibarzan, he captured Drangiana and, having overcome the Paropamis mountain range (modern Hindu Kush), invaded Bactria; Bess retreated beyond the river. Oks (modern Amu Darya) to Sogdiana.
In the spring of 329 BC. Alexander crossed the Oxus; Sogdian aristocrats gave him Bessus, whom he sent to be killed by the relatives of Darius III. The Macedonians occupied Marakanda, the main city of Sogdiana, and reached the river. Yaksart (modern Syr Darya). However, soon the Sogdians, led by Spitamen, revolted against the conquerors; they were supported by the Bactrians and the Saka nomads. For two years, Alexander tried with the most severe measures to suppress the anti-Macedonian movement. He managed to win the Sakas over to his side. In 328 BC Spitamenes fled to the Massagetae, who, fearing reprisals from the Macedonians, killed him. In 327 BC Alexander captured the Sogdian Rock - the last center of the uprising. As a sign of reconciliation with the local nobility, he married Roxana, the daughter of the Bactrian nobleman Oksiart. To strengthen his power in this region, he founded the city of Alexandria Eskhata (Extreme; modern Khodjent) on Jaxart and conquered the mountainous country of Paretaken southwest of Sogdiana.
After the capture of Mesopotamia, Alexander, in an effort to ensure the loyalty of the conquered regions, increasingly entered into the image of an eastern sovereign: he tried to assert the idea of \u200b\u200bhis divine origin, established a magnificent court ritual, started a harem of three hundred concubines, observed Persian customs and wore Persian clothes. The distance of the king from the Macedonians caused great irritation among the soldiers, who were already dissatisfied with the continuation of the difficult campaign, as well as part of his entourage, mostly from Lower Macedonia. Autumn 330 BC the conspiracy of Philotas to kill the king was revealed; by decision of the Macedonian army, the conspirators were stoned to death; Alexander also ordered the death of Parmenion, the father of Philotas. In order to remove the most potentially rebellious part of the army from it, he sent home veterans and soldiers who were not fit for further service.
During the uprising in Sogdia, his relations with the Greek-Macedonian environment became even more aggravated. In the summer of 328 BC at a feast in Maracanda, Alexander killed one of his closest friends, Cleitus, who publicly accused him of neglecting his compatriots. There was an increase in autocratic tendencies, the ideological justification of which was the concept of the permissiveness of the monarch, formulated by the court philosopher Anaxarchus. Alexander's attempt to introduce the Persian rite of proskinesis (prostration to the monarch) became the reason for a new conspiracy drawn up by young Macedonian aristocrats from the king's personal guard ("conspiracy of pages"); their ideological inspiration was the philosopher and historian Callisthenes, a student of Aristotle. Only chance saved Alexander from death; the conspirators were stoned to death; Callisthenes, according to one version, was executed, according to another, he committed suicide in prison.

Hike to India.

Return to Babylonia.

In September 325 BC. led an army to Persis along the ocean coast; the fleet was given the task of exploring the coastal sea route from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates. During the passage through Hydrosia (modern Balochistan), the Macedonians suffered greatly from a lack of water and food and from heavy rains. Only in November did they reach Pura, the administrative center of Hydrosia. When the army crossed Karmaniya (modern Kerman and Hormozgan), it turned into a disorderly and demoralized crowd. At the beginning of 324 BC. Alexander arrived at Pasargadae and then went to Susa, where he celebrated the end of the campaign (February 324 BC).
Having completed the campaign, he began to streamline his huge power, which included Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Iran, Central Asia and Northwestern India. He tried harsh measures to deal with the abuses of the Macedonian and Persian officials. He continued the policy of merging multilingual tribes into one whole; sought to create a single elite from the Greek-Macedonian and Persian elite. Ordered ten thousand Macedonian soldiers to marry women of local origin; married about eighty of his associates to Persian aristocrats. He himself married Stateira, daughter of Darius III, and Parisatis, daughter of Artaxerxes III Och (358–338 BC), legitimizing himself as the heir of the Achaemenids. Wanting to dilute the purely Macedonian composition of the guard, he actively enrolled noble Iranians in it; organized a special native corps, which included thirty thousand young men from the eastern regions of his empire. This increased the dissatisfaction of the Macedonian soldiers, which could not be extinguished by generous cash payments. In 324 BC in Opis (on the Tigris), where Alexander arrived with part of the army, the soldiers, having learned about his decision to dismiss veterans and unfit for service, raised a rebellion, which he managed to pacify with great difficulty.
To consolidate his power in Greece (especially after the unsuccessful campaign of the Macedonian commander Zopyrion in the Northern Black Sea region and the anti-Macedonian uprising in Thrace) in the summer of 324 BC. issued a decree on the return to the Greek policies of all political emigrants (except for the enemies of Macedonia) and on the restoration of their property rights. Seriously limited the powers of the Achaean, Arcadian and Boeotian unions (and maybe even completely dissolved). He achieved from the Greek states the recognition of himself as the son of Zeus-Ammon; in Hellas began to build the sanctuary of Alexander.
In the winter of 324/323 BC conducted his last campaign - against the Cossians (Kassites), who carried out robbery raids on Mesopotamia. After its successful completion, he led the army to Babylon, where he began to prepare for a campaign to the west: he intended to defeat Carthage, capture Sicily, North Africa and Spain and reach the Pillars of Hercules (modern Strait of Gibraltar). He also developed plans for military expeditions around the Hyrcanian (modern Caspian) Sea and to the south of the Arabian Peninsula; already announced the collection of the fleet and army. However, at the beginning of June 323 BC, having been at the feast of his friend Media, he fell ill: perhaps he caught a cold and got pneumonia, complicated by tropical malaria; there is a version that he was poisoned by Iola, the son of Antipater, whom he was going to deprive of the post of governor of Macedonia. He managed to say goodbye to the army and on June 13, 323 BC. died in his Babylonian palace; he was only thirty-three years old. The king's body was transported by one of his associates, Ptolemy Lagos, the ruler of Egypt, to Memphis and then to Alexandria.

The personality of Alexander is woven from contradictions. On the one hand, he is a brilliant commander, a courageous soldier, a well-educated person, an admirer of literature and art; on the other hand, an immense ambitious man, a strangler of Greek freedom, a cruel conqueror, an autocratic despot who considered himself a god. The historical significance of Alexander's activities: although the power he created fell apart shortly after his death, his conquests marked the beginning of the Hellenistic era; they created the conditions for the Greek-Macedonian colonization of the Middle East and Central Asia and for the intensive cultural interaction of the Hellenic and Eastern civilizations.
Both sons of Alexander - Hercules (from Barsina) and Alexander IV (from Roxana) - died during the wars of the Diadochi (Alexander's generals who divided his Empire): Hercules was killed in 310 BC. by order of the imperial regent Polysperchon, Alexander IV in 309 BC. by order of the ruler of Macedonia, Cassander.

The countries and regions conquered by Alexander the Great made him famous all over the world.

What countries and regions did Alexander the Great conquer?

As a result of the conquests, the borders of the state of Alexander the Great expanded to enormous proportions. It was the largest state at that time!

Macedonian captured: Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt(334-332 BC) , Persia(331-330 BC), Central Asia(329-327 BC), part of India(326-325 BC)

Alexander the Great began his conquests from the west of the Achaemenid Empire. It was this state that became the first country that he captured. The ruler then went to Asia Minor, where he annexed Iliria, Cappodocia, Cilicia, and Syria to his empire. After that, Alexander turned south, where he occupied the lands of Babylon, Egypt (founded the new capital of the country - Alexandria). Heading east, the emperor captured Persia, conquered the tribes in the mountains of the Hindu Kush and a small part of the Indian kingdom on the Indochina peninsula.

By today's standards, the territory conquered by him corresponds approximately to the following modern countries: Greece, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Why does humanity remember Alexander the Great?

Alexander the Great went down in history because:

Created a world power;
brought together Greek and Middle Eastern civilization, which enriched each other. During and immediately after the end of the activities of Alexander the Great, Greek culture was widespread in Iran, Mesopotamia, Syria, Judea and Egypt.
the great commander extended Greek influence to India and Central Asia - areas where it had not previously spread at all. During the Hellenistic era, Eastern ideas, mostly religious, spread throughout the Greek world. It was the same Hellenistic culture - mostly Greek, but with a strong oriental influence - that subsequently exercised influence on Rome.

In 336 BC Emperor Alexander of Macedonia was one of the greatest generals in history. In just 11 years of his reign, he created a powerful empire, conquering Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia and other countries.

He came to India, but was forced to return from there, because the army faced big problems (his soldiers rebelled, because they were tired after 10 years of campaigns).

The fusion of Greek and Oriental cultural heritage under the reign of Alexander the Great formed the "Age of Hellenism" that shaped the worldview for the next 300 years.

Alexander the Great was an outstanding personality characterized by a strategic sense and an unbridled will to absolute power. Being a brilliant commander, he devoted his life to conquest, being a model of courage and energy for his soldiers.

356 BC – 323 BC- the life of Alexander the Great

338 BC- Macedonian victory over Greeks at Chaeronea

334 BC- the beginning of Alexander's campaign against Persia, the victory at Granik.

333 BC Alexander's victory over the Persians at Issus.

331 BC- the battle of Gaugamela, the defeat of the Persian state.

327–324 BC.- the last campaign of Alexander the Great (to India).

1. Greece and Macedonia. Wars between the policies led to the decline of Greece. People died, cities were destroyed, fields were trampled down. Many citizens did not want to fight, because during the campaigns they had to leave their farms, crafts and trade. And in the event of their death, families were completely left without breadwinners. They were increasingly concerned about their own interests, and not the interests of the entire policy. The unity of the collective of citizens of the policy disappeared. There were more and more poor people, they were ruined by wars. The poor hated the rich who profited from the war.

Constant wars between city-states, the intensification of the struggle between the rich and the poor threatened Greece with death. Where was the way out of this danger? First of all, it was necessary to stop the wars between the Greeks. But how to do that? Many believed that only a strong ruler could do this, who would unite all the Greeks and lead their campaign to the east - to Persia. Victory in this campaign will bring new markets to the poor, artisans and merchants, and rich booty will help restore devastated Greece.

So many saw the savior of Greece in King Philip of Macedonia. But Philip also had many opponents in different policies. They said that the Macedonian king did not want to save, but to seize Greece, destroy democracy and establish his sole power.

Macedonia has long been a backward region on the northern borders of Greece. The Macedonians were engaged in cattle breeding and agriculture. Trade and craft were poorly developed. There were almost no cities there. The policy as a collective of citizens did not develop there either. As a long time ago, the Greeks in Macedonia were ruled by kings, but the royal power was limited by the council of the nobility.

In the middle of the IV century. BC. King Philip united all of Macedonia under his rule. He created a strong army. It was based on a phalanx of foot soldiers and heavily armed cavalry. The infantry was recruited from the peasants, and the Macedonian aristocrats were the cavalry. The Macedonian phalanx in battle was a formation of soldiers in the form of an elongated (up to 1 km) rectangle. In depth, the phalanx consisted of ranks of soldiers of 16 or 24 people. Each warrior, except for the shield and sword, had a long peak (4 m or more). In battle, the densely packed warriors of the eight front ranks put their pikes forward, and the phalanx, bristling with the points of the pikes, moved towards the enemy. It was very difficult to approach her. From the flanks, the phalanx was protected by cavalry. If the enemy still managed to get around the phalanx and go to its rear, then the soldiers of the last eight rows turned around and lowered their peaks in front of them. The “bristled beast” was the name given to the Macedonian phalanx.

Philip took over the gold mines and minted gold coins. This gave him the means to buy the best equipment for the siege and capture of cities, weapons, as well as to bribe his supporters in the Greek states.

The Macedonian king skillfully intervened in the feuds of the Greek policies, subjugating them one by one and pitting them against each other. When Philip invaded Greece, Athens managed to create an alliance of several city-states against Macedonia. In the decisive battle near the city of Chaeronea in 338 BC. Philip defeated the Greek army. The cavalry on one of the flanks of the Macedonian army was commanded by Philip's 18-year-old son Alexander.

Having won, Philip did not ravage Athens. He invited the defeated Greeks to unite in an alliance. In the city of Corinth, a meeting of representatives of the Greek policies was convened, and almost all the city-states of Greece united in a pan-Greek union. They pledged never to fight each other again. The Macedonian king was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied army. He was the head of the union. The assembly in Corinth decided on a holy war with Persia. The reason for the war was revenge on the Persians for the fact that during the Greco-Persian wars they destroyed many temples of the Greeks.

But on the eve of the campaign against Persia, Philip was killed. His 20-year-old son Alexander became the new king of Macedonia. He led the campaign of the Macedonians and Greeks against the Persian state.

2. Campaigns of Alexander the Great. Alexander was brought up as a warrior from childhood. He not only learned to master weapons perfectly, but even in his youth gained experience in commanding troops. Alexander was not only a skilled warrior, but also a highly educated person. His teacher was the great Greek scientist Aristotle. The character of Alexander combined the riot and bloodthirstiness of a warrior and deep knowledge of various sciences about nature, man, literature, and art.

In the spring of 334 BC. Alexander, at the head of an army, landed on the coast of Asia Minor, not far from the place where Troy had once been. The Persians at first did not attach serious importance to declaring war on them. The army of the huge Persian state far outnumbered the army of Alexander. In addition, the Persian king considered Alexander just a boy, a boastful upstart.

And not the entire Persian army entered the first battle with Alexander, but only the troops of the governors of the Persian king in Asia Minor. The battle took place on the banks of the Granik River. Its outcome was unexpected for the Persians - they were utterly defeated.

Having won the first major victory, Alexander moved south along the Mediterranean coast. His plan was to capture the ports where the Persian fleet was based. Then the ships of the Persians would be left without supplies and reinforcements, and their sailors would have to surrender. Alexander announced that he was bringing freedom to the Greeks of Asia Minor from the rule of Persia, and in almost all the Greek cities of Asia Minor he was greeted enthusiastically as a liberator.

The frightened Persian king Darius III realized that Alexander could only be defeated by gathering all his strength. He personally led a huge army, gathered from all corners of a huge power. The army of Darius III moved to cut across the army of Alexander the Great, which was already on the outskirts of Phoenicia, where the main bases of the Persian fleet were located.

The battle took place on one of the October days of 333 BC. near the city of Issa in northern Syria. The Persians failed to either break through the Macedonian phalanx or encircle it. During the battle, Alexander with his horsemen broke through to the chariot of Darius. The young commander longed to fight the ruler of the Persians in a duel. But Darius III got scared and rode away from the battlefield, abandoning his army. The Persians suffered a crushing defeat. Alexander captured the mother, wife and daughters of Darius. The royal convoy with a huge amount of gold was also captured.

After the Battle of Issus, Alexander did not move deep into Persia, but continued his journey further south along the Mediterranean coast. With the inhabitants of the cities of Phenicia and Palestine, who did not want to surrender, he dealt with very cruelly - of those who survived, thousands of men were crucified on crosses, and women and children were sold into slavery.

In Egypt, Alexander the Great was greeted as a liberator from the hated Persian rule. The Egyptian priests proclaimed Alexander the son of the god Amon (the main god of the Egyptians) and honored him as a living god and pharaoh.

Having fulfilled his original plan to seize all the Mediterranean possessions of Persia, Alexander the Great decided to finally defeat this still strongest power of the East. The army of Macedonians and Greeks rested in Egypt in 331 BC. set out on a campaign deep into Persia.

Autumn 331 BC Alexander's army crossed the Tigris River and near the village of Gaugamela met in a decisive battle with the newly assembled Persian army. Darius III threw war chariots on the Macedonian phalanx, to the wheels of which sharp scythes were attached. But the chariots stumbled upon a forest of peaks put forward. The decisive blow was dealt by the Macedonian cavalry, in the ranks of which Alexander himself fought. Darius III fled again. Alexander rushed after him, but he got only the dead body of the ruler of the Persian state - the Persians themselves killed their king.

After this victory, Alexander easily conquered all of Persia, he met serious resistance only in Central Asia. Now Alexander the Great became the ruler of a huge power, which spread over three parts of the world: Europe (Macedonia and Greece), Africa (Egypt) and Asia. Many different peoples lived in this power, who not only spoke different languages, but also lived according to different customs. If, for example, the Greeks got used to freedom, equality in rights, then the Persians or Egyptians for centuries got used to living in submission to the ruler, whose will replaced the law for them.

Alexander the Great made ancient Babylon the capital of his vast state. He lived in a luxurious palace built by the Persian kings. He liked it when the Persians fell on their knees before him, and he forced the Macedonian and Greek soldiers to do the same. The freedom-loving warriors of Alexander considered such a humiliation insulting. They did not like the fact that Alexander left the local Persian rulers in power, and the fact that he began to recruit Persians into the army. Several conspiracies were organized against Alexander, but the king brutally cracked down on the conspirators.

Alexander the Great imagined himself the greatest of men. He demanded that the Greeks recognize him as a god. This was unheard of, but fearing reprisal, the Greeks agreed. The Spartans replied: "If Alexander wants to be a god, then let him be." But even this was not enough for Alexander the Great. He decided to become the ruler of the whole world inhabited by people. Back then, the Greeks knew little or nothing about other continents. The nearest country in the East was India. And there in 327 BC. Alexander went on his new campaign. At first he managed to win several victories, but then heavy rains began. In the streams of water, in the mud, the warriors made their way through the jungle with difficulty. Finally, the army rebelled and demanded that the king go back. Alexander had to agree. The return from India to Babylon through unfamiliar places proved to be a long and difficult undertaking. On the way back, many soldiers died from disease, hunger, thirst, attacks by local residents. He was wounded, and then Alexander himself fell seriously ill.

Shortly after returning to Babylon, Alexander the Great died, before reaching the age of 33. They had not yet had time to bury him, and Alexander's generals had already begun a struggle for power. The wars between them were long and brutal. During them, the mother, wife and son of the great commander were killed. And the huge power created by Alexander the Great fell apart into several new states, the kings of which were his generals and their descendants. The largest of these were the Macedonian (which included Greece), the Syrian and Egyptian kingdoms. In the new states in the East, the Greek language and Greek culture spread.