Sivukhin D.V. General course of physics.Volume V

Name: General course Physics - Volume 5 - Atomic and nuclear physics. 2002.

The fifth volume of the physics course, widely known in our country and abroad. The book was written on the basis of lectures given by the author to students of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology for a number of years. The focus is on clarifying physical sense and the content of the basic laws and concepts of atomic and nuclear physics, establishing the limits of applicability of these laws, developing students' physical thinking skills and the ability to set and solve specific problems.

Preface. 7
Chapter I .
Light quanta
1. Energy and momentum of a light quantum. nine
2. Photoelectric effect. fourteen
3. Compton effect. 26
4. Doppler effect during the movement of a light source in vacuum from a photon point of view. 34
5. Reflection and refraction of light in photon theory. Photons in the environment. 37
6. Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation. Doppler effect during the movement of a light source in a medium 40
7. Photons in a gravitational field. 44
8. Some experiments on detection corpuscular properties light 46
Chapter II .
Structure, energy levels and spectra of the atom
9. Nuclear model of the atom and Rutherford's experiments. fifty
10. Determination of the nuclear charge from X-ray scattering. 58
11. Spectral patterns. 61
12. Bohr's postulates. 64
13. Spectrum of hydrogen. 67
14. Experimental confirmation of Bohr's postulates. 79
15. Resonant glow and luminescence. 86
16. Fundamental shortcomings of Bohr's theory. 89
Chapter III .
Wave properties particles of matter
17. De Broglie's hypothesis. 92
18. Experimental confirmation de Broglie's hypothesis. 99
19. Statistical interpretation de Broglie waves and wave function. 109
20. Uncertainty relation. 117
Chapter IV.
Schrödinger equation. Quantization
21. Schrödinger equation. 128
22. Schrödinger equation and quantization. 133
23. Harmonic oscillator. 138
24. One-dimensional rectangular potential holes. 142
25. Quantization in the case of a spherically symmetric force field. 147
26. System of two interacting particles. 149
27. Quantization of a hydrogen-like atom in the spherically symmetric case. 153
28. Potential barriers. 157
29. To an explanation of the contact potential difference. Cold electron emission from metals 167
Chapter V
Further construction quantum mechanics and spectra
30. Operator method. 172
31. Angular moment of a particle. 181
32. Addition angular momentum. 190
33. Quantization of a hydrogen atom in general case. 195
34. Energy levels and spectral series of alkali metals. 199
35. Magnetism of atoms. . 207
36. Experiences of Stern and Gerlach. Spin of an electron. . 211
37. Sadowski effect and photon spin. . 217
38. Four quantum numbers electron and the fine structure of spectral terms 226
39. Selection rules for the emission and absorption of light. . 234
40. fine structure spectral lines of hydrogen and alkali metals 238
41. Simple and complex Zeeman effect. . 242
42. Magnetic resonance. . 250
43. Stark effect. . 259
44. Lamb shift of the levels of atomic electrons. . 263
45. physical vacuum and explanation of the Lamb shift. . 266
Chapter VI.
Atomic systems with many electrons
46. ​​The principle of identity of identical particles. Pauli principle. 270
47. Explanation periodic system chemical elements
D. I. Mendeleev. . 276
48. X-rays. . 285
49. Helium atom. 298
50. chemical bond. Hydrogen molecule. 307
51. Parahydrogen and orthohydrogen. 315
52. Molecular forces. 317
Chapter VII.
Some macroscopic quantum phenomena
53. Possible states of a particle in a limited volume. 322
54. Debye's theory of heat capacity of solids. 324
55. Types of bonds of atoms in solids. 331
56. Oscillations of atoms in a one-dimensional rectilinear chain. 333
57. Phonons and quasiparticles. 340
58. Energy zones in solids. 348
59. Band structure and Bloch waves. 354
60. Superfluidity. Experienced Facts. 365
61. The concept of the theory of superfluidity. 373
62. The concept of the theory of superconductivity. 381
Chapter VIII.
Static properties of the atomic nucleus
63. Introduction. 390
64. Binding energy of the nucleus. 400
65. Kernel dimensions. 410
66. Nuclear spin and hyperfine structure of spectral lines. 416
67. Influence of the nuclear spin on the Zeeman effect. 427
68. Measurements of spins and magnetic moments of nuclei by the method of magnetic resonance.
Experimental data on spins and magnetic moments nuclei. 429
69. Parity. Parity conservation law. 431
70. Electrical properties and shape of the nucleus. 437
Chapter IX.
Radioactivity
71. Introduction. 442
72. Laws radioactive decay. 450
73. Alpha decay. 455
74. Beta decay. 467
75. Gamma radiation of nuclei and internal conversion of electrons. 483
76. Mossbauer effect. . 487
Chapter X
Brief information about nuclear models
77. General information. 495
78. Shell model of the nucleus. 498
Chapter XI.
Passage of charged particles and gamma rays through matter
79. Introduction. 510
80. Passage of heavy charged particles through matter. 511
81. Passage of light charged particles through matter. 519
82. Passage of gamma quanta through matter. 524
83. Other manifestations of the interaction of nuclear particles with matter. 530
Chapter XII.
Sources and methods for detecting nuclear particles
84. Accelerators. 534
85. Sources of neutrons and other neutral particles. 555
86. Particle detectors. 560
Chapter XIII.
Nuclear reactions
87. Terminology and definitions. 575
88. Conservation laws in nuclear reactions. 579
89. Compound nucleus. 587
90. Nuclear reactions going through the compound nucleus. 590
91. Additional information about nuclear reactions. 594
Chapter XIV.
Neutrons and fission atomic nuclei
92. The history of the discovery of the neutron. 602
93. Fission of atomic nuclei. 606
94. Transuranium elements. 617
95. Chain reaction and nuclear reactors. 636
96. Natural nuclear reactor in Oklo. 649
97. Using antineutrinos for control nuclear reactor. 651
98. Thermonuclear problem. 654
99. Neutron optics. 669
Chapter XV.
Some questions of astrophysics
100. Energy sources of stars. 683
101. Some information from astronomy. 695
102. Brief information about the evolution of stars. 699
103. cosmic rays. 716
Chapter XVI.
Elementary particles
104. What are elementary particles. 733
105. Classification elementary particles. 736
106. Antiparticles. 739
107. Laws of conservation of energy and momentum and their applications. 742
108. Laws of conservation of electric, lepton and baryon charges. 749
109. Other conservation laws and quantum numbers. 753
110. Quark model of hadrons. 758
Tables. 766
Name index. 769
Subject index.

photoelectric effect.
1. One of the phenomena that confirms the photon hypothesis is the photoelectric effect, which we will now consider.

In 1887, Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894) discovered that illuminating the negative electrode of an energized spark gap with ultraviolet light makes it easier for a spark to jump between its electrodes. Busy at that time with studies of electromagnetic waves predicted by Maxwell, Hertz did not pay serious attention to this phenomenon. The first studies of the phenomenon belong to Halvaks (1859-1922), Riga (1850-1921) and in particular A. G. Stoletov (1839-1896).

The essence of the phenomenon discovered by Hertz is that when illuminated ultraviolet rays negatively charged metal body, it loses negative charge. When a positively charged body is illuminated with the same rays, no loss of charge is observed.

The fifth volume of the physics course, widely known in our country and abroad. The book was written on the basis of lectures given by the author to students of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology for a number of years. The main attention is paid to clarifying the physical meaning and content of the basic laws and concepts of atomic and nuclear physics, establishing the limits of applicability of these laws, developing students' physical thinking skills and the ability to set and solve specific problems.

The first edition of the fifth volume was published in two parts (in 1986 - the first part, in 1989 - the second).

For students of physical and mathematical faculties of universities, physical-technical and engineering-physical institutes, as well as universities where physics is the main discipline.

3rd edition, stereotypical.

Moscow: FIZMATLIT; MIPT Publishing House, 2006.

ISBN 5-9221-0645-7, 5-9221-0230-3, 5-89155-088-1, 5-9221-0229-X, 5-89155-077-6

Number of pages: 784.

The contents of the book "General course of physics. Volume V. Atomic and nuclear physics":

• 3 Table of contents
• 7 Foreword
• 9 Chapter I. Light quanta
  • 9 § 1. Energy and momentum of a light quantum
  • 14 § 2. Photoelectric effect
  • 26 § 3. Compton effect
  • 34 § 4. Doppler effect when a light source moves in a vacuum from a photon point of view
  • 37 § 5. Reflection and refraction of light in photon theory. Photons in the medium
  • 40 § 6. Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation. Doppler effect when a light source moves in a medium
  • 44 § 7. Photons in a gravitational field
  • 46 § 8. Some experiments on the detection of corpuscular properties of light
• 50 Chapter II. Structure, energy levels and spectra of the atom
  • 50 § 9. Nuclear model of the atom and Rutherford's experiments
  • 58 § 10. Determination of the nuclear charge from X-ray scattering
  • 61 § 11. Spectral regularities
  • 64 § 12. Bohr's postulates
  • 67 § 13. Spectrum of hydrogen
  • 79 § 14. Experimental confirmation of Bohr's postulates
  • 86 § 15. Resonant glow and luminescence
  • 89 § 16. Fundamental shortcomings of Bohr's theory
• 92 Chapter III. Wave properties of matter particles
  • 92 § 17. De Broglie's hypothesis
  • 99 § 18. Experimental confirmation of the de Broglie hypothesis
  • 109 § 19. Statistical interpretation of de Broglie waves and wave function
  • 117 § 20. Uncertainty relation
• 128 Chapter IV. Schrödinger equation. Quantization
  • 128 § 21. Schrödinger equation
  • 133 § 22. Schrödinger equation and quantization
  • 138 § 23. Harmonic oscillator
  • 142 § 24. One-dimensional rectangular potential wells
  • 147 § 25. Quantization in the case of a spherically symmetric force field
  • 149 § 26. System of two interacting particles
  • 153 § 27. Quantization of a hydrogen-like atom in the spherically symmetric case
  • 157 § 28. Potential barriers
  • 167 § 29. To an explanation of the contact potential difference. Cold electron emission from metals
• 172 Chapter V. Further construction of quantum mechanics and spectra
  • 172 § 30. Operator method
  • 181 § 31. Angular moment of a particle
  • 190 § 32. Addition of angular momenta
  • 195 § 33. Quantization of the hydrogen atom in the general case
  • 199 § 34. Energy levels and spectral series of alkali metals
  • 207 § 35. Magnetism of atoms
  • 211 § 36. Experiments of Stern and Gerlach. Electron spin
  • 217 § 37. Sadowski effect and photon spin
  • 226 § 38. Four quantum numbers of the electron and the fine structure of spectral terms
  • 234 § 39. Selection rules for the emission and absorption of light
  • 238 § 40. Fine structure of the spectral lines of hydrogen and alkali metals
  • 242 § 41. Simple and complex Zeeman effect
  • 250 § 42. Magnetic resonance
  • 259 § 43. Stark effect
  • 263 § 44. Lamb shift of the levels of atomic electrons
  • 266 § 45. Physical vacuum and explanation of the Lamb shift
• 270 Chapter VI. Atomic systems with many electrons
  • 270 § 46. The principle of identity of identical particles. Pauli principle
  • 276 § 47. Explanation of the periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev
  • 285 § 48. X-rays
  • 298 § 49. Helium atom
  • 307 § 50. Chemical bond. Hydrogen molecule
  • 315 § 51. Parahydrogen and orthohydrogen
  • 317 § 52. Molecular forces
• 322 Chapter VII. Some macroscopic quantum phenomena
  • 322 § 53. Possible states of a particle in a limited volume
  • 324 § 54. Debye's theory of heat capacity of solids
  • 331 § 55. Types of bonds of atoms in solids
  • 333 § 56. Oscillations of atoms in a one-dimensional rectilinear chain
  • 340 § 57. Phonons and quasiparticles
  • 348 § 58. Energy bands in solids
  • 354 § 59. Band structure and Bloch waves
  • 365 § 60. Superfluidity. Experienced Facts
  • 373 § 61. The concept of the theory of superfluidity
  • 381 § 62. The concept of the theory of superconductivity
• 390 Chapter VIII. Static properties of the atomic nucleus
  • 390 § 63. Introduction
  • 400 § 64. Binding energy of the nucleus
  • 410 § 65. Dimensions of the core
  • 416 § 66. Nuclear spin and hyperfine structure of spectral lines
  • 427 § 67. Influence of the nuclear spin on the Zeeman effect
  • 429 § 68. Measurements of spins and magnetic moments of nuclei by the method of magnetic resonance. Experimental data on spins and magnetic moments of nuclei
  • 431 § 69. Parity. Parity conservation law
  • 437 § 70. Electrical properties and shape of the nucleus
• 442 Chapter IX. Radioactivity
  • 442 § 71. Introduction
  • 450 § 72. Laws of radioactive decay
  • 455 § 73. Alpha decay
  • 467 § 74. Beta decay
  • 483 § 75. Gamma radiation of nuclei and internal conversion of electrons
  • 487 § 76. Mossbauer effect
• 495 Chapter X. Brief information about nuclear models
  • 495 § 77. General information
  • 498 § 78. Shell model of the nucleus
• 510 Chapter XI. Passage of charged particles and gamma rays through matter
  • 510 § 79. Introduction
  • 511 § 80. Passage of heavy charged particles through matter
  • 519 § 81. Passage of light charged particles through matter
  • 524 § 82. Passage of gamma quanta through matter
  • 530 § 83. Other manifestations of the interaction of nuclear particles with matter
• 534 Chapter XII. Sources and methods for detecting nuclear particles
  • 534 § 84. Accelerators
  • 555 § 85. Sources of neutrons and other neutral particles
  • 560 § 86. Particle detectors
• 575 Chapter XIII. Nuclear reactions
  • 575 § 87. Terminology and definitions
  • 579 § 88. Conservation laws in nuclear reactions
  • 587 § 89. Compound kernel
  • 590 § 90. Nuclear reactions going through a compound nucleus
  • 594 § 91. Additional information about nuclear reactions
• 602 Chapter XIV. Neutrons and nuclear fission
  • 602 § 92. The history of the discovery of the neutron
  • 606 § 93. Fission of atomic nuclei
  • 617 § 94. Transuranic elements
  • 636 § 95. Chain reaction and nuclear reactors
  • 649 § 96. Natural nuclear reactor in Oslo
  • 651 § 97. Use of antineutrinos to control a nuclear reactor
  • 654 § 98. Thermonuclear problem
  • 669 § 99. Neutron optics
• 683 Chapter XV. Some questions of astrophysics
  • 683 § 100. Energy sources of stars
  • 695 § 101. Some information from astronomy
  • 699 § 102. Brief information about the evolution of stars
  • 716 § 103. Cosmic rays
• 733 Chapter XVI. Elementary particles
  • 733 § 104. What are elementary particles
  • 736 § 105. Classification of elementary particles
  • 739 § 106. Antiparticles
  • 742 § 107. Laws of conservation of energy and momentum and their applications
  • 749 § 108. Laws of conservation of electric, lepton and baryon charges
  • 753 § 109. Other conservation laws and quantum numbers
  • 758 § 110. Quark model of hadrons
• 766 tables
• 769 name index
• 773 Subject index

Foreword
CHAPTER I QUANTUM OF LIGHT
§ 1. Energy and momentum of a light quantum
§ 2. Photoelectric effect
§ 3. Compton effect
§ 4. Doppler effect when a light source moves in vacuum from a photon point of view
§ 5. Reflection and refraction of light in photon theory. Photons in the medium
§ 6. Vavilov-Cherenkov radiation. Doppler effect when a light source moves in a medium
§ 7. Photons in a gravitational field
§ 8. Some experiments on the detection of corpuscular properties of light
CHAPTER II STRUCTURE, ENERGY LEVELS AND SPECTRA OF THE ATOM
§ 9. Nuclear model of the atom and Rutherford's experiments
§ 10. Determination of the nuclear charge from X-ray scattering
§ 11. Spectral regularities
§ 12. Bohr's postulates
§ 13. Spectrum of hydrogen
§ 14. Experimental confirmation of Bohr's postulates
§ 15. Resonant glow and luminescence
§ 16. Fundamental shortcomings of Bohr's theory
CHAPTER III WAVE PROPERTIES OF PARTICLES OF SUBSTANCE
§ 17. De Broglie's hypothesis
§ 18. Experimental confirmation of the de Broglie hypothesis
§ 19. Statistical interpretation of de Broglie waves and wave function
§ 20. Uncertainty relation
CHAPTER IV THE SCHROEDINGER EQUATION. QUANTIZATION
§ 21. Schrödinger equation
§ 22. Schrödinger equation and quantization
§ 23. Harmonic oscillator
§ 24. One-dimensional, rectangular potential wells
§ 25. Quantization in the case of a spherically symmetric force field
§ 26. System of two interacting particles
§ 27. Quantization of a hydrogen-like atom in the spherically symmetric case
§ 28. Potential barriers
§ 29. To an explanation of the contact potential difference. Cold electron emission from metals
CHAPTER V FURTHER MOOD OF QUANTUM MECHANICS AND SPECTRA
§ 30. Operator method
§ 31. Angular moment of a particle
§ 32. Addition of angular momenta
§ 33. Quantization of the hydrogen atom in the general case
§ 34. Energy levels and spectral series of alkali metals
§ 35. Magnetism of atoms
§ 36. Experiments of Stern and Gerlach. Electron spin
§ 37. Sadowski effect and photon spin
§ 38. Four quantum numbers of the electron and the fine structure of spectral terms
§ 39. Selection rules for the emission and absorption of light
§ 40. Fine structure of the spectral lines of hydrogen and alkali metals
§ 41. Simple and complex Zeeman effect
§ 42. Magnetic resonance
§ 43. Stark effect
§ 44. Lamb shift of the levels of atomic electrons
§ 45. Physical vacuum and explanation of the Lamb shift
CHAPTER VI ATOMIC SYSTEMS WITH MANY ELECTRONS
§ 46. The principle of identity of identical particles. Pauli principle
§ 47. Explanation of the periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev
§ 48. X-rays
§ 49. Helium atom
§ 50. Chemical bond. Hydrogen molecule
§ 51. Parahydrogen and orthohydrogen
§ 52. Molecular forces
CHAPTER VII SOME MACROSCOPIC QUANTUM PHENOMENA
§ 53. Possible states of a particle in a limited volume
§ 54. Debye's theory of heat capacity of solids
§ 55. Types of bonds of atoms in solids
§ 56. Oscillations of atoms in a one-dimensional rectilinear chain
§ 57. Phonons and quasiparticles
§ 58 Energy bands in solids
§ 59. Band structure and Bloch waves
§ 60. Superfluidity. Experienced Facts
§ 61. The concept of the theory of superfluidity
§ 62. The concept of the theory of superconductivity
name index
Subject index

We must now describe the laws or rules governing the possible combinations of vectors. First of all, this is the addition of vectors. Let a be a vector in some coordinate system with components another vector with components. Now let's make three new numbers. Do they form a vector? Atomic and nuclear physics. Sivukhin D.V. We could say, "Of course, there are three numbers here, and the three numbers form a vector." No, not any three numbers form a vector! To get a vector, you need to associate three numbers with some coordinate system in such a way that when the coordinate system is rotated, these three numbers “rotate” one relative to the other, “mix” according to the rules that we have already described. So the question is: if we rotate the coordinate system, and in doing so, goes to goes to, what will it go to? Will it go to or not? Atomic and nuclear physics. Sivukhin D.V. The answer is of course yes, because the original transformation described by the equations is what we call linear transformation. If we apply this transformation to get we will find that the transformation is indeed the same. “Adding” the vectors a and b according to the rule just described, we get a new vector. You can write this as a Vector with an interesting property. which can be obtained from its components. It is also true that We can add vectors in any order. Atomic and nuclear physics. Sivukhin D.V. What geometric meaning amounts? Suppose that are depicted as straight lines on a piece of paper. How will it look like with? The answer is shown in We see that it is easiest to stack the a components with the components if you arrange the rectangles representing these components as shown in the figure. Since b fits exactly into its rectangle as well as into its own, it would be the same as fitting the tail to the head, then the arrow from the tail of a to the head would be the vector c. You can do otherwise: combine the "tail" and with the "head. According to geometric properties parallelogram we get the same result for c. Note that vectors can be added in a similar way without the help of coordinate axes. Suppose we have multiplied some vector a by some number a, what does this mean? Let us agree to understand this as a new vector with components. We leave the proof that this is indeed a vector to the students. Atomic and nuclear physics. Sivukhin D.V. Now consider the subtraction of vectors. We can define subtraction in the same way as addition, only the components are not added, but subtracted. Or we can define subtraction by introducing the concept of a negative vector and then adding the components. Both methods will give the same result shown in. It can be seen from the figure that we also note that, knowing, the difference is easy to easily find from the equivalent ratio. So the difference is even easier to find than the sum: to get it, we just draw a vector! Now let's talk about speed. Why is speed a vector? If the position is given by three coordinates, then the speed is given by derivatives. Is it a vector or not? By differentiating the expressions in, we can determine the transformation law. We see that the components are indeed transformed according to the same law. Therefore, the derivative of a vector is a vector. So speed is a vector. We can write speed in this interesting form: What is speed, and why it is a vector, can be understood with a more vivid example. How far can a particle travel in a short amount of time? Answer: on, because if the particle is “here” at one moment of time and “there” at another, then the difference in positions is equal to a vector and is directed along the direction of motion, as shown in. Dividing this difference by a period of time, we get the “average speed” vector. Atomic and nuclear physics. Sivukhin D.V. In other words, by the velocity vector we mean the limit of the difference of the radius vectors at moments, divided by, tending to zero. So speed is a vector because it is equal to the difference of two vectors. This is also true because the speed components are. Thinking about this, we come to the conclusion that if we differentiate any vector with respect to time, we get a new vector. Atomic and nuclear physics. Sivukhin D.V. So, we have several ways to get new vectors: multiplication by a constant, differentiation with respect to time, addition or subtraction of two vectors.