Is an emoticon a punctuation mark or a feeling? I will repeat just one important thing. There are a lot of emoticons. There are also many dictionaries for many emoticons, especially for graphic emoticons. However, there is not and cannot be a complete and definitive dictionary. One by one

Pedagogization of love in Russian XIX culture century and in early Soviet culture In Russian XIX literature century, the emergence and development of love plots is significantly connected with the problem of written medialization, with the medium of writing. Tatiana's letter to Onegin can serve

WHAT IS GOOD AND WHAT IS BAD NECESSARY, ALTHOUGH “OTHERS” It is useful to know a lot about good and bad speech. These notes have so far spoken of its correctness, purity, accuracy and richness. But, apparently, there are other qualities of it? And maybe these “and others” are no less

Introduction

1. The role of symbols and signs in cultural studies

3. Logic of signs and symbols

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

In visual symbols, form is more directly related to meaning than in verbal language. The existence of visual and verbal communication systems presupposes their interaction; a symbol in culture acquires a certain verbal explanation, a mythologem. Visual symbols, due to their direct impact on consciousness, have a kind of “magic”. It is no coincidence that visual symbols in ancient cultures were represented as emanations of the highest spheres of existence.

Currently, interest in symbolism is due to the popularity of heraldic and other signs, as well as the spread of advertising that actively uses traditional symbols.

The relevance of this topic is currently due to the increased interest in symbolism, symbol as a subject of philosophical, historical-cultural, semantic, and psychoanalytic analysis. In this context, the study of the cross as one of the most important symbols revealed in different cultures, is of particular interest and provides material for broader theoretical and empirical generalizations regarding the role and functioning of symbols in culture. Such research has practical significance.

1. The role of symbols and signs in cultural studies

In cultural studies, the concept of symbols and signs is used in the sense of the service role of a particular system, for example, culture or its elements, in the context of satisfying certain needs of people. Culture is functional in nature. She always has to “work” for something. Not supported by human efforts and not consumed by him, it collapses, fades and perishes.

The main function of culture is to be a means creative creation artifacts. Artifacts are products and results of human activity, objects and phenomena artificially created by man (artifact - from the Latin arte - artificial and factus - made). The world of artifacts is the artificial human environment, “second nature,” satisfying the most diverse needs of people. Unlike objects and natural phenomena, artifacts have not only objective properties, but also subjective significance or value for humans. Man creates values ​​with the help of culture.

An object has value if a person sees in it a means of satisfying his needs; if he does not see it, then the object has no value or has a negative value - anti-value. Typically, values ​​are divided into material (home, clothing, equipment, etc.) and spiritual (truth, beauty, goodness, faith, hope, love, etc.).

Among the artifacts there are those that convey information not about themselves, their significance and value, but about other objects. They say about them that they have meanings, meanings, and they are called signs or symbols. The world of culture is not only a world of values, but also signs, a world of symbols.

2. Topology of symbols and signs

The definition of a sign is based on the following formula: X understands and uses Y as a representative of Z. In this formula, X is the one who uses the sign (sign user) and participates in the communication process. Anything can act as Y and Z, but Y must be perceived, i.e. must actually be a material object.

In the logical-philosophical tradition, dating back to C. Morris and R. Carnap, a sign is understood as the object Y itself, i.e. a material carrier, or representative of Z. In the linguistic tradition, dating back to F. de Saussure and the late works of L. Hjelmslev, a sign is called a pair, i.e. some two-sided entity. In this case, following Saussure, Y is called the “signifier” of the sign, and Z is its “signified.” A synonym for “signifier” is the term “form” or “plane of expression”, and the terms “plane of content” (“content”), “meaning” and sometimes “meaning” are also used as synonyms for “signified”.

Signs include, for example, words, road signs, money, awards, insignia, signals, gestures and much more.

The sign plays a key role in semiosis (sign process). Semiosis is defined as a certain dynamic situation that includes a certain set of components. Semiosis is based on the intention of person A to convey message C to person B. Person A is called the sender of the message, person B is its recipient, or addressee. The sender selects the medium D (or communication channel) through which the message will be transmitted, and the code D. Code D, in particular, specifies the correspondence between the signified and the signifier, i.e. specifies a set of characters. The code must be chosen in such a way that the required message can be composed using the appropriate signifiers. The environment and the signifiers of the code must also fit together. The code must be known to the recipient, and the environment and signifiers must be accessible to his perception. Thus, perceiving the signifiers sent by the sender, the recipient, using a code, translates them into signifieds and thereby receives the message.

A special case of semiosis is speech communication (or speech act), and a special case of code is natural language. Then the sender is called the speaker, the receiver is called the listener, or also the addressee, and the signs are called linguistic signs. Code (and language as well) is a system that includes the structure of signs and the rules for its operation. The structure, in turn, consists of the signs themselves and the relationships between them (sometimes they also talk about the rules of combination).

There are a significant number of classifications of signs based on differences in form, content, connection between form and content and other parameters. To this day, the classic (introduced by C.S. Peirce) division of signs into three groups retains its significance: icons, indices and symbols. This classification is based on the typology of the relationship between form and content. Thus, icons (or iconic signs) are signs whose form and content are similar qualitatively or structurally. For example, a battle painting or a battle plan are icon signs if we consider the battle itself to be their content. Indexes (or indexical signs) are signs whose form and content are adjacent in space or time. Footprints in the sand suggesting that someone has passed through the area previously, smoke suggesting the presence of fire, symptoms of illness suggesting illness itself are all indexical signs. Apparently, it would be more accurate to talk not about the contiguity of form and content, as is traditionally accepted, but about the presence of certain cause-and-effect relationships between them. Finally, symbols (or symbolic signs) are signs for which the connection between form and content is established arbitrarily, according to an agreement relating specifically to a given sign. For iconic and indexical signs, the form allows even the addressee who is not familiar with it to guess the content of the sign. As for symbolic signs, their form itself, i.e. outside a special agreement, does not give any idea of ​​the content. F. de Saussure spoke in this case about the unmotivated choice of a signifier or the absence of a natural connection between the signified and the signifier. For example, the addition sign “+” has nothing to do with this arithmetic operation itself: neither similarity, nor contiguity, nor cause-and-effect relationships. Their connection is arbitrary in the sense that it is determined by a special agreement or convention that stipulates the use of the corresponding icon to convey a given meaning.

Among linguistic signs, the vast majority are symbols. This allowed F. de Saussure to talk about the arbitrariness of the linguistic sign. There is little in common between the meanings of the Russian, English and German languages ​​stol, table and Tisch, although they all mean the same thing: “table”. Arbitrariness does not mean, however, freedom to choose the form of a sign in general, since within the framework of one sign system this choice is limited: for example, in English the corresponding meaning is expressed by the word table and no other. The very connection between the signified and the signifier is arbitrary, established and determined by linguistic convention, and not by any natural causes.

However, languages ​​also have words whose signifiers are similar to the signified (i.e., iconic signs). These are onomatopoeias, or ideophones: i-go-go, meow-meow, br-r-r, apchhi, etc. Not only a word can be an iconic sign. Thus, according to R.O. Yakobson, the word order in the phrase “I came, I saw, I conquered” is iconic because linear order words repeats the sequence of corresponding actions.

Indexical linguistic signs traditionally include personal and demonstrative pronouns and some others. pronominal words(I, you, this, here, now, etc.). This is done by analogy with gestures, although it is hardly appropriate to talk about contiguity or cause-and-effect relationships here.

According to the way the signifier is perceived, signs are divided into visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory. In human communication, the first three types are mainly used. Thus, linguistic signs belong to the first or second type (written and oral forms). Visual signs also include traffic lights, traffic controllers, road signs, facial expressions, gestures, postures, etc. Among the auditory signs one can note horns and sirens, bells (telephone, school, etc.), firing of a starting pistol, etc. The category of tactile signs includes, for example, touching gestures: patting, squeezing, stroking, etc. For blind and deaf people, this type of signs becomes the main one. Olfactory signs play a special role in the communication of many animal species. For example, bears and other wild animals mark their habitats with clumps of scent-bearing fur to scare off intruders and show that the area is already occupied.

According to the duration of existence of the signifier, signs are divided into instantaneous and long-term (stable). To instant ones, i.e. those that disappear immediately after use include, for example, spoken words, while written words are long-lasting signs. Among the classifications that define the typology of the content of signs, the main one should be considered the division of signs into words and sentences, which is especially important for natural language. In accordance with the structure, simple (elementary) and complex (non-elementary) signs are distinguished.

As a rule, in communication, not individual signs are used, but their combinations, which are called sign systems. The combination of signs into a system is based on several criteria: common functions, similarity of forms and similarity of structures. A sign system consists of a set of elementary signs, relationships between them, rules for their combination, as well as rules of operation. Thus, a natural language, with some coarsening, can be considered as a set of words that are in certain relationships with each other (dictionary and grammar), rules for combining words (syntax), as well as rules of operation (for example, various pragmatic and communicative postulates).

Sign systems include natural languages, programming languages, the monetary system, sign language, etc. When communicating sign systems can interact. In progress verbal communication Usually, not only language is used, but also gestures and facial expressions, and the signs of different sign systems correlate with each other in a certain way.

The relationships that exist between signs in a sign system are called paradigmatic. Among the most important paradigmatic relationships are synonymy, homonymy, etc. Along with paradigmatic relationships between signs, there is another type of relationship - syntagmatic. Syntagmatic are the relationships between signs that arise in the process of their combination. It is syntagmatic relations that ensure the existence of the text - the result of the action of the sign system in the process of communication

The word “symbol” (from the Greek “sign, identifying mark”) is a sign, that is, any object, phenomenon, verbal or plastic image that has some meaning different from its own content. In a symbol, this “other”, meaning, meaning is value. The meanings of any other signs relate either to things and objects of the real physical world, or to phenomena of mental and spiritual life (concepts, ideas, feelings, etc.). The meaning of symbols indicates the significance, value of these phenomena both for an individual person (individual symbols) and for small and large groups people, peoples, states, humanity as a whole. The image of a seagull on the curtain of the Moscow Art Theater is a symbol of this theater group; the Volga River can be perceived not just as one of the rivers, but also as a symbol of Russia, understood in all the richness and diversity of its historical destiny; national flags, coats of arms, anthems - all these are symbolic signs of the historical dignity of states; a dove (and the image of a dove) can be perceived as a symbol of a value important to all humanity - peace.

Among the ancient Greeks, the word “symbol” meant any material sign that had a conditional secret meaning for a certain group of people, for example, for fans of Cybele, Mithras. Symbols were also called insignia of state, public and religious associations. When Christianity and many secret religious societies (heresies) arose, symbols began to be called password signs by which like-minded people recognized each other (for example, the sign of the fish). The expression “symbol of faith” is attached to a brief presentation of the foundations of the secret teaching.

The symbol is still used in a similar sense to the above. In addition, in mathematics, logic and other sciences, a symbol means the same as a conventional sign. The ambiguous use of the word "symbol" makes it difficult to give it general definition, establish how it differs from other signs. The closest thing to understanding the specifics of a symbol is the interpretation of artistic symbols.

The value nature of the meaning of symbols distinguishes it from all other types of signs - from conventional signs, indicator signs, emblematic signs (or emblems), from pictorial (iconic) signs, or images, from allegorical sign structures, etc. All these signs, functioning in for their intended purpose, they carry information of a conceptual, semantic, but not value nature. In those cases where they are used to express value, they acquire symbolic meaning. The direct purpose of the image of a seagull on the curtain at the Moscow Art Theater is to be an emblem, that is, to convey information that this theater is the Moscow Art Theater and nothing else. When the perceiver comprehends this image and experiences it as a sign of the glorious history of this theater, it acts as a symbol for him.

The value of a symbol is an indissoluble fusion of intellectual, ideological principles and emotional assessment. The idea and feeling in a symbol are generalized. They act as a constructive principle, a law that determines infinite set private manifestation of symbolic content. It is impossible to reveal the content of the Volga as a symbol of Russia or the Moscow Art Theater seagull either with any one concept or judgment or in a separate way. A diverse and indefinite set of such concepts, statements and images is required, but not random and chaotic, but determined by the ideological and emotional core of the symbol. The inexhaustibility of the content of a symbol determines its semantic depth and perspective. When interpreting a symbol, there always remains an “irrational” residue, that is, one that does not allow for a definite and complete verbal expression. In this respect, the symbol resembles a riddle, a task that has no answer. This answer is not given, but asked.

Unlike a symbol, all other types of signs allow for a completely rational and definite, sometimes unambiguous, interpretation of their meaning. In conventional signs, this is a defined (according to agreement) concept. For example, in mathematics, signs such as integral or differential have an unambiguous definition. The emblem in the form of a bowl and a snake definitely indicates that we are talking about a pharmacy. A figurative sign, for example a photocopy, clearly indicates what is depicted and nothing else.

A symbol is often confused with an allegory, because it contains an evaluative moment, generalization and some ambiguity. But the assessment and generalization in it are of a rational nature, and not emotional, and therefore allow close to unambiguous verbal formulation of the idea contained in it, for example, a moral commandment in a fable. The fabulist often formulates it separately from the image and in a completely abstract form. For example, S. Mikhalkov’s fable The Elephant Painter contains the idea that you can’t please everyone, The Fox and the Beaver - that you shouldn’t leave old wives and get involved with young women, The drunken hare - against fawning, Ivan Ivanovich fell ill - against conceit. It’s another matter when a fable, like Krylov’s, grows to the level of a highly artistic image, then it acquires the features of a perfect artistic symbol.

The originality of a symbol is connected not only with the peculiarity of its meaning, meaning, but also with the nature of its outside- “meaning”. Unlike conventional signs, a symbol is a motivated sign. The signifying side of a symbol is always somehow connected with what it means, has some similarity with it, sometimes very indirect, associative. A wedding ring as a symbol of reliability and strength (in principle, eternity) of one’s marriage external form indicates what it symbolizes. The Volga as a symbol of Russia owes this role not only to its historical destiny in the life of the country, but also to its physical, natural qualities such as deep water, breadth, and scope. The cross as a symbol of Christianity reproduces the cross on which Christ was crucified, etc. Motivation is inherent not only in a symbol, but also in other signs - an image, an allegory, many emblems, but in a symbol it helps to express the emotional assessment contained in it.

The noted features of the meaning of a symbol determine the inextricable, unique connection between the sign (“signifier”) and the meaning. If the meaning of a conventional sign, allegory, or emblem can be conveyed by another sign (for example, instead of a bowl and a snake, the inscription “pharmacy”), then the meaning of the symbol and its “meaning” side constitute one fused whole. The signifier in a symbol cannot be replaced by anything else without damaging the meaning. Therefore, it is more correct to say that the meaning in a symbol is not denoted, but expressed. The symbol can rightfully be called an expressive sign.

When interpreting a conventional sign (as well as an allegory, an emblem), a psychological transition occurs from external to internal, from signifier to signified, to meaning. This transition is carried out on the basis of an associative connection. First, the signifier is perceived and recognized, and then its meaning is associated with it on the basis of an agreement, a contract. The transition from sign to meaning is especially clearly realized during the first acquaintance with a sign, for example, when teaching a foreign language. Over time, when a skill (habit) is formed, the transition is not realized, but it does not cease to exist. The difficulties that arise when “reading” and recognizing the “signifying” side remind us of it.

The meaning of a symbol is perceived, understood, experienced without a transition from signifier to signified. It is “grabbed” immediately, entirely with the help of intuition. From this point of view, a symbol is an intuitive sign. It cannot be deciphered by rational thought.

Depending on the nature of the value, different types of symbols are distinguished. These can be historical symbols (for example, the Borodino field as a symbol of the military glory of Russian weapons, the tomb of Napoleon as a symbol of the greatness of France, etc.), religious (cross, icons, relics of saints, etc.), mythological (the myth of Prometheus as a symbol of human self-affirmation in the fight against aliens external forces etc.), ideological and propaganda (programs, slogans, appeals, constitutions, etc.), moral ( White color as a symbol of moral purity, etc.), artistic (works of art, especially monumental). The peculiarity of a work of art as an artistic symbol is that the most important and integral component of its value is its aesthetic quality. Whatever the content of a work of art, it always, if it is genuine art, simultaneously acts as a symbol of beauty, beauty, harmony. Any symbol, due to its characteristics, functions in society not just as a sign carrying information. This is a sign that acts as a constructive principle of human actions and volitional aspiration.

The confrontation between Slavophilism and Westernism, Europeanism and Eurasianism. Tasks. Questions. Answers. 1. How did the formation of different cultural schools take place? 2. Who is the founder of cultural studies? 3. The teaching of which specialists and who exactly contributed to the formation of social historical school in cultural studies? 4. What are the similarities and differences between views...

These are also unique historical creations, surrounded by space-time frames, which are differentiated by the nature of their relationship to the world of nature, marriage, and humanity itself. In line with the culturological approach, civilization is viewed as a socio-cultural creation, the basis of which is formed by a unique homogeneous culture, which is a kind of “crosslink” of culture and marriage. Try to understand the concept of “...

One of the most characteristic tools of culture is the symbol. Everyone encounters symbols in real life. However, one should agree with the opinion that this is a polysemantic concept that is still not sufficiently clarified. Here's how the Encyclopedia Britannica defines a symbol: “a symbol is a communication element designed to simply represent or stand in for some complex person, object, group or idea. The symbol can be represented graphically, as a cross for Christianity, a red cross or a crescent for medical institutions and organizations in Christian or Muslim countries; personified as the human figures of Marianne, John Bull and Uncle Sam, symbolizing France, England and the USA respectively; it may include or consist entirely of letters, like the letter K for chemical element potassium; finally, it can be assigned arbitrarily, like mathematical symbol infinity or the $ symbol for dollar...". In other words, the symbol must evoke associations with or represent something.
For some symbols, the ability to symbolize, that is, to represent something else, is based on natural similarity: large predators have symbolized strength and power since ancient times. Other symbols acquired this ability thanks to an agreement between people: this applies, for example, to the national flags of most countries.
The symbol in culture is used in the widest possible way: in science and education (optimizing the understanding and description of various objects, recording information, collapsing information), education and training, in magic, in religious cults, in everyday life (for example, road signs, entrance and exit designations ) and so on. Apparently, the oldest prototypes of modern symbols were fetishes.
As culture develops, the scope of symbols, as well as their variety and forms, are constantly changing. Accordingly, their role and significance in the life of society is transformed. It can be assumed that from the very beginning of the formation of society and man, in conditions of extreme lack of knowledge about the world, within the framework of the mythological worldview, the number of symbols and their meaning for survival and life ancient family(later - tribe, nome or polis) constantly increased. In ancient times, many of the most significant and popular symbols have already been found, which in their original or transformed form have “survived” to our time and continue to function in the most various fields activities, first of all - in religious, in general in the regulation of social life and in management. These are well-known religious symbols (for Christians - icons, crosses, crucifixes, bread and wine of the Eucharist, etc.), state symbols (flags, coats of arms, crowns, regalia of the monarch, national anthems, state seals), uniforms of government and other public servants and etc.
The development of technology and science leads to the emergence of rationalism and the expansion of its influence in the life of society. Rationalization of culture, of all social existence, limits the scope of applicability of symbols in culture. As rationalism spreads, the functions of symbols remain in demand in the ever-narrowing space of activity. More and more often, symbols are evolving into signs that are perceived purely formally. This process has reached completion in the so-called exact sciences and in modernized societies, especially in Western countries. People take advantage of this various signs, signs, emblems, without thinking that these images could have previously been symbols. Therefore, in various specific situations, the same artifacts function as either symbols or ordinary signs. For example, a national flag may simply indicate which country a certain object belongs to, or it may be perceived as a symbol of the corresponding state. Then they can, for example, burn it as a sign of hatred or insult, or, conversely, take risks and even sacrifice own life for his salvation.

Symbols are extremely important in those areas of life and activity where irrational components are present. These are occult practices, religious cults, artistic culture (and above all art), as well as those areas of existence that are associated with public and personal feelings and emotions(gender relations, patriotism, nationalism, etc.). Symbols are well known in areas of activity related to public administration, the functioning of the state, the organization and regulation of public life, and in general with power in society. One should, apparently, agree with the well-known idea that power has sacred, irrational components in its foundations (see, for example, N. Berdyaev). It is this specificity of power that determines its need for symbols. Here, through symbols, identification, confirmation, and legitimization of the status of government officials is often carried out, that is, demonstration and justification of the right to govern, make decisions and demands to obey, carry out orders and instructions (various kinds of accessories, uniforms, seals, signs, etc.). Symbols support connections between the state and society, a group, an individual, and form corresponding attitudes and experiences through emotions (national and state flags, colors, emblems, etc.). The mechanism of the functioning of symbols here relies precisely on the irrational sphere, on the essentially magical belief in the identity of the symbol and what it symbolizes. Symbols, finally, organically enter into the picture of the world and perform ideological functions. In this capacity they also constitute important part cultures regulate people's behavior.

Myth in culture

One of the oldest components of any local culture is the system of myths. Arising during the implementation of one of the most important human potentials, imagination, myths perform many important functions in society, largely determining thinking and regulating people’s behavior. K.G. Jung believed that myths constitute the content of the collective unconscious in any society. Myths are a type of illusion. They can arise spontaneously, and also be created purposefully to manipulate consciousness and, through it, people’s behavior.
Myth-making is a property of human consciousness in general. Myth is formed in its original forms in the subconscious and consciousness of a person; it is close to his biological nature. Myth arises on the basis of a person’s abilities (potentialities) to believe and imagine, to fantasize. Myth-making satisfies one of the fundamental and most burning human needs, namely the need to understand and explain the world, creating a picture of it. This need arises because a person is endowed with intellect and consciousness. When there are no objective, rational grounds, a person explains the world with the help of emotions, imitation, etc. Using fantasies and imagination, as well as the ability (potency) to believe, a person explains to himself a variety of phenomena and processes in nature and in society, assigns symbolic meanings to various objects and phenomena.
Mythological consciousness is incapable of being critical of itself and the content of the myth; it does not understand that the myth was created by people in a certain society. In addition, mythological consciousness simply does not perceive that which does not correspond to the content of the myth or directly contradicts it. A common universal feature of mythology is intolerance in the struggle of opinions in society.

What is a myth?

The process of creating a myth begins when a person realizes the necessity or inevitability of something, or when he has a strong desire to change something in the world around him. But due to a lack of knowledge about the world, he has to rely mainly on imagination, fiction, and a fantastic picture of reality to bring about these desired changes. Mythology, myth are specific images, an illusory model of true reality. In other words, myth is a symbolic, transformed form of reality, one of the symbolic forms of culture, created by imagination and rethinking of reality, like the creation of art (See: Cashier. Le myth de l "Etat. P. 7-12.) At the same time, myth represents truth for humans.
The word “myth” comes from the Greek mythos, which in ancient times meant “word”, “statement”, “history”, “fiction”. Myth is always associated with religious rituals and beliefs. This is a story whose author is often unknown. Myth usually explains customs, traditions, faith, social institutions, various cultural phenomena or natural phenomena, relying on supposedly factual events. Myths tell, for example, about the beginning of the world, how people and animals were created, where and how some customs, gestures, norms, etc. originated. Myths offer models of human behavior, social institutions, or universal circumstances.
Myths arise when a person is forced to explain the world to himself without having scientific knowledge about yourself and your Universe. This is exactly how things were in the Stone Age (see below).
The literature states: ancient myths express faith in the dependence of this world on mysterious otherworldly forces, in what is sensual given to a person the world actually has its basis and cause outside its limits - in another dimension. This faith naturally gives rise to the conviction that with the help of otherworldly forces one can free oneself from the forces that are sense-given and directly dominant in the real world.
This conviction arises because myths remove the distinction between the present material world and the transcendental. The myth unites the space in which gods and all supernatural forces and beings exist with the sensually perceived environment of human life, so that the otherworldly of God is simply represented as a very distant distance. Everything divine is equated in ideas with the ordinary human, worldly. Magical procedures and cult actions are perceived as a technology for mastering immaterial forces with the help of material means.
Myths are a special awareness and explanation of the world and human existence in the world. The specificity of the most ancient primordial myths is that a person inscribes supernatural forces into the familiar, sensually accessible world, directly connects the transcendental with his life, with everyday possibilities, motives and emotions. This is how ideas arise that thunder is the sound from the chariot of St. Nicholas the Pleasant, or about the world tree, the world egg, about the battles of the gods that led to the world order familiar to us. As R. Bultmann writes, “Myth speaks of the non-worldly in a worldly way, and of the gods in a human way.”
The action of mythical stories takes place in a different time than usual. This is a “different” time. “Other” and the space in which mythical characters act. Finally, these characters themselves are most often gods and similar supernatural beings, and incredible things and miracles often happen in mythical stories. Myths are religious.
Myths are similar to fairy tales, they are often confused. However, these are different things. The myth is not subject to doubt; people believe in its truth. As long as a myth remains a myth, people worship the gods it tells about. So called folk tales- these are those myths that remained in the memory of people after faith in the truth of these myths disappeared, when they ceased to be part of religion, and they stopped praying to the gods represented in them. Therefore, such myths begin to be perceived as fiction, fun, that is, they become fairy tales.
Myths are often classified by their themes. The most common are cosmogonic myths, myths about cultural heroes, myths about birth and resurrection, and founding myths.
Myths about birth and resurrection tell us that one can be resurrected after death, that time can go back, that a person turns into other creatures. In myths about the offensive ideal society(millennial myths) or the appearance of a savior (messianic myths), the themes of resurrection and renewal are combined with eschatological ones. Millenarian and messianic myths are found in tribal cultures in Africa, South America and Melanesia; they are contained in world religions - Judaism, Christianity, Islam.
Founding myths described the founding of cities. They originated somewhere around the 4th and 3rd millennia BC, when the first cities arose. Examples of founding myths are the myth of Gilgamesh (Babylon) and the myth of Romulus and Remus in Rome.
Myth, mythological thinking and mythological perception of the world appear because a person believes in a certain structure of being (the world). Such faith is based on random observations and facts, from which equally random comparisons and conclusions are made with the help of imagination and fantasy; on their basis, not always reliable, most often fantastic, connections are established between phenomena and processes of existence. At the same time, connections and interactions are determined not through the laws of nature and society, but in a supernatural way, through “other” space, with the help of supernatural, irrational forces.
Knowledge of such a world is possible only through mysticism. Magic inevitably appears in it - precisely as belief in myths about the possibility of contacts with “other” space, through special procedures (rites, rituals, spells...) to influence real life. Of particular importance in this case is the belief in the absolute power of a word, a gesture, a sign.

Mythology

Mythology is a term that means, firstly, a set of myths created by a certain local culture and determining the life of people in this culture; secondly, the science of myth. Myths are studied by scientists from many fields of knowledge. For this purpose, materials from history, archeology, anthropology and other disciplines are used.
Mythology as a scientific discipline allows us to clarify, deepen and expand research in other sciences, especially the humanities - for example, linguistics and psychology. The materials of myths often serve as guidelines for historical and archaeological research. Mythology as a collection of myths has a very noticeable influence on artistic culture. Greek myths, revised and adopted by the Romans, were a source of inspiration in European philosophy, literature, and other forms of art, including later periods like the Renaissance and the Romantic period. Pagan European tribes created other myths and carried on other traditions. When these tribes became part of the Christian world, elements of their mythologies continued to exist as the folkloric basis of various European cultures. In Russia, for example, such characters as brownies, goblins, mermaids, Baba Yaga, and now gnomes, fairies, elves, goblins, etc. are widely known.
Interest in myth was stimulated by the Enlightenment and the romantic movement of modern European culture. At this time, the development of the theory of myth began. Although the Enlightenment emphasized the rational essence of man, it sought to understand all manifestations of culture, including religion and mythology. Enlightenment scholars tried to make sense mythical stories, which seem irrational and fantastic.
Simultaneously with the emergence of theoretical mythology, systematic disciplines devoted to the study of myths arose: social and cultural anthropology, history of religions. Scholars have agreed that the myths of early historical periods should be studied outside the Western tradition; they began to connect the study of myth with a broader understanding of culture and history. In particular, the spread of romanticism led to the understanding of ancient Indo-European myths as an important intellectual and cultural heritage. There has come an understanding that myth as a way of thinking and perception at one time was more important than rational comprehension of reality. Today, myth is addressed in many university disciplines - anthropology, history, psychology, history of religions, political science, structural linguistics.
Myth as a form of knowledge is opposed to reason or logos, which denote a rational and analytical way of achieving a correct reflection of reality. Even the ancient Greek philosophers Xenophanes, Plato and Aristotle exalted reason, gave sharp criticism myth. Only through criticism of the myth did they see Right way knowledge of reality. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the concept of history is opposed to myth. However, in the Jewish and Christian concept, God himself exists outside of ordinary time and space, that is, he has no history, but is cognizable within human history and society. Thus, God was revealed to Moses in Pharaonic Egypt.
At the same time, the differences between reason and myth and between myth and history, although fundamental, have never been absolute. Aristotle pointed out that in a number of early Greek works, myth and logos partially coincide and intersect. Plato used myths as allegories and as a literary device to develop an argument. Myth, logos, and history coincide in the introductions to the Gospel of John and the New Testament. Here Jesus Christ is depicted as the Logos who appeared from eternity into historical time. Early Christian theologians, attempting to understand the revelations of Christianity, discussed the role of myth and history in the biblical narrative.
In understanding the relationship between myth and knowledge, two main orientations are observed. The first explores myth as an intellectual and logical phenomenon. The second studies myth from its figurative, intuitive side - as a way of perception that is different from rational, logical types of knowledge, or as a precursor to rational knowledge in the intellectual development of mankind.

Myth and psychology

One of the fathers of British anthropology, Sir Edward Barnett Tylor, believed that myth in archaic cultures was based on psychological delusion and erroneous logical conclusion - on the identification or confusion of subjective and objective reality, reality and ideal. Tylor believed that myth, while illogical, had moral value. Later it was suggested that myth in archaic cultures arose as a result emotional reactions people to their environment. These reactions were expressed in rhythmic gestures, which developed into dance and ritual, including the telling of myths. The public presentation and execution of myths constituted the speech part of public rituals.
Representatives of depth psychology found in myth material for identifying the structure, order and dynamics of both the mental life of individuals and the collective unconscious. S. Freud used themes from ancient mythological structures to illustrate the conflicts and dynamics of unconscious mental life (for example, in his Oedipus and Electra complexes).
Carl Jung collected a large corpus of myths created in a variety of cultures around the world. He gave these myths psychological interpretations, seeing in them evidence of the existence of a collective unconscious, that is, such content of the unconscious (unconscious mental life) that is shared by everyone in a given society. Jung developed the concept of archetypes - ancient cultural samples (patterns) that are contained in the collective unconscious, getting there from myths. Archetypes immediately influence emotions and ideas, expressing themselves in behavior and images. Archetypes appear in dreams. The dream, these psychologists pointed out, resembles in many of its details the telling of myth in cultures in which myth still expresses the totality of life. Both Jung and Freud viewed dreams as expressions of the structure and dynamics of unconscious life.
In turn, the theories of Freud and his followers were used to interpret archaic myths and religion, and in general to explain the development of human culture. The most comprehensive study of myths from the perspective of depth of psychology has been made by the American scientist Joseph Campbell. IN Masked God(1959-67) he combined insights from depth psychology (primarily Jung), theories of cultural diffusion, and linguistic analysis to formulate general theory origin, development and unity of all human cultures.

A sign is a material object (phenomenon, event) that acts as a representative of some other object, property or relationship and is used for acquiring, storing, processing and transmitting messages (information, knowledge). There are linguistic (part of a certain sign system) and non-linguistic signs. Among the latter, we can distinguish copy signs, attribute signs, and symbol signs.

Copy signs are reproductions, more or less similar to the signified (photos, fingerprints, to a certain extent, signs of pictographic writing).

Signs-signs are signs associated with designated objects as actions with their reasons (what is otherwise called symptoms, signs).

Signs-symbols are signs that, due to the visual image contained in them, are used to express some, often very significant and abstract content (for example, images of an actor’s mask of the ancient Greek theater as a symbol of modern theater and theatrical art; the word “symbol” is also used simply in meaning sign).

Linguistic signs do not function independently of each other; they form a system, the rules of which determine the patterns of their construction (rules of grammar, or syntax, in the broad sense), comprehension (rules of meaning, or meaning, of a sign) and use. The signs that make up languages ​​as means of communication in society are called signs of communication. These signs are divided into signs natural languages and signs of artificial language systems - artificial languages. Natural language signs ( individual words, grammatically correctly constructed expressions, sentences, etc.) consist of both sound signs and graphic signs corresponding to these signs. Non-linguistic signs play an auxiliary role in communication (communication). In natural languages ​​of communication -national languages-in Only the rules of grammar exist in a more or less explicit form, and the rules of meaning and use exist in an implicit form. The development of science led to the introduction of natural Sciences special graphic signs used to shorten the expression of scientific concepts and judgments and methods of operating with objects considered in science (such as, for example, signs of mathematical, chemical and other symbols). From signs of this kind, artificial languages ​​are built, the rules of which (including the rules of syntax and semantics) are specified in explicit form.

Artificial languages ​​are predominantly used in science, where they serve not only as a means of communication (between scientists, research teams, etc.), but also to obtain new information about the phenomena under study. Among the signs of artificial language systems we can distinguish: signs of code systems intended for encoding ordinary speech or for recoding already encoded messages (for example, Morse code; codes used in compiling computer programs); signs for modeling continuous processes (for example, curves that display continuous changes in the course of any processes); signs from which formulas used in scientific languages, -most important view signs used in science.

There are objective, semantic and expressive meanings of signs. The sign designates a given item (or items). An object denoted by a sign is called its “objective meaning” and expresses its semantic and expressive meaning. The semantic meaning (meaning) of a sign serves to highlight its objective meaning - to specify the object denoted by the sign (although there may be signs that have only meaning, but do not denote no object, for example, the word “mermaid”) On the other hand, for some signs the semantic meaning is reduced to a minimum - these are proper names natural languages. The semantic meaning of a sign is its property of representing, recording certain aspects, features, characteristics of the designated object, which determine the area of ​​application of the sign; this is what the person who perceives or reproduces the given sign understands 1 .

An example is the word “sword”. As a thing, it can be forged or broken, it can be placed in a museum display case, and them you can kill a person. And this is all - the use of a sword as an object. But, attached to the belt or supported by a baldric, placed on the hip, the sword is a symbol free man, “a sign of freedom,” and as a symbol it belongs to culture. In the 18th century, Russian and European noblemen did not carry a sword -on the side his sword was hanging from him. The sword is a symbol of a symbol: it means a sword, and a sword means belonging to a privileged class.

Things are included not only in practice in general, but also in social practice. They become, as it were, clots of relationships between people and in this function are capable of acquiring a symbolic character. “Symbols of a culture rarely appear in its synchronic cross-section. They come from time immemorial and, modifying their meaning (but without losing the memory of their previous meanings), are transmitted to future states of culture. Such simple symbols as circle, cross, triangle, wavy line, more complex: hand, eye, house - and even more complex (for example, rituals) accompany humanity throughout its millennia-old culture.”

No matter how we define culture, it remains clear that this concept is unique to the human species. In this regard, let us remember L.A. White, who singled out the ability to symbolize as a criterion for distinguishing a person from an animal, i.e. giving a material object or action a meaning that is not inherent in this object by nature. A symbol can be defined as something whose value or meaning is established by the person who uses it. A symbol can be a material object or action, color, taste, smell, a certain movement, i.e. any phenomenon that we can perceive can be considered as a symbol. It should be emphasized that the meaning of a symbol cannot be understood by observing or perceiving only physical characteristics (for more details, see ).

A.F. Losev notes the following characteristics of the symbol:

• 1. A symbol is “a function of reality that includes an infinite series of members, as close or far from each other as desired and capable of entering into infinitely diverse structural associations,” i.e. a symbol, in principle, can reflect reality as comprehensively as desired.
• 2. A symbol is the meaning of reality.
• 3. A symbol is an interpretation of reality.
• 4. A symbol is a signification (designation) of reality.
• 5. A symbol is a transformation of reality.

So, symbols form the basis of meaningful human behavior; there is a whole class of objects and phenomena associated with a person’s ability to symbolize. These include, first of all, words that serve as the basis of modern communication and transmission of information, as well as almost all phenomena to which we attach symbolic meaning. This important class of phenomena is called "symbolates" (phenomena resulting from the process of symbolization).

Symbols can be viewed in various contexts: physical, chemical, social, cultural, etc. In particular, they can be considered both in relation to the human body (in a somatic context) and without regard to it (in an extrasomatic context). One of basic properties culture is its ability to exist regardless of the human body in the form of symbols, its ability to be transmitted by non-biological means. Such a property can be included in the definition of culture as a set of symbols considered in an extra-physical context. In this case, symbols are studied in relation to each other, with other concepts or classes of concepts.

Culture as a communication system, as a system of signs and the exchange of this type of information is studied by such a science as semiotics (Greek semeiotike - the study of signs). Within the framework of this approach, all cultural phenomena and cultural languages ​​are considered exclusively as sign systems, each of which is based on the study of the sign as such.

Sign and symbol in culture, cultural languages

• Language
• Tradition
• Folklore
• Rituals, ceremonies, ceremonies
• Artistic images
• Written texts, etc.

Languages ​​of culture

The language of culture is the entire set of existing sign systems in verbal or nonverbal communication, by means of which culturally and socially significant information can be transmitted.

According to E. Cassirer, a person inevitably expresses himself during his life in such large forms culture, such as art, language, religion or politics.

To realize this expression, a person is forced to create symbols, both verbal and mythological, religious, artistic, etc.

Types of sign devices

In the most general form, this entire set of symbolic means used can be divided into:

Designation signs

This includes, for example, units of natural and artificial language that denote both the object itself and its property, action or other characteristics. This group also includes:

• Signs (for example, symptoms, omens)
• Signs-copies (reproductions, analogues, as non-existent in reality -)
• Iconic behavior (shocking, imitation, etc.)

Model signs

These also include real substituents existing items and actions. For example, in magical practices they use a model of an object endowed with special powers. This “secondary objectivity” contains information about the method of action with it and about its “new properties and “new” meaning.

Symbols

Symbol and sign in culture: history of concepts and their differences (differences)

The difference between symbol (symbol) and sign (sema) was emphasized already in antiquity. Plato considered signs to be a manifestation of everyday life, including low imitative poetry, while symbols, on the contrary, embodied divine revelations and sacred truths.

The meaningful opposition between sign and symbol was most clearly manifested among the Neoplatonists. Thus, Proclus believed that it is with the help of mythological symbols that the divine spirit is transmitted to man. Since such divine symbols address people with their mysterious side, they are not as transparent and clear as ordinary signs. Since that time, it is symbolic poetry with its meaningful and deep symbols that becomes the pinnacle of art, and naturalism is condemned for its base imitation of the sublime.

Thus begins the history of symbolism, which became the basis of Western Christianity and Byzantium. For example, theological positions began to be distinguished:

• Profane history (the events and phenomena of which have no secret meaning)
• Sacral history (events and phenomena of which themselves become symbols of other events or phenomena)

In art, a symbol becomes “allegorical” artistically, which cannot be directly deciphered, but requires emotional participation in the form of experience, empathy and rational recognition for its understanding.

In the 30s of the last century, the American ethnologist E. Sapir makes an attempt to analyze the ability of symbols to convey universal and universally significant content.

He distinguishes two types of symbols:

• Condensation

“mean much more than they signify”

Such symbols, according to the scientist, are involved in religious and political emotional relationships and notation

• Referential.

Such symbols are characterized by emotional neutrality and logical validity.
E. Sapir comes to the conclusion that it is the second type of symbols that is generally accepted, and due to its rationality, it is in most cases that it forms all modern sign systems of culture.

The Soviet semiotician scientist Yu.M. Lotman is inclined to understand a symbol not just as a sign-designation, for example, symbols of mathematics, chemistry or physics in artificial languages. The symbolism of such designations for him is an expression of a certain depth of sacred meaning. For example, the designation of a circle, cross or pentagram has enormous cultural, historical and semantic capacity, since it dates back to the archaic era and is the basis of culture.

Yu.M. Lotman in his works

defines a symbol as a socio-cultural sign that is based on an idea, the content of which can only be comprehended intuitively and which cannot be adequately expressed verbally.

In this regard, one should clearly understand the important specificity of a symbol; it is designed to evoke a reaction not to its symbolized object, but to those meanings that are conventionally associated with it. In view of this, it becomes necessary to be able to distinguish between such basic categories as.

Examples of well-known symbols in history

We can consider the elements of basic symbolism characteristic of mythological consciousness.

Typically, these symbols displayed:

Animistic and totemic beliefs of our ancestors: stones and sticks are the souls of people

Human ideas about the structure and origin of the Cosmos: the World Tree as the axis of the world or the idea of ​​fertility, the Cosmic Mountain as a pillar of the Universe

Interestingly, over time, these basic symbols began to be simplified, down to simple geometry, for example:

• Space - began to be designated by a circle
• Fertility - triangle
• World tree - cross
• Material world (four elements) – square
• Eternity is like a snake biting its tail

Since then, such well-known designations as:

• Masculine principle - a triangle with an upper vertex
• Female - with top down

The overlap of these two symbols in the European part was known as the Star of David, and in India it was a generative principle and a sign of love for the gods.

Our presentation:

Symbols in mythological consciousness are characterized by a very strict relationship, which was supposed to determine the identity of the sign, object and nature. This guaranteed the closedness and immutability of traditional culture and its organization, which ensured the constant reproduction of the proper pattern in human behavior and his attitude towards society, nature, etc.