§ 67. In Swedish, as well as in Russian, cases of transition from one part of speech to another are often observed.

Such cases include, for example, substantiation- the transition of any significant part of speech or function word to the category of nouns. Substance takes place when given word used to designate the corresponding concept as a subject of reasoning, thought, etc. Compare, for example, union men but and concept ett men one but as a synonym for a noun with meaning objection, difficulty, snag: Har finns ettmen. (Strindberg) There is one thing here. Acquiring the meaning of a noun (beginning to designate an object in broad sense words), such a substantiated word also receives some formal features of a noun - gender, usually middle (except for certain cases of substantiation of adjectives and participles, see § 233), article, definite and indefinite, etc. According to its functions in a sentence, a substantiated word no longer differs from the usual noun.

Another example of a transition from one part of speech to another is transition of adverbs into prepositions, in particular, cf. av(in phrases av oh an back and forth) and the preposition that arose from it av from; adverb for too much(ex. for mycket too much, for store too big) and preposition for for, for; adverb over over, more (Det hande over hundra år sedan. This happened over 100 years ago.) and preposition over above. On the other hand, some of the adverbs are prepositional constructions in origin, for example. i dag today(from in a day); afterhand gradually(from later by, after and hand hand); till fots on foot(from combination till to, to and fot leg in will give birth. fall).

Similar phenomena take place in the region verb(significant verbs often turn into connectives or auxiliaries, see §§ 279–280).

Finally, an example of a transition from one part of speech to another is the transformation various parts speeches in modal words and interjections. For example, the modal word tank just think about it is by origin imperative from the verb tanka think, cf. Tank, jag vet inte mer om henne, än hon lever!(Lagerlöf) Come to think of it, I don't know anything about her except that she's alive!. Or the interjection se, se in the following example is in origin the form imperative mood from the verb se see: Se, se, ni vuxna män, här är arbete för er! Härär… plank, foga samman en noddam.(Lagerlöf) Come on, men, here's something for you! Here... boards, put together a temporary dam.

FROM THE HISTORY OF THE DOCTRINE ABOUT PARTS OF SPEECH

For a very long time, people intuitively, on the basis of a wide variety of criteria, established certain classes of words. In the history of the science of language, beginning with the ancient Indian linguists, there is a constant desire to characterize these classes of words. Yaska and Panini (v - 3rd century BC) established four parts of speech in ancient Indian languages: name, verb, preposition and particle. They were combined in pairs on the basis of preserving the meaning outside the sentence (name, verb) or its loss, preposition, particle). Name and verb in a sentence, i.e. as word forms of the speech chain, they were called “case” and “action”. As a subgroup of names Jaska singled out pronouns. The semantic criterion was the leading one in the classification by parts of speech in ancient Indian linguistics.

Aristotle (4th century BC) singled out three parts of speech in the ancient Greek language: the name, the verb, and conjunctions, to which he attributed articles, pronouns, and copulas.

Later Alexandrian grammarians established eight parts of speech: noun, verb, participle, article, pronoun, adverb, preposition, and conjunction. When highlighting parts of speech, they took into account their syntactic role, morphological properties, in particular, inflection, as well as semantics. At the same time, unlike the ancient Indian scientists, they did not reach the analysis of the morphological structure of the word, they remained unaware of the concepts of the root and affixes. Roman linguists, having removed the article from the parts of speech (it was not in Latin), added an interjection.

In the Middle Ages, the adjective began to be emphasized. The classification of parts of speech in ancient linguistics was compiled in close connection with logic: parts of speech were identified with the members of the sentence and approached the members of the judgment, i.e. with categories of logic. But still, this classification was partially grammatical, since some parts of speech were established by the presence of certain grammatical forms and meanings (for example, verbs are words that change in numbers, tenses, persons and denote an action). Grammar ancient world, the Middle Ages and even the Renaissance dealt mainly with Greek and Latin; when developing the grammars of new Western European languages, scientists proceeded from the norms of the Latin language. The view of parts of speech as logical-grammatical categories dominated until the end of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the traditional system of parts of speech ceases to satisfy scientists. There are indications of inconsistency and contradictions in existing classification, for the lack of a single criterion. In the 19th century, in connection with the intensive development of linguistics, in particular morphology, the question arises of the principles for distinguishing parts of speech and their universality. The allocation of parts of speech begins to be based on morphological criteria, i.e. on the commonality of grammatical forms inherent in certain categories of words. An example of the allocation of parts of speech from a formal grammatical point of view is the classification of FF. Fortunatov. Parts of speech, called by him “formal classes”, F.F. Fortunatov singled out according to the presence of inflection forms in the corresponding words: inflected words, conjugated words, indeclinable and non-conjugated words. Along with the morphological approach, the logical-syntactic approach to the characterization of parts of speech continued to develop. Based on the narrow morphological or syntactic features of words, which are always somehow connected with their own lexical meaning, parts of speech began to be designated as lexico-grammatical categories of words.

MAIN PROBLEMS OF THE THEORY OF PARTS OF SPEECH

The entire vocabulary of any language is divided into lexico-grammatical classes of words called parts of speech (literally translated from Latin Partes orationis; also in other languages: English Parts of speech, German Redeteile). This term cannot be considered successful, since it contradicts the terminological meaning of “speech”. Parts of speech are classes language units, not units of speech. The existence of classes of words is not in doubt among any of the linguists, although their interpretation is not the same for different scientists. Parts of speech can be defined as classes of words in a language, distinguished on the basis of their common syntactic, morphological and semantic properties. Significant parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb) and auxiliary parts (conjunction, preposition, particles, articles) are distinguished. The significant parts of speech also include the numeral and the pronoun. The composition of parts of speech in different languages ​​is different. The question of the basis for the classification of parts of speech remains debatable in modern linguistics. In linguistics, and in English in particular, there are several main approaches to the classification of words by parts of speech - traditional (the most ancient), descriptive, functional and onomaseological. Despite the fact that all these approaches deal with the same linguistic phenomenon, each of them has its own specifics.

If the traditional approach seeks to draw a line between parts of speech by identifying their semantic, morphological and syntactic features, then the descriptive - at least in its original form - considers the position as the only relevant identifying attribute of the class and categorically opposes taking into account the role of meaning in linguistic analysis.

The functional approach focuses on the study of the syntagmatic relational properties of words in speech, while as a formal method. Allowing to establish the nature of the relationship between individual words and entire classes, he uses the method of distributive analysis at the morphological level, which involves the selection of opposing groupings of units, which are not interchangeable either formally or in terms of content, according to the principle of binary and contrast.

The focus of the onomaseological approach is the question of how the names of various fragments of objective reality in a particular language are selected and created, what are the features of the nominative specificity of different groups of words, and how these features determine the possibilities of deploying, on the basis of specific nominative features, the corresponding grammatical and derivational categories.

Some linguists define parts of speech as a lexical category, a lexical classification of words, as an invariant of the subject-logical plan. Others believe that parts of speech are logical categories of words and therefore morphological features are of decisive importance in highlighting parts of speech. However, this criterion is unsuitable for languages ​​with a poorly developed morphological system.

A.A. Reformed defined parts of speech as grammatical categories(and not lexical or lexico-grammatical), the composition of which in each language is individual and is determined by a combination of morphological and syntactic properties. Some linguists, on the contrary, believe that the meanings of parts of speech are their main feature, and their lexico-semantic features that generalize categorical meanings are considered the basis for identifying parts of speech (Shakhmatov, Shcherba, A.N. Savchenko). Finally, parts of speech are considered as lexico-grammatical categories of words that differ from each other not only in a number of grammatical features (morphologically - in changeability and invariability, in the way of change, paradigmatics; syntactically - in ways of connection with other words, and syntactic function), but also lexically . This point of view is the most accepted in modern Russian linguistics.

It is possible to approach the problem of parts of speech based on the concept of functional-semantic categories of words. Words that function as nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, numerals, adverbs, etc., are found in all languages ​​of the world. The presence of categorical meaning and certain functions fully ensures the existence of functional-semantic categories in the language.

Issues related to the theory of parts of speech remain controversial; there are discrepancies regarding the number, nomenclature, as well as criteria for distinguishing parts of speech.

THE PROBLEM OF PARTS OF SPEECH IN FOREIGN AND RUSSIAN GRAMMAR

Henry Sweet, the author of the first scientific grammar, put forward three basic principles for the classification of words: the meaning, form and function of the word. He divided the parts of speech into two main groups - changeable and unchangeable, elevating the morphological form to the rank of the leading classification criterion. Within the group of declinables, he followed the traditional approach of nouns, adjectives and verbs. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are united in the group of invariables (indeclinables). Along with this classification, Sweet proposes a grouping based on the syntactic functioning of certain classes of words. So, the group of nominal words (noun-words) includes, in addition to nouns, nominal pronouns (noun-pronouns), nominal numerals (noun-numerals), infinitive and gerund, similar in functioning; the group of adjective words includes, in addition to adjectives, adjective pronouns (adjective-pronouns), adjective numerals (adjective-numerals), participles. The verb group includes personal forms and verbalities; here again the morphological criterion turns out to be leading; all impersonal forms, as well as personal ones, have verbal categories of tense and voice. Thus, verbal nouns - infinitive and gerund - turn out to be classified as nominal words on the basis of their syntactic functioning, and in terms of their morphological properties they also appear in the verb group.

The classification of the representative of the classical school of grammar Otto Jespersen is also based on three principles: form, function and meaning. He criticizes almost all traditional definitions of parts of speech. O. Jespersen also questions the distinction between conjunctions and prepositions as independent parts speech. He believes that in the combination A man of honor, the preposition of is also a means of connecting words and is no different from the union, which was traditionally defined as a connector of words or a group of words. In his classification, O. Jespersen distinguishes the following parts of speech: 1) noun, 2) adjective, 3) pronouns, 4) verbs, 5) particles, which include all other words in English devoid of the ability to shape change. The author insists that the difference between the words in the 5th group is greatly exaggerated. If we take the sentence He was in and He was in the house, then traditionally in refers to different parts speech: in the first case - to adverbs, and in the second - to prepositions. However, he emphasizes that it would never occur to anyone to attribute the verb to sing to different parts of speech on the basis that it can be used as transitive with an object and as intransitive: He can sing and He sings a song. There is no reason, therefore, to single out unions as a separate part of speech. In the examples “Before his breakfast” and “Before he had breakfast”, he sees the only difference is that in the first case “before” introduces a nominal phrase, and in the second - a sentence. However, O. Jespersen sees a difference between coordinating and subordinating conjunctions and calls coordinating conjunctions coordinating connectors, and subordinating conjunctions and prepositions subordinating connectors.

Interjections also fall into group 5. O. Jespersen interestingly analyzes this class of words, noting the features of interjections, for example, the presence of such sounds in them that are absent in the phonemic composition of the English language:

Aspirated bilabial (f) and aspirated (x).

Thus, although the scientist proposes to take into account all three features of the allocation of parts of speech, in his classification it turns out to be inconsistent. The fifth part of speech, singled out on the basis of only the form, turns out to be a kind of lumber room - “a pantry for trash, where all those words that have not found a place in other groups fall.

Along with the classification described above, Jespersen proposed an analysis of word classes from the point of view of their functioning in syntactic combinations (phrases, sentences), which was called the theory of three ranks. This or that word can be primary (primary), i.e. be the core of a phrase, sentence, another word may be secondary (secondary), i.e. directly defining the primary, another word - tertiary (tertiary), i.e. subordinate to the secondary.

A furiously (3)

Representatives foreign linguistics the middle of the 20th century, the structuralists of the descriptive direction, put forward in principle new approach to the problem of classifying parts of speech. They opposed taking into account the role of meaning in linguistic analysis.

Structuralists believed that classification should be based only on the signs of the position of a word in a sentence. A typical classification of this type can be considered the classification of the American structuralist C. Freese, given by him in the book “The Structure of the English Language”. He draws attention to the fact that even in a senseless sentence, it is possible to establish the belonging of a word to certain grammatical categories - parts of speech: Woggles ugged diggles. This can be established by the position that the words occupy in the sentence, and by their form in contrast to other positions and forms.

In order to find out what positional classes of words exist in English, one should find out which positions are basic. For this purpose, Ch. Freese chooses a limited number of sentences, which he calls "test-frames" (test-frames), and within these frameworks determines the main positions characteristic of the words of the English language. Using the substitution method, Freeze, within each test frame, determines the words that can occupy a certain position in a sentence. All words that can be substituted into a given syntactic position constitute one positional class. The scientist used the following sentences as test frames: The (good) concert was good (always).

The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly). The team went there.

Words capable of occupying the position of the word concert were substituted into the first test frame. All words that can be substituted into this position without changing the structural meaning, Freese calls the words of the first positional class (Class 1 words). In terms of traditional grammar, these are words in the position of the subject in a simple declarative sentence.

In the second frame, all words were substituted in the position remembered (i.e., in the position of the verb-predicate in the personal form). These words constituted the second positional class (Class 2 words).

The third positional class is the position of the adjective in the first test frame (Class 3 words), i.e. in the position of the prepositive definition and the nominal part of the predicate.

The fourth positional class coincides practically with traditional adverbs capable of modifying the verb.

In addition to these four positional classes, Freese identifies another 15 groups of formal words (Function Words), for which he uses letter designations (A, B, C, .... O). Group A includes all determinants, determinants, i.e. all words that can appear in position definite article in the first test frame. For group B, all those words are taken that can be in the may position in the following frame: The concert (may) be good. This includes modal and auxiliary verbs. Group C includes only one word not (negative particle, in traditional terminology). For group D, Ch. Friz proposes to combine all words that can occur in position very immediately before the word of the third positional class, they signal a certain degree of quality. When highlighting this group of words, Friese still has to resort to meaning.

Four positional classes contain thousands of units, words of 15 groups - 154 units (very uneven division). The disadvantages of classification include its intersecting, since the same word appears in several digits. At the same time, Ch. Freese consistently applies the substitution method and obtains interesting data on the distribution of words and their syntactic valence (compatibility).

Consider two more structuralist classifications proposed by G. Gleason and J. Sledom.

Gleason proposes a classification based on two formal features - morphological form and word order. He divides the entire vocabulary of the language into two large groups: a group that has formal signs of inflection, and a group that does not have such signs. The first group naturally includes nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. However, Gleason excludes from this group all those words that do not have a similar paradigm. Thus, the adjective beautiful is not included in this group, since it does not have synthetic forms of the formation of degrees of comparison. The second group includes classes that differ in positional characteristics, but it also includes the words of paradigmatic groups excluded from them. Thus, beautiful, which occupies the same position as fine, belongs to the second group and belongs to a wider class called "adjectivals", which includes the adjectives proper "adjectives". Classes that occur in the same positions form "constitutive" classes. However, Gleason does not define or enumerate them exactly. Thus, his classification turns out to be even less systematic than that of Ch. Freese.

The classification of J. Sledd is very close to the principles of G. Gleason. He also distinguishes between "inflectional" and "positional" classes: nominals, verbals, adjectivals, adverbials; they are joined by eight small classes of words: auxiliary verbs, determiners, prepositions, conjunctions, various categories of pronouns. A positive point in the classifications of G. Gleason and J. Sledd is that they note the importance of taking into account word-forming affixes as indicators of a particular part of speech.

In the 70s of the 20th century, famous English linguists (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, Svartvik, 1972) attempted to build a classification system of parts of speech, synthesizing classical and structuralist theories. So, the description of interjections completely coincides with the corresponding section from the “Philosophy of Grammar” by Otto Jespersen.

The division of parts of speech into groups is carried out under the influence of Ch. Freese's classification.

The first group includes nouns, adjectives, adverbs, verb; to the second - the article, demonstrative pronouns (highlighted as a separate part of speech), all other pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections. Parts of speech belonging to the second group are called “elements of a closed system”, since their number is small, they can be specified in a list, new words are rarely formed. Parts of speech of the first group form an “open system”, since their series can be continued almost indefinitely. The authors of the grammar draw attention to the fact that parts of speech are not isolated classes, they can intersect and interact. They single out for an open system the opposition static - dynamic (Stative - Dynamic).

Thus, this grammar takes into account the provisions of both traditional and structural grammars. The authors tried to rethink the phenomenon of parts of speech, taking into account the awakened interest in meaning.

Domestic linguists, unlike foreign ones, consider the triune principle of classifying parts of speech to be the leading one, although they admit the possibility of involving two features: semantic and syntactic, since the English language is analytical and in some cases there may be no sign of form. In Russian English studies, researchers usually distinguish 13 parts of speech: 9 significant and 4 auxiliary. Significant they include: a noun, an adjective. verb, pronoun, numeral, adverb, interjection, words of the state category, modal words. Service include: preposition, union, particle, article. Domestic scientists distinguish the so-called non-traditionally allocated parts of speech: words of the category of state, modal words and particles. According to grammatical meaning, linguists divide parts of speech into three groups:

Parts of speech that name objects, signs, phenomena, movement (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, words of the state category).

Parts of speech indicating objects, their quality, quantity (pronouns, numerals).

Parts of speech expressing the speaker's attitude to the content of the statement (interjections, modal words).

Significant parts of speech have an independent lexical meaning, service parts of speech serve to indicate certain relationships between words or to clarify the grammatical meaning of a significant part of speech.

Most scholars believe that there is no impassable line between the parts of speech and that a transition from one part of speech to another is possible, as well as the use of one part of speech in a function that is predominantly characteristic of another part of speech: for example, the use of a noun in the definition function, which is characteristic of the English language.

In the 1970s, field theory became widespread in linguistics. Theory of the grammatical field on the material German language was developed by V.G. Admoni. In accordance with this theory, some phenomena of language can be considered as central, while others - as peripheral. The central ones are understood as linguistic phenomena that have all the features and properties of a given class. But there are also units that do not have all the features, for example, parts of speech, although they belong to it. The field, therefore, is inhomogeneous in its composition. Field theory in relation to the description of parts of speech is very promising and fruitful, as it allows you to visualize the structure and interaction of lexico-grammatical categories.

2. Basic groupings of parts of speech and their correlation. Parts of speech: significant and auxiliary.

The question of parts of speech has occupied the minds of scientists since ancient times. Research in this area was carried out by Aristotle, Plato, Jaska, Panini, in Russian linguistics this issue was dealt with by L. V. Shcherba, V. V. Vinogradov, A. A. Shakhmatov and others.

The most common and necessary categories in the grammar of each language are the parts of speech. With clarification of the question of parts of speech begins grammatical description any language. Speaking of parts of speech, they mean the grammatical grouping of lexical units of the language, i.e. highlighting in the vocabulary of a language certain groups or categories characterized by certain features (Maslov Yu. S., 155). But on what basis are groupings of words called parts of speech distinguished? Or otherwise - what is the traditional distribution of words based on parts of speech?

The problem concerning the essence of parts of speech and the principles of their allocation in various languages ​​of the world is one of the most debatable problems of general linguistics.

Statements on the question of what the distribution of words into parts of speech is based on are numerous, varied, but very often not clear and contradictory.

According to F. I. Buslaev, there are nine parts of speech in the language: verb, pronoun, noun, adjective, numeral, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. F.I. Buslaev allocates the latter to a special department. The remaining parts of speech are divided into significant (noun, adjective and verb) and service (pronoun, numeral, preposition, conjunction and auxiliary verb); adverbs according to this classification (as, indeed, verbs) fall into two groups: derived from service units speeches belong to the service parts of speech, and those derived from the significant - to the significant. Thus, it turns out that the division of words into significant and auxiliary ones does not coincide with their division into parts of speech.

F. I. Buslaev’s observation of the closed nature of the list of functional words and the open nature of the list of verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs, which, according to him, are “countless” is interesting; but he denies the open nature of the list of numerals.

The most important in relation to the definition of parts of speech (which F.I. Buslaev considered in syntax) is his statement that "in order to compose oneself complete concept about individual words used in speech, they must be considered in two ways: 1) in relation to the dictionary 2) in relation to grammar. In the first respect, attention is drawn to the expression of ideas and concepts in a separate word, and in the latter, to the meaning and belonging of each part of speech separately ”(Buslaev F.I., 289). This statement is, in essence, the key to defining the concept of parts of speech in modern linguistics.

For A. A. Ponebnya, it was extremely important to establish a connection between language and thinking in their functioning and development. Emphasized attention to psychology, to the very process of speech creation led A. A. Potebnya to assert the primacy of the sentence; a single word seemed to him a scientific fiction. And since the word is only an element of a sentence, A. A. Potebnya believes that it is possible to understand the parts of speech only on the basis of a sentence. Parts of speech for A. A. Potebnya are grammatical categories that exist only in a sentence. “Understanding language as an activity, it is impossible to look at grammatical categories, what are the verb, noun, adjective, adverb, as something immutable, once and for all derived and eternal properties of human thought” (Potebnya A.A., 82). He talked about how these categories change even in relatively short periods.

A. A. Potebnya approached the process of speech, in which language alone is revealed, from the standpoint of a separate individual. And therefore in his works there is a mixture of inflection and word formation, sometimes an understanding of almost every use of a word as a separate, independent word.

In his early works, when classifying parts of speech, A. A. Shakhmatov relied primarily on semasiological criteria, believing that a certain system of grammatical forms is inherent in each part of speech. Later, he attributed the definition of parts of speech to syntax, at the same time considering in morphology not only inflection and related categories that receive semantic content from A. A. Shakhmatov, but also the structure of the base. “A word in its relation to a sentence or, in general, to speech is defined in grammar as a part of speech” (Shakhmatov A.A., 29). A. A. Shakhmatov also noted that in some languages, in particular in Russian, parts of speech can differ morphologically. Grammatical categories, Shakhmatov wrote, are learned in syntax, therefore, when determining parts of speech, “one must take into account the connection that exists between individual parts of speech and grammatical categories” (Shakhmatov A. A., 29).

In accordance with those "ideas" that are expressed in words, A. A. Shakhmatov divides them into three groups: significant words, expressing necessarily the main ideas with or without relation to the accompanying grammatical categories (noun, verb, adjective adverb); non-significant words that serve to express one or another independent grammatical category (pronoun, numeral, pronominal adverb); service parts of speech that serve to express one or another non-independent grammatical category (preposition, conjunction, prefix, particle); interjection stands out as the equivalent of a word (Suprun A.E., 31).

When dividing words into parts of speech, A. M. Peshkovsky introduces the concept of "syntactic", i.e. dependent on other words in speech, and a “non-syntactic” (word-forming) form, which made it possible for adverbs, gerunds and infinitives, as words with non-syntactic forms, not only not to be considered “formless”, but also to distinguish between them (Peshkovsky A.M. , 37). The syntactic forms of A. M. Peshkovsky are given by the list: case of nouns; case, number and gender of adjectives; person, number, gender, tense and mood of the verb. This is also related to the composition of the parts of speech, as well as their classification table (see table No. 1) (Peshkovsky A. M., 43).

A. M. Peshkovsky attaches considerable importance to the mental associations that arise in the speaker and the listener when pronouncing words. A. M. Peshkovsky identifies the parts of speech with "the main categories of thinking in their primitive nationwide stage of development" (Peshkovsky A. M., 74). In this regard, the discovery of objectivity as a psychological or primitive-logical category of thinking corresponding to a grammatical noun, etc., the search for a common meaning of parts of speech that are already combined not only by a bundle of similar forms, but above all by this common meaning (Suprun A.E. , 35).

L. V. Shcherba said that when classifying parts of speech, a researcher should use the scheme that is imposed by the language system itself, i.e. install general category, under which one or another lexical meaning of the word is summed up in each separate case or, in other words, what general categories differ in a given language system. Hence, L. V. Shcherba recognized the possibility of experimentally establishing the composition of parts of speech. L. V. Shcherba notes that there must be some external exponents of these categories, and such categories can be “changeability” of words of different types, prefixes, suffixes, endings, phrasal stress, intonation, word order, special auxiliary words, syntactic connection etc. Shcherba believed that there was no reason to attribute special role in the allocation of parts of speech to formal morphemes. Shcherba’s position on a bunch of formal features as a characteristic of a part of speech is also important (Shcherba L.V., 65), and it is assumed that individual words belonging to a given part of speech may not have individual features of this bundle; so, for example, the word cockatoo does not have endings inherent in nouns, but in terms of its compatibility it is sufficiently characterized as a noun (my cockatoo, cockatoo is sitting, cockatoo of my brother), as evidenced by its semantics.

L. V. Shcherboy also raised the question of varying degrees of brightness and severity of the properties of individual parts of speech. He believes that some words may have features of two parts of speech (for example, participles are subsumed under the category of an adjective and under the category of a verb), and on the other hand, it allows the possibility of homonymy between parts of speech (the same word may in some cases belong to one part of speech, and in other cases - to another) (Suprun A. E., 40).

I. I. Meshchaninov makes an attempt at a typological analysis of sentence members and parts of speech in languages ​​of various types on the basis of the idea put forward by I. I. Meshchaninov about “conceptual categories”, i.e. a kind of grammatical universals, without which, in his opinion, a typological comparison of the grammars of different languages ​​is impossible.

The genesis of parts of speech, according to I. I. Meshchaninov, can be described as the result of the process of using words of a certain meaning in a certain syntactic function, which led further to the development of some morphological features specific to this group of words, different in different languages. » Those factions vocabulary language, to which we assign the names of parts of speech, are formed in the language only if and only if the grouping of words occurs not only according to their semantics, but also according to the presence in them ... characterizing formal indicators ”(Meshchaninov I.I., 17) . Parts of speech, according to I. I. Meshchaninov, are a lexical group characterized by the corresponding syntactic properties. These are acquired by them in a sentence, where a certain group of words is confined to the predominant performance in the meaning of one or another member of the sentence or is included in its composition. At the same time, both a sentence member and a part of speech have their own characteristics that distinguish them: a sentence member in a sentence, a part of speech in the lexical composition of the language (Suprun A. E., 48).

V. V. Vinogradov defended a synthetic approach to parts of speech based on an in-depth analysis of the concept of words, its form and structure in the language. "Identification of parts of speech should be preceded by the definition of the main structural and semantic types of words" (Vinogradov V.V., 29). Classification cannot ignore any side in the structure of the word, although lexical and grammatical criteria, in his opinion, should play a decisive role, and morphological features are combined with syntactic ones into an "organic unity", since there is nothing in morphology that does not exist or has not been previously was in syntax and vocabulary. An analysis of the semantic structure of a word led V.V. Vinogradov to distinguish four main grammatical-semantic categories of words: 1. Words-names, to which pronouns adjoin, form the subject-semantic, lexical and grammatical foundation of speech and are parts of speech. 2. Particles of speech, i.e. connective, auxiliary words, devoid of a nominative function, closely related to the technique of language, and their lexical meanings are identical with grammatical ones, words that lie on the verge of vocabulary and grammar. 3. Modal words and particles, devoid, like linking words, of the nominative function, but more "lexical": "wedged" into the sentence, marking the relation of speech to reality from the point of view of the subject of speech. When attached to a sentence, modal words are outside of both parts of speech and particles of speech, although "in appearance" they may resemble both. 4. Interjections in the broad sense of the word, having no cognitive value, syntactically unorganized, unable to be combined with other words, having an affective coloring, close to facial expressions and gestures

(Vinogradov V.V., 30).

V. V. Vinogradov notes that the ways of expressing grammatical meanings and the very nature of these meanings is heterogeneous for different semantic types of words (Vinogradov V.V., 33). In the system of parts of speech, according to V. V. Vinogradov, grammatical differences between different categories of words come out most sharply and definitely. The division of parts of speech into the main grammatical categories is due to: 1. Differences in those syntactic functions that different categories of words perform in connected speech, in the structure of a sentence 2. Differences in the morphological standing of words and word forms 3. Differences in the real (lexical) meanings of words 4. Differences in way of reflecting reality 5. Differences in the nature of those correlative and subordinating categories that are associated with one or another part of speech (Vinogradov VV, 38-39).

V. V. Vinogradov, noting that different languages ​​may have different composition of parts of speech, emphasized the dynamism of the system of parts of speech in one language.

Completing the historical-linguistic and theoretical review of the parts of speech in the Russian language, V. V. Vinogradov offers two schemes: one illustrating the relationship between individual parts of speech (in the narrow sense of the word), and the second characterizing all groups of words in the modern Russian language (see. diagram #1 and diagram #2). These diagrams list the parts of speech in Russian and demonstrate their relationships with each other.

Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus on the criteria for identifying parts of speech, so the question of the basis for classifying parts of speech in modern linguistics remains open. But the most productive and universal approach seems to be the approach to parts of speech as lexico-grammatical categories of words, taking into account their syntactic role.

official parts of speech auxiliary (non-significant) parts of speech parts of speech that serve to connect independent parts of speech. They do not have form formation and inflection. Service parts of speech in Russian - preposition, union, particle. Service parts of speech are replenished from the fund of independent ones: for example. , preposition during - from a noun; union what - from the pronoun. Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A. P. 2006. significant parts of speech independent (significant) parts of speech - grammatical classes of words that name fragments of reality (object, event, sign) and have a special system of form formation and inflection, which is determined by grammatical semantics. In Russian, independent parts of speech are a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a numeral. Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A. P. 2006.

Since ancient times, the minds of scientists have been occupied with the question of parts of speech. Plato, Aristotle, Panini, Yaska were engaged in research on them. As for Russian linguistics, the names of V. V. Vinogradov, L. V. Shcherba, A. A. Shakhmatov and others should be noted.

Difficulty isolating parts of speech

Parts of speech are the most necessary and general categories in the grammar of any language. With the clarification of the question about them, its grammatical description begins. Speaking of parts of speech, they mean the grammatical grouping of certain units of the language. In other words, certain categories or groups are distinguished in the lexicon, characterized by certain features. However, on what basis should parts of speech be distinguished? What is the distribution of words based on them? Let's answer this question together.

The problem of the essence of parts of speech, as well as the principles of their selection in different languages, is one of the most important in linguistics. Various and numerous statements on the question of interest to us. Very often they contradict each other and are not clear. Some believe that individual parts are distinguished on the basis of one leading feature, which is inherent in words belonging to a particular grouping. Others believe that the basis for the allocation of parts of speech is a combination of various features, while none of them is leading. If the first opinion is considered correct, then what will be the main sign in this case? Encased in lexical meaning logical category? Or is it itself? Or connection lexical meaning with a grammatical category? His syntactic function or morphological nature? And should different parts of speech be distinguished on different or on the same basis?

Agree, there are a lot of questions. Our knowledge of the grammatical nature of words is still not deep enough for their grammatical classification to be built on scientific basis. The division into parts of speech that arose gradually and subsequently entrenched in the tradition various words- this is not a classification. Such a division is simply a statement that there are different groupings of words that are united by some features common to them. The latter are more or less essential, but not always clear.

Isolation of parts of speech in Russian

Modern Russian has a large number of variant morphological forms. Of particular difficulty is the word formation of significant variable parts of speech. Some of their forms were recognized as normative and entrenched in literary language, while others are considered This determines the need in-depth study such a topic as the word formation of significant changeable parts of speech. At school, they usually receive special attention.

Parts of speech are studied in such a section of grammar as morphology. It examines words in terms of their meaning and change. They can vary in numbers, genders, persons, cases, etc. A noun, for example, denotes an object. It can change by cases and numbers. The adjective does not mean an object, but its attribute. It varies by number, gender and case. However, in Russian there are words that do not change in any way. These are, for example, conjunctions, prepositions and adverbs.

Service and independent parts of speech

So, groups of words that are combined on the basis of common features are called parts of speech. However, signs for various groups words are not the same. Distinguish between significant and non-significant parts of speech. The latter are also called office. Significant parts of speech are independent. Both of them perform miscellaneous work. Independent words in a sentence, naming objects, actions, signs, are members of the sentence, while auxiliary words most often connect independent words. Let's consider the latter in more detail.

Pronominal and significant words

Independent parts of speech can be pronominal or significant. Significant words denote signs, objects, actions, quantity, relationships, naming them. Pronouns only point to them, but do not name them. In a sentence, they serve as deputies of the significant. Pronominal words form a separate part of speech called the pronoun. Significant are divided into different parts of speech based on the following features:

Morphological;

Generalized value;

Syntactic behavior (functions and links in the text).

There are at least 5 groups, considering significant parts of speech. These are three names (adjective, noun, numeral), as well as a verb and an adverb. Sometimes the forms of the verb (germs and participles) are distinguished separately. As you can see, parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words. That is, they are distinguished taking into account the syntactic behavior, and the generalized meaning.

Noun

Let's begin to describe the parts of speech of the Russian language (significant) with It includes words that:

1) are common or proper, inanimate or animate, have a permanent generic attribute, as well as non-permanent (for the main part of nouns) signs of case and number;

2) have the meaning of objectivity, therefore they answer the question "what?" or who?";

3) most often in the proposal they are additions or subjects, but they can also be other members of it.

Note that when highlighting nouns, the main ones are grammatical features words, not, for example, their meaning. The main features of significant parts of speech can be different. You will soon see this. As for the meaning of the noun, it is the only part speech, the meaning of which can be very different. Let us turn to examples: a face (a girl), an object (a pen), an animal (a dog), an abstract concept (pride), a sign (height), an attitude (inequality), an action (study). These words, from the point of view of meaning, are united by the fact that in relation to them we can ask one question: "what?" or who?" This, in fact, is their objectivity.

We turn to the consideration of the next part of speech - the name of the adjective.

Adjective

This is an independent part of speech, significant. It combines words that:

1) Change in cases, numbers and gender, and some - in degrees of comparison and in brevity / completeness.

2) Designate some non-procedural sign of the subject, and therefore answer the questions "whose?" or "what?"

3) Act in a proposal nominal part SIS (composite nominal predicate) or definitions.

Adjectives always depend on nouns. Therefore, questions to them should be asked from the latter. Adjectives are needed in order to distinguish from the multitude identical items required. Without them, our speech would look like a painting painted in gray paint. Thanks to adjectives, it becomes figurative and more precise, since they allow you to highlight different signs one item.

Numeral

This is another significant part of speech, independent. It includes words denoting numbers, the order of objects when counting, or their number. The numeral answers next questions: "which?" or "how much?" It is a part of speech that combines words based on a common meaning. And the meaning of numerals is the relation to the number. Note that their grammatical features are heterogeneous. They depend on the category according to the value of one or another numeral.

These words play a big role in our life. We measure by numbers time, distance, number of objects and their size, cost, weight. Numerals in writing are often replaced by numbers. However, in documents, for example, it is necessary that the amount be indicated not only in numbers, but also in words.

Adverb

We continue to reveal the question: "What parts of speech are significant?" An adverb denotes a sign of a state, sign, action, rarely - an object. Note that it is immutable. An exception to this rule is only qualitative adverbs ending in -о/-е. All of them adjoin either an adjective, or a verb, or another adverb, that is, they characterize significant parts of speech. Examples: very fast, run fast, very fast. An adverb in a sentence is usually an adverb. Sometimes it can also be attached to a noun. Examples are: racing, Warsaw coffee, soft-boiled egg. The adverb in these cases acts as Adverbs are classified on two grounds - by meaning and by function.

Verb

We turn to the verb, considering the significant parts of speech. This is a word denoting a state (to rejoice), an action (to write), a property (to limp), a sign (to turn white), an attitude (to equal). For different groups verb forms heterogeneous grammatical features. Such a concept as a "verbal word" combines: conjugated forms (impersonal and personal), non-conjugated (participles and participles), as well as the infinitive ( indefinite form). Verbs are very important for speech. They allow us to give a name to different actions.

Participle

As a morphological phenomenon, participles are ambiguously interpreted in linguistics. Sometimes significant words that are participles are considered as separate parts of speech, and sometimes as a form of a verb. They denote a sign of some object by action. The participle combines the properties of a verb and an adjective. It is used in writing more often than orally.

gerund

Let's talk a little about the participle, revealing the topic "Significant parts of speech". These are words that, like participles, can be considered either as a special form of the verb, or as an independent part of speech. The signs of adverb are as follows:

1) The designation of an additional action, so the participle answers the following questions: "what did you do?" or "doing what?"

2) The presence of grammatical features of both the adverb and the verb.

So, we have considered significant parts of speech. verb, numeral, noun and adjective. Sometimes gerunds and participles are also distinguished separately. Now you will not be mistaken when answering the question: "What parts of speech are significant?" However, we suggest that you go further and complete your acquaintance with independent parts of speech by considering the pronoun.

Pronoun

The pronoun is an independent part of speech that indicates signs, objects or quantities, but does not name them. They are different. They depend on which part of speech the pronouns replace in the text. They can be classified by grammatical features and by meaning. Pronouns in speech are used instead of adjectives, nouns, adverbs and numerals. They help to combine sentences into a coherent text, to avoid repeating the same words.

So, we examined the independent parts of speech (pronominal and significant), and we briefly described. We invite you to get to know the latter in more detail, since they also play important role in language. We hope you have learned to distinguish between significant and auxiliary parts of speech.

To find out which parts of speech are independent, you should understand the signs that characterize them. Independent parts of speech are the main words in sentences. Without them, it is impossible to transmit at least some information. All words that name objects, denote actions (what happens to them) and describe them - these are uniquely independent parts of speech.

In contrast to them, there are service words - they only serve the rest of the parts of speech and help to unite them. There is a third category of words - interjections, which are neither independent nor auxiliary.

Independent parts of speech can interact and transmit any informational messages without the help of service ones. But service ones without independent ones are not used.

Signs of independent parts of speech

In order not to be mistaken in determining which group certain words belong to, you can do this according to the following criteria.

• To the word that is independent part speech, there is an opportunity to ask a question. Who? What is he doing? Which? Where? Where?
• In a sentence, independent parts of speech are necessarily its members.
• Each individual part of speech that falls under this general category has grammatical and morphological features.

Independent parts of speech

• Noun. It always answers the questions: who, what? This part of speech can be animate object, and inanimate. In a sentence, the noun is mostly the subject or the object.
• Adjective. Describes the characteristics of nouns and pronouns. What or what? Can be qualitative, relative, possessive.
• Verb. Expresses action. What is he doing? What have you been doing? What will do? In a sentence, this part of speech usually becomes a predicate.
• Adverb. The word that does not change. answers the questions: how?, when?, where? etc.
• Communion and participle. Sometimes they are called special forms verb.
• Numeral. Talking about quantity. Answers the questions: how much, which in the account?
• Pronoun. When pointing to an object, it is used instead of a noun.

Independent parts of speech are differentiated into two categories: significant and pronominal. It is known that significant - they name an object, an action with an object, or characterize it. And the pronouns only point to it.

Very often, students confuse independent and significant parts of speech, believing that they are one and the same. However, it is only true that all significant parts of speech are independent, and pronouns include only pronouns.

§ 1 PARTS OF THE LANGUAGE PRINCIPLES OF SELECTING THEM

Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the grammatical structure of a word: inflection features, grammatical forms of a word, ways of expressing grammatical meanings inherent in a word

The central place in morphology belongs to the doctrine of parts of speech

Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words, each of which is characterized by a generalized lexical meaning, morphological and syntactic features

The following principles are based on the distribution of words by parts of speech:

1. Semantic (lexical), i.e. each lexico-grammatical class of words is united by a single common categorical meaning of a part of speech. Such a value for a noun is the value of objectivity, for a sign it is the value of a static feature of an object, for a numeral it is the value of a specified or indefinite amount, for a verb it is the value of a procedural division.

By correlation with the concept (the presence or absence of lexical meaning), parts of speech are divided into significant and incompletely meaningful

Significant parts of speech are words that have a lexical meaning (perform a nominative function). Among them, a noun, adjective, borrower, numeral, verb, adverb

Incomprehensible parts of speech are words that do not have a lexical meaning, but only express various semantic-syntactic relationships between words. These include preposition, conjunction, particle. The exclamation does not belong to the secondary or official, it is a means of expressing (not naming) the emotions, feelings, volitional impulses of the speakers.

2. Morphological, which determines the originality grammatical form words are its grammatical categories, famatic meaning. Home morphological trait, underlying the classification of words in parts as you, is their ability or inability to form (inflection). On this basis, changeable and unchangeable parts of speech are distinguished. The changing ones include a noun, an adjective, a pronoun, a numeral, verbs in; the adverb, all ambiguous parts of speech and wiguiguk are invariable.

3. Syntactic involves taking into account the ability of words to act as members of sentences. Each significant part of speech is assigned a certain syntactic role. So, nouns more often in a sentence act as a sweeper or an application, adjectives - a definition, verbs - a predicate, adverbs - a circumstance. On the basis of the syntactic principle, parts of speech are divided into independent and auxiliary. The independent name belongs to the name, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, which are always members of the sentence. The preposition, union and share are classified as auxiliary, which serve to express syntactic relations between the members of a sentence or parts of complex sentences.

4. Derivational (as an auxiliary, since it concerns only derivative words) is reflected in word-forming affixes characteristic of certain parts of speech

Parts of speech belong to a single lexical and grammatical system, between the units of which there are close relations and cause interconnected transition. Many words can lose their grammatical features, acquire new features, and in this regard, move from one part of speech to another. So, adjectives and participles experience substantiation (transition into nouns): sentry, young, old, scientist. Nouns can be used as adverbs: summer, morning; pronouns - as conjunctions: which, which, what; nouns - in the function of prepositions: (our edge-edge of the village) etc.

511 noun

§ 2 General characteristics of a noun as a part of speech

noun is called significant variable part speech, combining words with the meaning of objectivity, expressed in the forms of gender, number and case

Objectivity is understood as the names of the actual objects - the names of creatures (woman, brother, resident of Kiev, bird, deer), individual things (bed, chair, fork, doors), plants (aspen, marigolds, sedge) natural phenomena (rain, snow, wind, frost) various units of measurement (year, week, kilometer, meter) as well as the names of signs, qualities, abstracted from their carriers (courage, beauty, kindness, courage), actions, processes, states without indicating the persons who perform them (singing, running, reading, thinking, waiting)

The meaning of objectivity inherent in nouns is conveyed with the help of morphological categories gender, number and case, which are grammatically independent and defining for a noun

Every noun in singular has the form of one of three genera - male (father, oak), female (hand, night, earth) or middle (village, shoulder, knowledge). Plural Nouns they do not have a grammatical gender (vacation, scissors, Carpathians).

The grammatical category of the number of a noun is expressed in the singular and plural forms (student-students, river-rivers, lake-lakes). Some nouns are used only in the singular (gudinnya, milk, courage, students) but only in plural(rake, yeast, finance, debate, Lubny).

Nouns change by case (home, home, home, home, (in) home). A special group is indeclinable nouns- these are some (interview, radio) abbreviations (HAH department head) female surnames(Kravchuk, Fesenko)

In a sentence, nouns can act as any member - both main and secondary: Summer (subject) flows down with solar boiling water (circumstance) (V. Teren) . True friend(subject) - then greatest treasure(predicate)