German literary language formation and development. Literary German

you started to study German. We are pleased with your choice and will try to slightly expand your understanding of the German language by bringing it to life. After all, a language is alive only when it has a history and is a means of communication for many, many people. For 105 million inhabitants of the planet German is native and 80 million study it like a foreign language.

German is the state language in Germany, Austria and Liechtenstein, as well as one of the official languages Switzerland, Belgium and Luxembourg.

Development

West Germanic language region in the East Frankish Kingdom (962)

Martin Luther. Portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1526

In 3000-2500 years. BC e. Indo-European tribes settled in northern Europe. From mixing with tribes of a different ethnic group, tribes that gave rise to the Germans. Their language, separated from other Indo-Europeans, became the basis of the languages ​​of the Germans.

Development German language from tribal dialects to the national literary language is associated with the migrations of its speakers. Under the rule of the Franks, the West German tribes (Franks, Alemanni, Bayuvars, Thuringians, Hutts) and the Saxons, who moved in the 4th-5th centuries, united. in the region of the Wieser and the Rhine, which created the prerequisites for the formation of the Old High German language. Erminons (Alemanni, Bayuvars) from the 1st century. n. e. come to the south of Germany and become carriers of High German dialects. The basis of the Low German dialects was Old Saxon, which experienced strong influence Frankish dialects.

The Christianization of the Germans contributed to the spread of the Latin script. The vocabulary of the Germans is enriched by Latin borrowings associated, as a rule, with the Christian cult. Latin for a long time (as in other European countries) remained the language of science, official business and book language.

In 843, according to the Treaty of Verdun, the Frankish Empire was divided into three parts. The East Frankish Empire, like other fragments of the great empires created by conquests, was multi-tribal, and the awareness of its inhabitants of their ethnic and linguistic unity only came to an end. X - early XI centuries, that is, towards the end of the Old German and the beginning of the Middle German period, which was first reflected in the Annolied (between 1080 and 1085), where the word diutisch served as a symbol of the German linguistic community.

Generally, the word Deutsch is derived from the Old German thioda, and meant "speaking the language of the people" (as opposed to speaking Latin). The Latin theodisce, derived from it and first appearing in the report of Nuncio Gregor to the synod in 786, described non-Latin-speaking peoples, in particular the Germanic ones.

Unlike their Romanesque and Slavic neighbors, German language area throughout the Middle Ages, territorially fragmented political structures existed, which led to the formation and development of a large number different dialects. Regional features of the use of the language hampered the process of creating cultural integrity and prompted the poets of the beginning. 13th century avoid dialectal forms in order to widen the circle of potential readers, which is considered the first attempt to create a common German language. However, only the spread of literacy among the general population in the late Middle Ages served as the beginning of the development of a new written and oral literary German language.

In the Middle Ages into German heavily influenced by Arabic. Arabic borrowings in German are represented by words related to trade (Magazin, Tarif, Tara), botany (Orange, Kaffee, Ingwer), medicine (Elixier, Balsam), mathematics (Algebra, Algorithmus, Ziffer), chemistry (alkalisch, Alkohol) and astronomy (Almanach, Zenit, Rigel).

In the XIII-XIV centuries. the formation of the German language leads to the fact that Latin is gradually losing its position as the language of the official business sphere. Gradually mixed East German dialects, formed as a result of the colonization of Slavic lands east of the river. Elbs, receive a leading role and, enriched by interaction with the South German literary tradition, form the basis of the German national literary language.

In 1521, Martin Luther translated (into the then unsettled) Standard New German written language(Neuhochdeutsch) New, and in 1534 - Old Testament, which, according to scientists, influenced the development of the language of entire generations, since already in the XIV century. there was a noticeable gradual development of a region-wide written German language, which is also called Early New German (Frühneuhochdeutsch). The formation of a literary written German language was basically completed in the 17th century.

Unlike most European countries, literary language which is based on the dialect of the capital, the German literary language is a cross between the Middle and High German dialects, which have undergone the so-called. the second movement of consonants, and is considered local only in Hanover. In the northern part of Germany, this language spread in the areas government controlled and schooling during the Reformation. During the heyday of the Hansa, Low German dialects and the Dutch language reigned throughout northern Germany. Over time, literary German in the northern regions of Germany practically replaced the local dialects, which have partially survived to this day. In the center and south of Germany, where the language was originally more like a literary language, the population retained its dialects.

Of great importance for the German language was the intensive development in the 17th-19th centuries. artistic culture (literature). The formation of the norms of the modern literary language ends at the end. 18th century., when the grammatical system normalizes, spelling stabilizes, normative dictionaries, in late XIX in. on the basis of stage pronunciation are developed orthoepic norms. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. emerging literary norms spread to the north of Germany. At this time, words from French (Boulevard, Konfiture, Trottoir) and Slavic languages(Grenze, Gurke, Pistole).

The first dictionaries of the German language were compiled by I. K. Adelung (1781)and the Brothers Grimm(1852, completed in full in 1961). German spelling was formed throughout the 19th century. A significant breakthrough in the creation of a common spelling was achieved thanks to Konrad Duden, who in 1880 published " orthographic dictionary German language". In the course of the German spelling reform in 1901, this dictionary, in a slightly modified form, was recognized as the basis of the German official spelling. The differences between High and Low German written literary language were partially eliminated by the "Rules for German Spelling" 1956.

Great influence on the language in the XX - early. 21st century rendered English loanwords, which may be associated, for example, with the development of pop music in English-speaking countries. a significant role while playing the Internet and the media.

Periods of the history of the German language

• around 750 - ca. 1050: Old High German (Althochdeutsch)
• about 1050 - c. 1350: Middle High German (Mittelhochdeutsch)
• around 1350 - c. 1650: Early New High German (Frühneuhochdeutsch)
• since about 1650: New High German, Modern German (Neuhochdeutsch)

Modern spelling reform

Since August 1, 1998, new rules for German spelling have been introduced in Germany. Now, in words with ß, after short vowels, ß is replaced by ss (Fluss, muss, dass), but after long vowels and diphthongs, the letter ß is retained (Fuß, heiß). When new words or forms are formed, the stem of the word is preserved (nummerieren is written with double mm, since the stem is Nummer). For frequently used borrowings, a simplified spelling is allowed (Mayonnaise → Majonäse). In words of Greek origin, the letter combination ph can be replaced by the letter f (Geographie → Geografie). Some compound verbs that were previously written together are now written separately (kennen lernen, Halt machen, verloren gehen). The designations of the time of day, accompanied by the words gesttern, heute, morgen (heute Nachmittag, morgen Vormittag), as well as substantiated numerals (der Zweite) are written with capital letter. The changes also affected punctuation. Now, in a compound sentence with the unions und or oder, as well as in the Infinitiv + zu construction, a comma is not put.

The reform was received ambiguously.

As it became known, most writers from the very beginning refused to accept the new spelling rules. Officials themselves also violate the new rules, even in official documents. The population of Schleswig-Holstein held a referendum back in 1998 and voted in favor of rejecting the reform. In July 2005, the Institute for Demoscopy in Allensbach carried out a study on the acceptance of the reform by the population. The result showed a clear rejection of reform in Germany: only 8% of those polled supported the reform, 61% opposed it.

Of all the achievements of German Chancellor Schroeder, this reform is called "the most dubious." According to journalists, the new spelling rules only worsened the situation with the German language and led to massive confusion, since, according to polls, only 38% of the German population are familiar with the new rules. In most of the states affected by the reform, people are given the right to decide for themselves which spelling rules they apply. recycled.

On August 1, 2007, the final version of the law on the reform of German spelling came into force in Germany.. New punctuation and spelling rules are mandatory for everyone without exception public institutions and education systems. The reform cancels 87 of the 212 spelling rules, instead of 52 punctuation rules, only 12 remained. The decision to reform the written German language was made on July 1, 1996 in Vienna at a meeting of the ministers of culture of the German-speaking countries. Experts spent more than ten years developing the updated rules..

History of the German language

German (Deutsch, Deutsche Sprache) is the language of the Germans, Austrians and part of the Swiss. It is the official language of Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, one of the official languages ​​of Switzerland, Luxembourg and Belgium. The German language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages ​​(Germanic branch). Writing - based on the Latin alphabet.

Until the beginning of the 20th century. the Gothic script was officially used (in particular, there was a special Gothic script). Letters in the generally accepted European style are first used unofficially from the 19th century, and after the victory of the November Revolution of 1918 they are introduced officially. Nazi attempts to bring back Gothic as an official success were not successful, and it is currently only used for decorative purposes.

German names and titles are transmitted in Russian according to the traditional system, quite simple, but at the same time often conditional and not reflecting the pronunciation.

Literary German (Hochdeutsche Sprache, or Hochdeutsch) developed on the basis of High (South) German and Middle German dialects, in which the so-called second consonant shift took place during the Middle Ages. Gradually, it also influenced dialects that did not undergo the second consonant shift, such as Low (North) German (Niederdeutsch).

The word "teutsch" (Deutsch) is a Latin neoplasm based on the Germanic word for "people" (thioda, thiodisk) - it denoted the language of a people who did not speak Latin.

The first attempt to combine adverbs was made around 1200 in Middle German poetry. The success of this attempt is notable, as the poets, wanting to be understood outside their own regions, tried to avoid regional words and expressions. But one should not attach much importance to this attempt, since the majority of the population was illiterate. Therefore, scholars believe that the development of the new written and spoken Hochdeutsch took place during the late Middle Ages and early modern times (Frühe Neuzeit).

In most European countries, the standard literary language is based on the dialect of the capital of that country. Deutsch standard language(Hochdeutsch), unlike the practice of most European countries, is a cross between Middle German and High German dialects. Literary German is native only in Hannover. The Berlin dialect, on the contrary, is understood by residents of other regions with difficulty.

In northern Germany, Standard German (Hochdeutsch) spread as the language of government and schooling during the Reformation. During the heyday of the Hansa, Low German dialects and the Dutch language reigned throughout northern Germany. Over time, literary German in the northern regions of Germany practically replaced the local dialects. And since the Low German dialect is very different from the literary dialect, the formation of any compromise dialect was impossible, and most of the modern inhabitants of northern Germany speak only literary German and even often no longer speak the dialect of their ancestors. In the center and south of Germany, where the language was originally more like a literary language, the population retained its dialects.

Martin Luther translated the New Testament in 1521 and the Old Testament in 1534 into the then-unsettled standard New German written language (Neuhochdeutsch). The language he used in the translation had an "East Middle German" flavor and influenced the language of entire generations. Some scholars believe that the significance of the language of the Luther Bible in the formation of the New German language is greatly exaggerated compared to reality. Already from the 14th century, a region-wide written German language, which is also called Early New German (Frühneuhochdeutsch), gradually developed. The formation of standard written German was largely completed in the 17th century.

Periods of the history of the German language

750-1050: old literary German Althochdeutsch

1050-1350: Middle Literary German Mittelhochdeutsch

1350-1650: Early New Literary German Frühneuhochdeutsch

from 1650: modern literary German Neuhochdeutsch

The oldest monuments of the German language date back to the middle of the 8th century. The German language belongs to the Germanic branch (western group) of the Indo-European family. Approximately 3000-2500 years BC. Indo-European tribes settled in northern Europe. From their mixing with local tribes of a different ethnic group, the tribes that gave rise to the Germans originated. Their language, separated from other Indo-European languages, was the Germanic language-base, from which, in the process of subsequent fragmentation, new tribal languages ​​of the Germans arose. Subsequently, the German language, which did not have a single parental basis, developed in the process of convergence of several West Germanic dialects. The ancient Germans entered into military clashes with Rome early, and trade and economic relations were also conducted. Contacts were inevitably reflected in the vocabulary of Germanic dialects in the form of Latin borrowings.

The development of the German language from tribal dialects to the national literary language is associated with numerous migrations of its speakers. The Istveons (Franks) spread to the west of the continent, to the Romanized northern Gaul, where at the end of the 5th century. the bilingual state of the Merovingians was formed. Under the rule of the Franks, within the framework of the state of the Merovingians and Carolingians (5th-9th centuries), the West Germanic tribes (Franks, Alemanni, Bayuvars, Thuringians, Hutts), as well as the Saxons who moved in the 4th-5th centuries, united. from the coast North Sea in the area of ​​the Weser and the Rhine, which created the prerequisites for the later formation of the Old High German language as the language of the German people. Erminons (Alemanni, Bayuvars) from the 1st c. n. e. move from the Elbe basin to the south of Germany and later become carriers of southern German dialects. The basis of the Low German dialects was Old Saxon, which was originally part of the Ingvae group and was strongly influenced by the Frankish dialects. This influence is associated with the Frankish conquests. Under Charlemagne (768 - 814), the tribes of the Saxons, who lived in the wooded area between the lower Rhine and the Elbe, were subjugated and subjected to forced Christianization as a result of a series of long bitter wars.

The Christianization of the Germans contributed to the spread of their Latin writing and the Latin alphabet, the dictionary is enriched with Latin vocabulary associated with the Christian cult. Latin for a long time - as in other European states - remained the language of science, the official business and book language. The gigantic Frankish Empire was later divided into three parts, which was confirmed by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The East Frankish Empire, like other fragments of great empires, created by conquests, was multi-tribal, and the awareness of its inhabitants of their ethnic and linguistic unity came only at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th centuries, i.e. towards the end of the Old German and the beginning of the Middle German period, which was first reflected in the Annolied (between 1080 and 1085), where the word diutisch served as a symbol of the German linguistic community.

The basis of the language of the German people was, first of all, the group of dialects of the Frankish union of tribes (Salii and Ripuarii), in whose sphere of influence first the Alemannic and Bavarian dialects fell, and then, from the 9th century, the dialects of the Saxon language (Altsaechsisch), which gradually received the status of a Low German dialect as part of the German language, while the Frankish, Alemannic and Bavarian dialects began to oppose it as an High German dialect, combining South German and Middle German dialects.

A trend towards the formation of supradialectal forms of the language on a southwestern basis is outlined in the 12th-13th centuries. In the 13th-14th centuries. the formation of the German language leads to the fact that Latin is gradually losing its position as the language of the official business sphere. Gradually mixed East German dialects, formed as a result of the colonization of Slavic lands east of the river. Elbs, receive a leading role and, enriched by interaction with the South German literary tradition, form the basis of the German national literary language. The formation of this language as a national language was facilitated by the victory of the Reformation and the translation of the Bible into German by Martin Luther, as well as the intensive development in the 17th-19th centuries. fiction. The formation of the norms of the modern literary language ends mainly in the end. XVIII century, when the grammatical system was normalized, spelling stabilized, normative dictionaries were created, at the end of the XIX century. On the basis of stage pronunciation, orthoepic norms are developed. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. emerging literary norms spread to the north of Germany.

Features of the language and translation from German into Russian and from Russian into German

German orthography is historical, from which many inconsistencies between spelling and sound originate. Modern German has some normative differences, mainly in vocabulary and pronunciation. The well-known territorial differentiation in oral communication, which is reflected both in fiction and in its translation.

First dictionaries

Johann Christoph Adelung released in 1781 the first big dictionary In 1852, the Grimm brothers began the creation of an extensive Dictionary of the German Language (Deutsches Worterbuch), which was completed only in 1961.

Spelling

German spelling evolved during the 19th century. A significant breakthrough in the creation of a common spelling was achieved by Konrad Duden, who published the Spelling Dictionary of the German Language in 1880. During the reform of German spelling in 1901, this dictionary was recognized in a slightly modified form as the basis of the German official spelling.

Modern spelling reform

At the end of the 20th century, the leaders of the German-speaking countries - Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, as well as representatives of states with compact German minorities (Italy, Romania and Hungary) decided to reform the German spelling, which was planned to be completed in August 2005.

However, a year before this date, several leading newspapers and magazines in Germany (primarily those that are part of the largest publishing concern Axel Springer AG) announced a return to traditional rules.

One of the most conservative and respected newspapers in Germany, "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung", in 1999, like the whole country, switched to a new spelling, but returned to the usual spelling a year later. Also from new spelling refused the most important socio-political magazine of the country "Der Spiegel".

According to journalists, the new spelling rules only worsened the situation with the German language and led to massive confusion, since, according to polls, only 38% of the German population are familiar with the new rules. The officials themselves also violate the new rules, even in official documents.
Most writers are said to have refused to accept the new spelling rules from the outset. Of all the achievements of the Federal Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, Schroeder, this is called "the most dubious." In most of the states affected by the reform, in principle, people are given the right to decide for themselves which spelling rules they apply. In Germany, this issue has become the subject of internal party struggle and a way to get dividends from voters.

The population of Schleswig-Holstein back in 1998 held a referendum and voted in favor of rejecting the reform. However, the federal government, given the funds already spent on educating schoolchildren under the new rules, is unwilling to back down on spelling reform. At present, the spelling reform is being partially reworked, that is, a "reform reform" is being carried out.

History of German translation

The first written monuments of the Old German language date back to the 8th century. and are translations into German of Catholic prayers. By the end of the VIII - the beginning of the IX century. translations into German of the Gospel of Matthew, one of Augustine's sermons and Isidore of Seville's treatise "On the Christian Faith Against the Gentiles". Speaking about the latter, the researchers note that, despite the complexity of the content and style, the translator of the German language managed to perfectly cope with his task and show an amazing ability to use the means of his native language to translate the Latin original into German. Later, a German version of the translation of Tatian's "Gospel Harmony" (II century) was created, also translated from Latin. It is dominated by the principle of literal translation, i.e. transmission of text with preservation of word order.

At the turn of X - XI centuries. the activity of the monk of the St. Gallen monastery Notker Gubasty, also called Notker the German (950-1022), unfolds. In order to make life easier for his students, he decided, in his words, to "hitherto unheard of": he translated texts of Latin church-pedagogical literature into German. Other translations into German by Nocter are also known: the philosophical and theological works of Aristotle, Marcianus Capella, Boethius, as well as the psalms of David, Virgil's Bucoliki, etc. He invariably supplied his translations into German with commentaries. When translating, he had to make a lot of effort to create appropriate terms and convey concepts.

In the XII - XIII centuries. French chivalric romance is intensively mastered. There are translations into German of "The Song of Roland", "The Romance of Troy", "Ivein", etc. In the XIV - XV centuries, further development of translated literature is observed. Of particular note is the anonymous translation into German of the Bible, which was printed in 1465 in Strasbourg. The appearance of Holy Scripture in German became a kind of harbinger of the coming Reformation. Translations were made from religious works, scientific and literary texts, including the translation of some works of ancient authors, the flowering of translations of which, however, occurred later - in the Renaissance.

From the thirties of the XV century, Renaissance traditions began to appear in the activities of the humanists in Germany. The central place is occupied by translations from Greek and Latin. The reverence towards "solemn Latin" led to an almost complete tracing of the syntactic features of the original and saturation of the translation text with borrowed vocabulary. This trend was especially pronounced in the activities of Niklas von Wiele (1410-1497).

Considering his native language devoid of "art and correctness," Viele insisted on reproducing the classic text wort uss wort, i.e. word by word translation. This position was very popular among a significant number of German humanists of the 15th century, and the language of Vile's translations came to be regarded by them as a kind of high style, which many translators sought to imitate. However, the supporters of such a translation into German had many opponents. Thus, the writer and translator, Heinrich Steinhevel (1412-1482), who became especially famous for his version of Aesop's fables, argued that the original should not be transmitted word by word, but meaning by meaning. The language of his translations was distinguished by considerable freedom, simplicity, and a desire to reproduce the ideas of the original. Albrecht von Eyb (1420-1475), a translator of the German language, was guided by similar principles. He widely introduced German proverbs, sayings, everyday vocabulary into the text, and even "Germanized" the original, replacing latin names and the names of officials in German.

Particular interest in the problem of translation began to be observed in Germany from the second half of XVIII centuries. There is a growing desire to get acquainted with the works European literature, so to speak, not second-hand - according to translations from French translations, but according to German translations from the originals. The activities of Breutinger, Klopstock, Herder and other authors of this era are often characterized as a kind of "first peak" reached by German translation thought and in many ways prepared the rise that characterized German translation in the next centuries.

"Neither the French nor the English have such good translations from Greek as the Germans have now enriched their literature. Homer they have Homer: the same unartificial noble simplicity in the language that was the soul of the times."

Forms of language existence. Literary language. Stylistic resources of the Russian literary language Functional styles.

Literary language- the highest (exemplary and processed) form of the national language. According to their cultural and social status the literary language is opposed to territorial dialects, vernacular, social and professional jargons, and slang. The literary language is formed in the process of language development, therefore it is a historical category. Literary language is the language of culture, it takes shape at a high level of its development. Literary works are created in the literary language, and cultured people also speak. Borrowed words, jargon, clichés, stationery, etc. clog the language. Therefore, there is a codification (creation of norms) that creates order and preserves the purity of the language, showing a pattern. Norms are enshrined in the dictionaries of the modern Russian language and grammar reference books. The modern Russian literary language is at a high stage of its development; as a developed language, it has an extensive system of styles.

The process of formation and development of the national literary language is characterized by a tendency to expand its social base, the convergence of book-written and folk colloquial styles. It is no coincidence that the Russian literary language in the broadest sense is defined in time from A.S. Pushkin to the present day: it was A.S. Pushkin who brought the colloquial and literary language closer together, placing the language of the people as the basis for various styles of literary speech. I. S. Turgenev, in a speech about Pushkin, pointed out that Pushkin "one had to perform two works, in other countries separated by a century or more, namely: to establish a language and create literature." Here it should be noted the enormous influence that, in general, outstanding writers have on the formation of the national literary language. A significant contribution to the formation of the English literary language was made by W. Shakespeare, Ukrainian by T. G. Shevchenko, etc. The work of N. M. Karamzin became important for the development of the Russian literary language, about which, in particular, A. S. Pushkin spoke. According to him, this glorious Russian historian and writer "turned it (language) to the living sources of the people's word." On the whole, all Russian classical writers (N. V. Gogol, N. A. Nekrasov, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov, and others) participated to one degree or another in the development of the modern Russian literary language.

The literary language is usually the national language. It is based on some pre-existing form of the language, usually a dialect. The formation of a literary language during the formation of a nation usually occurs on the basis of one of the dialects - the dialect of the main political, economic, cultural, administrative, religious center of the country. This dialect is a synthesis of various dialects (urban koine). For example, the Russian literary language developed on the basis of the Moscow dialect. Sometimes a supra-dialect formation becomes the basis of the literary language, for example, the language of the royal court, as in France. The Russian literary language had several sources, among them we note the Church Slavonic language, the Moscow command language (the business state language of Moscow Russia), dialects (especially the Moscow dialect), and the languages ​​of great Russian writers. The significance of the Church Slavonic language in the formation of the Russian literary language was noted by many historians and linguists, in particular, L. V. Shcherba in the article “The Modern Russian Literary Language” said: “If the Russian literary language had not grown up in an atmosphere of Church Slavonic, then that wonderful poem would have been unthinkable Pushkin's "The Prophet", which we still admire to this day. Speaking about the sources of the modern Russian literary language, it is important to say about the activities of the first teachers of the Slavic Cyril and Methodius, the creation of Slavic writing by them, the translation of liturgical books on which many generations of Russian people were brought up. Initially, our Russian written culture was Christian, the first books in Slavic languages ​​were translations of the Gospel, the Psalter, the Acts of the Apostles, Apocrypha, etc. The Russian literary tradition is based on Orthodox culture, which, undoubtedly, was reflected not only in the works of fiction, but also in the literary language.

“The foundations for the normalization of the Russian literary language were laid by the great Russian scientist and poet M. V. Lomonosov. Lomonosov combines in the concept of "Russian language" all varieties of Russian speech - command language, lively oral speech with its regional variations, styles of folk poetry - and recognizes the forms of the Russian language as the constructive basis of the literary language, at least two (out of three) of its main styles " (Vinogradov V.V. “The main stages in the history of the Russian language”).

The literary language in any state is spread through schools where children are taught in accordance with literary norms. The Church has also played an important role here for many centuries.

The concepts of the literary language and the language of fiction are not identical, because the literary language covers not only the language of fiction, but also other implementations of the language: journalism, science, public administration, oratory, some forms colloquial speech. The language of fiction in linguistics is seen as more broad concept for the reason that works of art can include both literary language forms and elements of territorial and social dialects, jargon, slang, and vernacular.

The main features of the literary language:

The presence of certain norms (rules) of word usage, stress, pronunciation, etc. (moreover, the norms are stricter than in dialects), the observance of these norms is obligatory in nature, regardless of the social, professional and territorial affiliation of native speakers of a given language;

Striving for sustainability, for the preservation of the general cultural heritage and literary and book traditions;

The adaptability of the literary language to denote the entire amount of knowledge accumulated by mankind and to the implementation of abstract, logical thinking;

Stylistic wealth, which consists in the abundance of synonymous means that allow you to achieve the most effective expression of thought in various speech situations.

The means of the literary language appeared as a result of a long and skillful selection of the most accurate and weighty words and phrases, the most expedient grammatical forms and designs.

The main difference between the literary language and other varieties of the national language is its rigid normativity.

Let us turn to such varieties of the national language as dialect, vernacular, jargon, slang and slang, and try to identify their features.

Dialect(from the Greek dialektos - conversation, dialect, dialect) - a kind of a certain language used as communication by persons connected by a close territorial, social or professional community. There are territorial and social dialects.

Territorial dialect- part of a single language, its actually existing variety; opposed to other dialects. The territorial dialect has differences in sound structure, grammar, word formation, and vocabulary. These differences can be small (as in Slavic languages), then people speaking different dialects understand each other. The dialects of such languages ​​as German, Chinese, Ukrainian are very different from each other, so communication between people who speak such dialects is difficult or impossible. Examples: pan (Eastern Ukraine) - patent (Western Ukraine); stork names in different parts of Ukraine: Chornoguz , leleka ,boqiong , boqiang and etc.

Territorial dialect is defined as a means of communication for the population of a historically established region with specific ethnographic features.

Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, in connection with the change in territorial associations, fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects take place. The most active formation of dialects took place in the era of feudalism. With the overcoming of territorial fragmentation, the old territorial boundaries within the state break down, and dialects converge.

change in different eras relationship between dialects and literary language. Monuments of the feudal period, written on the basis of the folk language, reflect the local dialect features.

Social dialects- languages ​​of certain social groups. For example, professional languages ​​of hunters, fishermen, potters, traders, group jargons or slangs of students, students, athletes, soldiers, etc., which differ from the common language only in vocabulary, secret languages, slang of declassed elements.

Social dialects also include variants of the language of certain economic, caste, religious, etc., that are different from the national language. population groups.

Professionalisms- words and phrases human one profession and being, in contrast to the terms, semi-official names of the concepts of this profession. Professionalisms are distinguished by great differentiation in the designation of special concepts, objects, actions associated with a given profession, type of activity. These are, for example, the names of some properties of dogs used by hunters: appellation, politeness, superior flair, viscosity, deep climbing, hospitable, non-auditory, tearing, perek, walking, calliness, toughness etc.

vernacular- folk-spoken language, one of the forms of the national language, which is an oral non-codified (non-normative) sphere of national speech communication. The vernacular has a supra-dialectal character. Unlike dialects and jargons, speech that is generally understandable for native speakers of the national language exists in every language and is communicatively significant for all native speakers of the national language.

Vernacular is opposed to literary language. In vernacular, units of all language levels are represented.

The opposition of the literary language and vernacular can be traced in the area of ​​stress:

percent(space) - percent(lit.),

agreement(space) - contracts(lit.),

Deepen(space) - deepen(lit.),

calls(space) - ringing(lit.),

endpaper(space) - endpaper(lit.), etc.

In the field of pronunciation:

[right now] (space) - [ now] (lit.),

[pshol] (space) - [ pashol] (lit.)

In the field of morphology:

want(space) - want(lit.),

choice(space) - elections(lit.),

travel(space) - drive(lit.),

theirs(space) - them(lit.),

here(space) - here(lit.)

Common speech is characterized by expressively “reduced” evaluative words with a range of shades from familiarity to rudeness, for which there are neutral synonyms in the literary language:

« shy away» – « bump»

« blurt out» – « to tell»

« sleep» – « sleep»

« drape» – « run away»

Vernacular is a historically developed speech system. In Russian, colloquial speech arose on the basis of the Moscow colloquial koine. The formation and development of vernacular is associated with the formation of the Russian national language. The word itself was formed from the one used in the 16th-17th centuries. phrases "simple speech" (the speech of a commoner).

colloquial vocabulary, from one point of view, is an area of ​​illiterate speech, which is entirely outside the literary language and does not represent a single system. Examples: mother, nurse, clothing, cologne, business(with negative value), slimy, ailing, turn around, be angry, from afar, the other day.

From another point of view, colloquial vocabulary is words that have a bright, reduced stylistic coloring. These words make up two groups: 1) everyday vernacular, words included in the literary language and having a reduced (compared to colloquial words) expressive-stylistic coloring. Examples: dunce, carrion, slap in the face, shabby, fat-bellied, sleep, yell, foolishly; 2) rough, vulgar vocabulary (vulgarisms) that is outside the literary language: bastard, bitch, hamlo, mug, foul, slam and etc.

There is also literary vernacular, which serves as the border of the literary language with the colloquial language - a special stylistic layer of words, phraseological units, forms, turns of speech, endowed with a bright expressive coloring of "decrease". The norm of their use is that they are allowed into the literary language with limited stylistic tasks: as a means of social and speech characterization of characters, for the “reduced” characterization of persons, objects, events in the expressive plan. Literary vernacular includes only those speech elements that have become entrenched in the literary language due to their long-term use in literary texts, after a long selection, semantic and stylistic processing. The composition of literary vernacular is mobile and constantly updated, many words and expressions have acquired the status of "colloquial" and even "book", for example: " everything is formed», « whiner», « nerd».

colloquial vocabulary- words that have a slightly reduced (compared to neutral vocabulary) stylistic coloring and are characteristic of spoken language, i.e. oral form of the literary language, acting in conditions of unconstrained unprepared communication. To colloquial vocabulary carry some nouns with suffixes - Ah, – tai, – Ulya), – un, – w(a), – osh, – yag(a), – yak and etc. ( bearded, lazy, dirty, screamer, conductor, kid, poor fellow, fat man); some adjectives with suffixes - ast–, – at–,

–ovate – ( toothy, hairy, reddish); a number of verbs in - nothing(to be sarcastic, to be fashionable); some verbs with prefixes behind –, on the- and postfix - Xia(to poke around, to look at, to pounce on, to visit); nouns and verbs formed from phrases: stowaway< without a ticket, student's record book < record book, newsletter < be on the ballot, as well as many others. In dictionaries, these words are marked "colloquial". All of them are uncommon in official business and scientific styles.

Jargon- a type of speech used in communication (more often oral) by a separate relatively stable social group that unites people on the basis of their profession (jargon of drivers, programmers), position in society (jargon of the Russian nobility in the 19th century), interests (jargon of philatelists) or age (youth jargon). Jargon differs from the national language in its specific vocabulary and phraseology and the special use of word-formation means. Part of the slang vocabulary belongs not to one, but to many (including disappeared) social groups. Passing from one jargon to another, the words "general fund" can change form and meaning. Examples: " darken» in slang - « hide prey", later -" cunning"(under interrogation), in modern youth jargon -" speak obscure but", " dodge».

The vocabulary of jargon is replenished in different ways:

at the expense borrowings from other languages:

dude- boy (gypsy)

head- bash in Tatar head

shoes- shoes from shoes (English)

ban(computer jargon) - a software ban on the use of a certain Internet resource, imposed by the administrator from English. to ban: banish, exile

din - play computer games from English. game

banging - play computer games from it. spiel

by abbreviations:

basket– basketball

liters– literature

PE- physical Culture

zaruba- foreign literature

disser– dissertation

by rethinking commonly used words:

« rush"- go

« unfasten» - give part of the money

« wheelbarrow"- car

Jargon can be worn openly and closed nature. According to O. Jespersen, in open groups (youth), jargon is a collective game. In closed groups, jargon is also a signal that distinguishes one from another, and sometimes a means of conspiracy (secret language).

Jargon expressions are quickly replaced by new ones:

50-60s of the twentieth century: money - Tugriks

70s of the twentieth century money - coins, money(s)

80s of the twentieth century and at the moment - money, green, cabbage and etc.

The vocabulary of jargon penetrates into the literary language through the vernacular and the language of fiction, where it is used as a means of speech characteristics.

Jargon is a means of opposing oneself to the rest of society.

Argo- a special language of a limited social or professional group, consisting of arbitrarily chosen modified elements of one or more natural languages. Argo is used more often as a means of hiding the objects of communication, as well as a means of isolating the group from the rest of society. Argo is considered a means of communication for declassed elements, common among the underworld (thieves' slang, etc.).

The basis of slang is a specific dictionary, widely including foreign language elements (in Russian - gypsy, German, English). Examples:

Fenya- language

feather - knife

tail - shadowing

stand on the lookout, stand on the nix - stand guard at the commission of a crime, warning of impending danger

bucks– dollars, foreign currency

actually- right

sump- a place where pre-sale preparation of a stolen car is carried out

move with your girl- steal a car

box- garage

registration– illegal connection to the car security system

great grandfather - Land Cruiser Prada

work with a horse to transport the loot from the apartment of the owner of the things.

Slang- 1) the same as jargon, slang is more often used in relation to the jargon of English-speaking countries; 2) a set of jargons that make up a layer of colloquial speech, reflecting a familiar, sometimes humorous attitude to the subject of speech. It is used in conditions of easy communication: mura, dregs, blat, buzz.

Elements of slang quickly disappear, being replaced by others, sometimes passing into the literary language, leading to the emergence of semantic and stylistic differences.

The main problems of the modern Russian language in the communicative sphere: obscene vocabulary (foul language), unjustified borrowings, jargon, argotism, vulgarism.

The process of formation of the national literary language was long and ambiguous, since initially the German language is found only in the form of separate dialects, of which for a thousand years - from Charlemagne to today- a single national language was formed, which we call Hochdeutsch / Standarddeutsch /.

The approximate date of the emergence of the German language is considered to be the period around 700 AD. During this period, the German language was denoted by the word diutisc (lat. theodiscus), which most likely meant “folk” (from the ancient German diot - people / Volk). Beginning in the 11th century, the word deutsch began to be used to refer to the language and people of Germany.

In general, the following phenomena and events had a key impact on the formation of the national literary language:

The transition to the use of the German language in medieval monastic schools. As you know, in the early Middle Ages, the main language of written and oral communication in monasteries (the main sources for the development of philosophy, language, natural sciences) was Latin.

In the Middle Ages, German becomes the language of the Kaiser's office (13th century), thus displacing Latin.

The flourishing of German cities and the economy in the late Middle Ages (for example, during the emergence of the Hanseatic cities / die Hanse - the trade and industrial union of North German cities /) led to the development of trade correspondence (mail) and accounting.

Accession eastern territories(part of the territories of Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia; Brandenburg) necessitated the harmonization of languages.

Johannes Gutenberg invents typography in 1445. The advent of typography had a particularly strong influence on the development of writing, including due to the fact that book printers were able to sell their publications and the written language became accessible to a wider segment of the population.

critical role played Martin Luther's translation of the Bible from Latin into German (1521 - translation of the New Testament).

The introduction of universal compulsory education in the 18th century. led to the official constitution of the German language as the language of instruction (previously only Latin was considered such).

Industrialization in the 19th century and the development of newspaper business, the press.

The development of mobile telephony, the emergence of SMS, leading to the spread of spoken language.

The emergence of the Internet as one of the means of mass dissemination of the national German language and its variants.

The actual history of German spelling begins in the 15th century with the publication of the Spelling Law by Kaiser Maximilian. This medieval orthography was very different from today's, however, some principles modern spelling were already laid down. For example, capitalizing nouns (but not all!).

The next important step was the adoption of uniform spelling norms in 1901-02 during the existence of the German Empire (Second German Reich). This event was preceded by two spelling conferences - in 1876. and actually in 1901. At the last spelling conference, a resolution was adopted on uniform spelling rules that regulated, among other things, such aspects as capitalization, continuous and separate spelling, hyphenation and punctuation rules on the territory of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary and Switzerland . These rules were in effect until the end of the 20th century, until it was announced in 1998. German spelling reforms

test questions

1. Which group of Germanic languages ​​does German belong to?

2. Expand the concepts of "variance" and "language norm".

3. What is "literary German"?

4. Why is German a pluricentric language?

5. What are the main stages in the formation of German spelling?

Lecture 2

Modern reform of German spelling: basic principles and motives for change

1) The main causes and motivation of the modern spelling reform.

2) Basic principles of the modern German spelling reform.

3) Sounds and letters.

4) capitalization

5) Consolidated and separate spelling

6) Transfer rules and other changes

Question 1. The main reasons and motivation for the modern German spelling reform

July 1, 1996 A conference on spelling issues was held in Vienna, at which an agreement was reached on the introduction of new spelling rules throughout the German-speaking space (on the territory of Germany, Austria, Switzerland and other states). These rules, most of which have been taught in schools since 1996, have been the subject of a long discussion among linguists, politicians, sociologists, as well as within the German-speaking community itself. A special referendum was held on this issue, the results of which were generally positive.

At the same time, however, it was also negative opinions, which were quite widespread in a number of territories. An illustration of this can serve as the results of a referendum in the federal state of Schleswig-Holstein, 56% of whose population opposed the introduction of new rules. This was due to the habit of writing according to the old rules, the presence of a large number of old textbooks, the lack of readiness for serious changes. linguistic character, since the national language is perceived by many as a kind of guarantor of the stability of society.

In this regard, the so-called transitional period (transition from the old rules to the new ones) was announced on the territory of all German-speaking countries, which was in effect during 1998-2005 (die Übergangsperiode). The final date for the transition period was 31 July 2005. Up to this point, writing according to the old rules was not considered erroneous, but was considered only as obsolete.

As a reference source for comparing old and new forms, it was decided to use the reference volume „Duden. Rechtschreibung. Gradually, other publications appeared, explaining not only spelling principles changes, but also their social motives.

What are the motives for the new spelling reform(die Rechtschreibreform)?

The main goal was to systematize the federal, Austrian and Swiss spelling variants, within which quite numerous differences were observed in the spelling of certain words, punctuation, and placement of signs. Another, no less important motive was the simplification of writing individual letter combinations in certain words, the simplification of the rules of punctuation and hyphenation. The discussion on this issue began in the 70s of the 20th century. As a result, the Interstate Agreement on Common New Spelling Rules (Zwischenstaatliches Аbkommen über die einheitliche Neuregelung der Rechtschreibung) appeared. The agreement was signed in Vienna in 1996.

Question 2. Basic principles of the modern German spelling reform

One of key principles reform was the maximum simplification and reduction of spelling rules (reducing them to minimum quantity). Instead of the previously existing 212 rules, only 136 are fixed in the new Duden. Punctuation rules have been reduced from the previous 38 to 26 paragraphs.

The next important principle is the implementation of a number of oral conversational habits in writing (as we speak, we write). This should include, in particular, the Germanization of a number of foreign words, for example: Joghurt - Jogurt, Delphin - Delfin, etc.

Structure of changes:

The reform covers six sections of spelling: sound-letter correspondences (including the spelling of foreign words), bringing words within the same lexical family to a single spelling, Germanization of foreign words, continuous and separate spelling, capitalization, punctuation.

Let's consider each of the aspects in more detail.

Question 3. Sounds and letters

Principles of the reform of German spelling

German is the native language of more than 110 million people and one of the languages ​​of international communication. It is spoken by the population of Germany, Austria and part of the population of Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, France and other countries. Significant groups German-speaking populations live in the USA, Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Russia, Kazakhstan, Poland, Romania and other countries. German belongs to the western subgroup of the Germanic group of the Indo-European family of languages.

The following periods are distinguished in the history of the German language: Old High German (8th-11th centuries), Middle High German (mid-11th-14th centuries) and New High German. A more accurate periodization also takes into account the rather long period of formation of the New German literary language - Early New High German (mid-14th - mid-17th centuries). A certain role in the development of the German language was played by the so-called "Eastern colonization" - the conquest of the Slavic and Baltic lands (10-13 centuries). So, throughout eastern Germany, there are numerous toponyms of Slavic origin with endings in -itz, -in, -ow, au, etc. Originally Slavic surnames are extremely common in eastern Germany and Austria. However lexical borrowings from Slavic languages ​​to German are not numerous - for example, Grenze "border", Quark "cottage cheese", Petschaft "seal". In different eras, borrowings from German to Slavic were carried out. The vocabulary of the Russian language includes such words as fair< ср.-верх.-нем. jвrmarket, грифель < Griffel (18 в.), рубанок < Raubank (18 в.), галстук > < чешск. hrubian < нем. Grobian, ратуша < польск. ratusz < нем. Rathaus и др. Некоторые слова, восходящие к латинскому (греческому) корнеслову, проникли в русский язык через посредство немецкого: филология < Philologie (18 в.), факультет < Fakultдt (18 в.)

The system of functional styles of the German language includes the literary language (Schriftsprache, Standardsprache, Hochdeutsch), which is close to literary norm everyday colloquial language (Umgangssprache), regional (territorially colored) everyday spoken languages ​​(Berlin, North German, Upper Saxon-Thuringian, Württemberg, Baden, Bavarian, Palatinate, Hessian), numerous semi-dialects (regional colloquial supra-dialect forms of the language that arose on the basis of dialects, distinguished from dialects proper by the elimination of the most specific dialect features) and proper territorial dialects.

The German language in Austria is represented by the literary language in its Austrian national variant, which differs in some features of phonetics (lack of aspiration in the initial p-, t-, k-, specific articulation of diphthongs, etc.), morphology (differences in the grammatical gender of nouns, in the formation plural etc.) and vocabulary (for example, Schale instead of German Tasse "cup", etc.). The vocabulary of the Austrian version contains more Slavic, French, Italian and other borrowings. There are also such forms as everyday colloquial language, semi-dialects and territorial dialects.

The German language in Switzerland exists in two forms: the literary language in its Swiss version and the territorial dialects, united by the name Schwyzertuutsch, German. Schweizerdeutsch "Swiss-German". The main features of the Swiss version of the German literary language in the field of phonetics are the specific pronunciation of diphthongs, the weak aspiration of the initial p-, t-, k-, the voiceless pronunciation of s in the initial and intervocalic positions, etc., in the field of grammar - the specifics of verb control, the use of prepositions and etc., and in the vocabulary - the presence of Helvetisms (words that do not have an etymological correspondence in the German norm - cf. Atti "father", German Vater) and the archaic coloring of many words (cf. Gant "auction" - a word that has fallen out of use in South German and Austrian areas). The dialects that formed Schwyzertuutsch are quite numerous and sometimes show significant differences; individual dialects (for example, Wallisa) may be poorly understood by those who speak the main dialects of the country (Zurich, Bernese, etc.). The differences between Swiss-German and standard German, both in the field of phonetics and in the field of grammar, are so significant that it is incomprehensible to a native speaker of German without special training. Swiss-German is firmly established in the realm of spoken language: it is used in oral communication regardless of the social class of the speakers, as well as in public speech (worship, radio, television) and on initial stage learning at school, while the Swiss version of the German literary language acts as a written norm. In everyday life, the prestige of Swiss-German is very high.

Literary German is designated by the term "Hochdeutsch" (lit. "high" German). The term hochdeutsch itself is used in two senses. On the one hand, linguists use this term to designate the dialects of the more southern, elevated part of Germany, i.e. "High German" - as opposed to the dialects of the North German lowlands, united by the name "Low German" ("niederdeutsch"). On the other hand, "Hochdeutsch" acts as a designation for a common German literary form national language, which developed in the New German period on the basis of High German (South-Eastern and Middle German) dialects as opposed to territorially fragmented dialects, both Low and High German (i.e. as "high" style as opposed to "low"; it is precisely in this the meaning of the term "Hochdeutsch" is fixed in everyday consciousness).

Dialects of the German language show a wide range of variation. The main border of the dialect division runs along the line crossing the Rhine at Benrath south of Düsseldorf (the so-called "Benrath line": Düsseldorf - Magdeburg - Frankfurt on the Oder), which separates the High German dialects from the Low German ones and represents the northern border of the distribution of the second movement of consonants.

The term "second movement of consonants" denotes a radical restructuring of the common Germanic system of occlusive consonants that occurred in the Old High German language (6-8 centuries AD) and covered both voiced and voiceless occlusions (the latter changed depending on the sound environment in the word). The intensity of the process is not the same: the second movement was carried out most consistently in South German (Bavarian, Alemannic) dialects. As part of the second movement of consonants, the following changes are combined: voiceless stops p, t, k in the position after the vowel turn into strong voiceless spirants ff, zz, hh (cf. OE scip - OE high German scif " ship", OE Hw?t - OE waz "what", OE secan - OE suohhen "to seek"), and in the position before vowels into voiceless affricates pf, ts, kh (cf. OE ?ppel - OE apful "apple", OE tid - OE zit "time", OE weorc - OE South German werch "work"); voiced stops b, d, g give voiceless stops p, t, k, and the transition d > t, preserved in modern German, is carried out most consistently (cf. OE dohtor, New English daughter - OE-upper- German tohter, New German Tochter "daughter"), while the transitions b > p, g > k are limited to South German dialects (cf. OE gifan - OE South German kepan, New German geben "to give ") and is currently preserved only in the southernmost group of dialects of the Alpine zone (Switzerland, southern Bavaria, southern Austria). The second movement is systemically and chronologically (8th-11th centuries) connected with the process of transition of a voiceless interdental spirant to a voiced stop d.

The Low German dialect area covers the following dialects: Low Frankish, Low Saxon (Westphalian and Ostphalian), North Saxon, East Low German (Mecklenburg and Brandenburg). High German dialects are subdivided into Middle German and South German groups (the border is approximately along the line Strasbourg - Heidelberg - southern Thuringia - Plauen). The Middle German group includes the Middle Frankish (Ripuarian and Moselle-Frankish), Rhenish-Frankish (Hessian and Palatinate) and East Middle German (Thuringian and Upper Saxon) dialects, the South German group includes Upper Frankish (South Frankish and East Frankish), Alemannic (Swabian, Lower Alemannic and Upper Alemannic) and Bavarian-Austrian (Northern Bavarian, Middle Bavarian, Middle Austrian and South Austrian) dialects.

German language uses Latin alphabet with additional letters a, o, u. Until the beginning of the 20th century such a variety of the Latin alphabet as Gothic writing was widely used. Nouns are written with capital letter(cf. das Haus "house"). The oldest written monuments of the German language date back to the 8th century.

The following periods are distinguished in the history of the German language: Old High German (8th-11th centuries), Middle High German (mid-11th-14th centuries) and New High German. A more accurate periodization also takes into account the rather long period of formation of the New German literary language - Early New High German (mid-14th - mid-17th centuries). The so-called "Eastern colonization" played a certain role in the development of the German language - the conquest of Slavic and Baltic lands (10-13 centuries) . So, throughout eastern Germany, there are numerous toponyms of Slavic origin with endings in -itz, -in, -ow, au, etc. Originally Slavic surnames are extremely common in eastern Germany and Austria. However, lexical borrowings from Slavic languages ​​into German are not numerous - for example, Grenze "border", Quark "cottage cheese", Petschaft "seal". In different eras, borrowings from German to Slavic were carried out. The vocabulary of the Russian language includes such words as fair< ср.-верх.-нем. jarmarket, грифель < Griffel (18 в.), рубанок < Raubank (18 в.), галстук >Halstuch (18th century) and others, including through other Slavic languages: cf. rude< чешск. hrubian < нем. Grobian, ратуша < польск. ratusz < нем. Rathaus и др. Некоторые слова, восходящие к латинскому (греческому) корнеслову, проникли в русский язык через посредство немецкого: филология < Philologie (18 в.), факультет < Fakultat (18 в.) и др.