Introduction

The Russian language is great and varied. It is very difficult sometimes to orient in all this richness and variety of words. How to determine the correct spelling unfamiliar word? How to find out its meaning or find out its origin? How to replace it with another more understandable word? How to use it in one or another combination? All these questions can be answered in linguistic dictionaries.

Even A. Franz called the dictionary "the universe arranged in alphabetical order".Dictionaries are not only reference books, but also an element of national culture: after all, many aspects of human life are captured in the word.

Are linguistic dictionaries popular today? How often do we, the younger generation, turn to them? Are we aware of the importance of dictionaries in our lives?

For this reason, we have definedgoal of the work :

determining the level of significance of dictionaries in the life of a modern teenager

To achieve the goal settasks :

Expand the concept of "linguistic dictionary", consider the types of linguistic dictionaries,

Study the variety of dictionaries presented on bookshelves in libraries, shops, school offices;

To analyze the level of knowledge of various types of dictionaries by modern schoolchildren, the level of formation of their lexicographic competencies.

The study was conducted in the village of Babanakovo from January 15 to March 16, 2011.

The methodology of work includes experimental methods: interviewing, questioning, observation and statistical analysis.

Russian lexicography. From the history.

The need to fix the meaning of unfamiliar words (most often foreign words), their interpretation, appeared with the birth of ancient Russian writing. The encyclopedic and dictionary elements of the presentation were first noted in the text of the articles in Svyatoslav's Izbornik in 1073.

End XIII century - the time of the appearance of the first dictionaries of the Russian language. These were handwritten glossary lists interpreting incomprehensible words found in ancient Russian writing. The earliest surviving glossary contains 174 words, comes from Novgorod, dates back to 1282- “The speech of the Jewish language has been translated into Russian, unreasonably into reason, and in the Gospels, and in the Apostles, and in the Psalms, and in Parmia, and in other books.”Until the 15th century, handwritten glossaries existed in Russia, among which were dictionaries of proper names - onomasticons, as well as tributaries - collections of words that were assigned a symbolic meaning.

In the 16th century, encyclopedic principles for compiling dictionaries were formed; for ease of use, the vocabulary was built alphabetically (alphabet). The functionality of dictionaries is expanding, they combine explanations of the meaning of words and concepts, interpretations of foreign language words, and chronological comparisons. The first printed Russian dictionary was published in 1596 in Vilna (now Vilnius) - as an appendix to the grammar, it was published by the priest-philologist Lavrenty Zizania.“Lexis, that is, the sayings are briefly collected and interpreted from the Slovenian language into a simple Russian dialect” contained 1 "061 words. Lexis gave interpretations of book Slavic and a small number of foreign words..

ATXVIIIcentury, scientific interest in the origin and formation of individual words leads to the appearance of etymological notes by Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Tatishchev and other writers and scientists. At the end of the century, a number of dictionaries of the Church Slavonic language were published (the “Church Dictionary” and “Supplement” to it contained an explanation of more than twenty thousand words).

With the reforms of Peter the Great, many foreign words came into the Russian language. In this regard, much attention is paid to the compilation of dictionaries of foreign vocabulary. In 1773 the first Russian dictionary of synonyms was published.DI. Fonvizin. In 1783, the Russian Academy began to deal with the national lexicographic project, as a result of this work in 1789 - 1794 appeared "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" in 6 parts, containing 43,257 words.

In XIXcentury, vocabulary in Russia has reached significant development. In 1863-1866 he was published "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language IN AND. Dalia", which still occupies important place in contemporary Russian culture.Having put folk speech as the basis of the dictionary, including in it the vocabulary of common, dialectal, bookish. Dahl sought to reflect in it all the lexical richness of the Russian language (about 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs and sayings).

critical role in the history of lexicography of the Soviet era, the four-volume "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by D. N. Ushakov, published in 1934-1940, played. In the dictionary, numbering 85,289 words, many issues of normalizing the Russian language, streamlining word usage, shaping, and pronunciation were resolved. The dictionary is built on the vocabulary of works of art, journalism, scientific literature. On the basis of the dictionary edited by D. N. Ushakov in 1949, S. I. Ozhegov created a one-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language, containing over 52 thousand words. The dictionary has been repeatedly reprinted, starting from the 9th edition, edited by N. Yu. Shvedova.

AT XXcentury along with explanatory dictionariesspecial dictionaries are created that describe a certain part of the vocabulary - phraseology, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms. Normative lexicography is developing: spelling dictionaries establish spelling standards, and orthoepic dictionaries establish pronunciation. Grammar dictionaries represent morphemic composition Russian word and its word-formation system, inflection, management and use of syntactic forms.

Linguistic dictionaries and their types

Lexicography - one of the applied (having a practical purpose and application) sciences included in modern linguistics. This is the section , in charge of drafting dictionariesand their study; a science that studies the semantic structure of a word, the features of their interpretation.

In the study and use of language units, dictionaries perform two functions: informative (introduction to knowledge) and normative (improving the language). In accordance with these functions, dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic and linguistic (language). .

Linguistic dictionaries- these are scientific reference publications where words (all parts of speech) and stable combinations of words with their interpretation, stress, grammatical, style, stylistic and other special language markings are placed in alphabetical order.

Linguistic dictionaries can be divided into multilingual, bilingual (translatable) and monolingual, where the words are characterized in the language of the dictionary. Monolingual dictionaries can be complex (such are explanatory dictionaries) and aspect, reflecting one or another aspect (for example, synonymous, derivational, etc.). According to the functions and purposes of creation, dictionaries are divided into descriptive (describe the variety of Russian speech) and normative (display the norms of using a word)..

A special place among linguistic dictionaries is occupied bysensible , whose task is to explain (interpret) the meanings of words and illustrate their use in speech. In society, explanatory dictionaries are perceived as a repository of the richness of the language and as the most important source of information about its functioning. With the alphabetical arrangement of words in the explanatory dictionary, all the meanings of the word, its grammatical characteristics are consistently described, accompanied by stylistic marks (for example, “book”, “special”) and examples of the use of words in speech. Among the largest explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language are the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I. Ushakov (more than 85 thousand words) and "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova (more than 57 thousand words).

Dictionary of foreign words - this is a kind of explanatory dictionary, which explains the meanings of words of foreign origin, which are felt by native speakers as borrowings from other languages. In addition to the actual interpretation, dictionaries of this type include information about the language from which the word came and its foreign counterpart. One of the most famous dictionaries of foreign words is a dictionary edited by I.V. Lyokhin, S.M. Lokshina, F.N. Petrova and L.S. Shaumyan, which contains about 23 thousand words.

Special types of explanatory dictionaries can be considereddictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms and paronyms. In the dictionaries of synonyms, words that are close in meaning are placed, forming synonymous rows that begin with a dominant head word. Each synonymic row is accompanied by marks indicating the scope of the word, its compatibility or stylistic affiliation. Dictionaries of synonyms appeared a long time ago: (in addition to the already mentioned dictionary of D.I. Fonvizin), interest is caused by "Dictionaries of synonyms of the Russian language» edited by A.P. Evgenyeva (1970-1971) and Z.E. Alexandrova (1968).

The dictionary entry of the antonym dictionary contains antonyms (words with opposite meanings) with a more or less detailed description of their meanings. Dictionaries of antonyms in the Russian lexicographic tradition appeared relatively recently. The most famous are « Dictionaries of antonyms of the Russian language» L.A. Vvedenskaya, M.R. Lvov, ed. L.A. Novikov (1988).

In the dictionaries of homonyms, homonymous (i.e., coinciding in form, but different in meaning) lexical units are presented with varying degrees of detail. Among the Russian-language dictionaries of this type, the most famousDictionary of homonyms of the Russian language O.S. Akhmanova (1974, 1986).

The dictionaries of paronyms include words that are similar in morphological composition and only slightly differ in the meaning of the word. The dictionary shows the possible compatibility with other words, if necessary, gives a stylistic description, synonyms and antonyms. Released in 1971 « Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language "N.P. Kolesnikov, and in 1984 O.V. Vishnyakova. To a certain extent, the functions of a dictionary of paronyms are also performed by Dahl's dictionary, whose articles combine single-root words.

ATetymological dictionaries the origin of words is explained, indications are given regarding the original or borrowed nature of the word, the forms of the word are often given, the most ancient meaning, the time of appearance in the language and the source of the borrowing are noted. The most famous etymological dictionaries are "Etymological dictionaries of the Russian language" by A. Preobrazhensky, M. Fasmer, N.M. Shansky.

Inphraseological dictionaries phraseological units are fixed and explained, their synonyms and antonyms, forms of their use are given, information about their origin, stylistic and grammatical marks and examples from fiction illustrating the use of phraseological units in speech are given.Phraseological material is quite widely covered both in the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, and in the collections of "Winged words and expressions", compiled by N. S. and M. G. Ashukins, S. Maksimov. For the first time "Phraseological Dictionary" edited by A.I. Molotkova came out in 1967. Subsequently appear“School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1989) by V.P. Zhukov and A.V. Zhukov, and “Educational Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” (1984) by E.A. Bystrova, A.P. Okuneva, N.M. .

Derivational dictionaries - dictionaries showing the division of words into their constituent morphemes, the word-formation structure of the word, as well as the totality of words (word-formation nest) with a given morpheme - root or affix. Words in word-building dictionaries are given with division into morphemes and with stress. The most complete are the “Dictionary of Russian morphemes” by A.I. Kuznetsova, T.T. Efremova, in which more than 4400 roots, 70 prefixes and about 500 suffixes are recorded, and A.N. Tikhonov’s “Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language”, which describes the structure of about 145 thousand words.

To normativedictionaries includeorthologicaldictionaries serving the tasks of improving the language and speech, strengthening existing norms literary language. There are three main varieties: orthographic, orthoepic and dictionaries of "difficulties" of speech.Spelling dictionaries are reference books formed by alphabetical lists of words and some forms in standard spelling. Reflecting their contemporary spelling, spelling dictionaries reflect the movement of the language, capturing trends in the spelling of certain words.Orthoepic dictionaries - lexicographic publications reflecting the norms of pronunciation and stress of words. They may contain grammatical information, as well as information about semantic and word-formation features.For those who seek to improve their literacy and culture of speech,dictionaries of difficulties of the Russian language (grammatical), in which you can get information not only about the spelling and pronunciation of a word, but also about its formation, learn the grammatical and stylistic characteristics of the word, possible compatibility, management, and also the correct use of the word.Dictionaries of this type include« Dictionary of the difficulties of the Russian language "Rosenthal D. E.,.
"Dictionary of grammatical difficulties of the Russian language" by T. F. Efremova
In 2009, L. I. Skvortsov’s “Large Explanatory Dictionary of Correct Russian Speech: 8000 Words and Expressions” was published, considering difficult cases, variants and fluctuations of the literary norm in the field of pronunciation, stress, word formation, grammar, word usage and phraseological expressions. .

Such a variety of linguistic dictionaries should contribute to the development of language competencies, improving writing literacy and oral speech person.

Dictionaries around us

The French lexicographer Alan Rey called modern civilization the civilization of dictionaries. Kozyrev V.A. and Chernyak V.D. in their book "The Universe in Alphabetical Order", dedicated to Russian lexicography, argued that "an alarming decline general level speech culture makes one particularly acutely aware of the role of the dictionary as the most important and indispensable tool that forms the skills of a conscious attitude to one's speech..

A variety of types of dictionaries, including linguistic ones, should be available to any person. Seemingly,today, a huge number of dictionaries should be presented on the shelves of libraries and bookstores. Such a variety of dictionaries can only be found in major cities. Even in our city of Belovo, in any bookstore, the central network of libraries, you can find one or another dictionary. Consequently, many people are familiar with the typology of dictionaries and their purpose.

Having studied the dictionaries presented on the bookshelves of the library of the Shakhtar Palace of Culture, the Maria-Ra store, we were convinced of the opposite: there are almost no linguistic dictionaries. Basically, encyclopedic ones predominate.

In the library, we were offered to work with the explanatory dictionaries of V.I. Dal, S.I. Ozhegov, D.N. Ushakov, they did not ask what goal we are pursuing. Having specified the goal (the origin of the word), we received the answer: “There are no other dictionaries, look on the Internet.”

In the book department of the Maria-Ra store, we were shown " orthographic dictionary» I.A. Kuzmina and various translation dictionaries. During the conversation with the seller, we found out that other types of dictionaries are not in demand among buyers, so they are not on sale. There was not a single dictionary on the bookshelves of the Chibis store. (Appendix 1)

The data of the questionnaire survey of students showed that a small number of students have spelling (30%) and explanatory dictionaries (15%) that were once acquired by their parents (still at their school age). But schoolchildren very rarely work with them, because they believe that you can check the spelling of a word by phone, and it is easy to find its meaning on the Internet.

Do schoolchildren really not know the typology of linguistic dictionaries and do not know how to work with them? Interviews with school teachers showed that in their lessons they introduce students to dictionaries, form their lexicographic competencies(ability to use dictionaries and extract the necessary information from them , awareness of the need to refer to the dictionary to solve cognitive and communicative tasks). But this is not always possible, since the available dictionaries of different types, unfortunately, are presented in one copy (Appendix 2.6). The results of a survey of schoolchildren show that most often students work with dictionaries in Russian language lessons. Spelling dictionaries are especially popular, and 56% of students turn to them if they find it difficult to write words. 44% of schoolchildren work with explanatory and phraseological dictionaries, who find it difficult to interpret words or phraseological units. Only 8% of students turn to spelling dictionaries in preparation for linguistic competitions and olympiads. Dictionaries of other types, as the survey shows, are known to them, but working with them does not arouse their interest, because all other information about words can be learned from the teacher. (Annex 3)

Observation and analysis of readers' cards in the school library allow us to conclude that schoolchildren (23%) do not work much with dictionaries, although there are dictionaries of various types on the bookshelves. Sometimes high school students take an explanatory dictionary or a dictionary of foreign words to find out the meaning of a word they do not understand. But this happens if the Russian language classroom is busy (another teacher is teaching there).

Having made sure that schoolchildren have the opportunity to work with dictionaries, they know the typology of linguistic dictionaries, we decided to find out how well they know how to navigate in such a variety. The level of formation of students' lexicographic competencies helped to determine practical tasks aimed at finding out the meaning of an unfamiliar word, its origin, spelling and pronunciation, lexical and grammatical compatibility, which they had to complete for certain time. (Appendix 4) 54% of students easily found the meaning of an unfamiliar word, its spelling, pronunciation and origin in the corresponding types of dictionaries. 44% of students coped with phraseological units. Difficulties arose in 46% of schoolchildren in determining lexical (the ability of words to connect with each other) and grammatical compatibility (associated with the grammatical characteristics of words). They used the wrong types of dictionaries. So, when compiling sentences with paronyms, 34% of students turned to the explanatory dictionary for help, which led to an increase in time when completing the task. When eliminating grammatical errors, none of the students used the dictionary of difficulties in the Russian language.

The inability to navigate in the variety of linguistic dictionaries, to quickly extract the necessary information from the appropriate source is one of the reasons for the unconscious attitude to the word as a unit of language, which leads to a decrease in the level of literacy of schoolchildren. Many students who do not know how to work with dictionaries made mistakes when completing assignments. (Annex 5)

Conclusion

The study of literature on this topic, observation of the process of work of schoolchildren with dictionaries, questioning, interviewing teachers allow us to do the followingfindings :

Lexicography, originating from ancient times, has been developing at the present time. Today, we have at our disposal a variety of explanatory, spelling, phraseological dictionaries, much less dictionaries of other types, working with which, unfortunately, does not arouse due interest among students.

Students are able to work with explanatory, spelling and spelling, phraseological dictionaries, they experience difficulties in finding the necessary information in dictionaries of other types, which can be explained by the insufficient level of formation of lexicographic competencies.

Linguistic dictionaries do not sufficiently contribute to the expansion of knowledge and improve the language culture of schoolchildren.

Such conclusions make us think about the attitude to dictionaries and recall the words of L.A. Vvedenskaya: “Any dictionary is a source of knowledge. Getting acquainted with dictionaries, we learnRussian languageat , we enrich our vocabulary, our speech becomes more correct, the expression of thoughts is more accurate, more convincing, brighter, more figurative. But for this you need to be able to read the dictionary and understand what you read, be able to find the right answer in it.». .

Only by working daily with dictionaries, we can achieve significant results in improving the language culture.

Appendix 1

Variety of dictionaries on bookshelves

shops and libraries

Shop "Maria-Ra",

Department of Books. office

School Library Library of DK Shakhtar

Annex 2

Interviewing school teachers

“Are schoolchildren interested in working with dictionaries?

- Is it a pity that in the office all the dictionaries are in one copy?

- It would be much more interesting for the guys to work if the dictionaries were at least one on the desk

- They love to work with dictionaries when studying the Lexicology section.

Of particular interest are explanatory dictionaries.

- They turn to dictionaries when the word is unfamiliar to them (they do not know its meaning), find it difficult to write it

Appendix 2.1

Diagrams No. 1, 2

Survey results

"Dictionaries in the life of schoolchildren"

Annex 3

We know how to work with linguistic dictionaries

Histogram #1

"Dictionaries are our helpers"

Appendix 4.1

Practice #1

Determine the lexical meaning of words, establish from which language they came.

option_

_______

consensus_ ______

______

Avenue_

pointe shoes_ _______________________________________________________

mercury__

______________________________________________________________

Practice #2

Determine the lexical meaning of phraseological units.

If in doubt, consult a dictionary

Paper soul_ _______________________________________________

Stoves-benches _______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Show Kuzkin mother_ ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Sharpen laces_ __________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Far to go __________________________________________________________

Appendix 4.2

Practice #3

Insert the missing letters in the words, open the brackets.

If in doubt, consult a dictionary

Ac...rtiment Ob...lisk

Admission...C...geykovy

R ... recommendation K ... ns ... ratoria

Pr...create (dream) (Ancient) Russian

(Anti) viral

Practice #4

Place the stress on the words.

If in doubt, consult a dictionary

Pamper Snooze

Catalog Provision

Reward Funds

Intention Iconography

Sorrel Prettier

Appendix 4.3

Practice #5

Make up phrases with these words in which there was no violation of lexical compatibility.

If in doubt, consult a dictionary

Temporal

Temporary

Subscriber

Subscription

Velvety

Velvet

prompt

Predict

Spectacular

Effective

Practice #6

Eliminate grammatical errors.

If in doubt, consult a dictionary

The smell of kerosene

Get kerosene

Group of Georgians

Group of Armenians

Quietest

Quieter

Incognito appeared

Incognito appeared

According to the instructions

As instructed

Annex 5

Histogram #2

"The level of formation

lexicographic competencies of schoolchildren"

Questionnaire

What linguistic dictionaries do you know? Name their authors

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

How often do you use dictionaries? What information do you find in them?

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Where do you most often work with a dictionary? (at home, in the classroom, in the library). Underline the answer

What linguistic dictionary do you have at home? Why did you buy it?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

What do you think, which dictionary should become a reference book for a modern student?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Lyashenko Tatyana Alexandrovna

Course 1. Group TV-125

topic: Linguistic dictionaries

Lingua and sticky (from lat. lingua - language), the science of language

All dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic and linguistic. The encyclopedia presents in a concise form the current state of scientific knowledge in any field.

The purpose of linguistic dictionaries is different - they contain information about the word.

Differ L. with.

Linguistic dictionaries can be divided into three types: 1 ) multilingual; 2 ) bilingual; 3 ) monolingual.

Multilingual and bilingual dictionaries- This dictionaries transferable. In them, the meanings of the words of one language are explained through comparison with the words of another language. The following bilinguals are often found dictionaries: 1) English Russian and Russian-English; 2) German-Russian and Russian-German; 3) French-Russian and Russian-French.

In monolingual dictionaries words are explained by words of the same language. These include: dictionaries of foreign words (borrowed from other languages), synonyms, antonyms (words with opposite meanings), homonyms (words belonging to the same part of speech and sounding the same, but different in meaning), paronyms (mixed single-root words of different meanings), phraseological, orthoepic (pronunciation of words), spelling (spelling of words), derivational, morphemic, etymological (explaining the origin of words), reverse (with the arrangement of words in the alphabet of their ends), abbreviations and other types of dictionaries. Each dictionary has a preface that explains how to use the dictionary.

Explanatory dictionaries describe the meaning of words: you should refer to such dictionaries if you need to find out what a word means. Widespread and well-known is the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S. I. Ozhegov,

A special place among explanatory dictionaries is occupied by V.I. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, which consists of 4 volumes and contains more than 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs, sayings, sayings, riddles, which are given as illustrations to explain the meanings of words.

The origin of the word, historical changes in its composition are fixed by historical and etymological dictionaries (for example, “ Etymological dictionary Russian language” by M. Fasmer.

In phraseological dictionaries you can find descriptions of fixed phrases, learn about their origin and use.

In 1967, ed. A. I. Molotkov published the first special “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, in which over 4000 phraseological units are explained.

Information about the correct spelling of a word can be obtained in the spelling dictionary, and about correct pronunciation- in orthoepic.

There are grammatical dictionaries containing information about the morphological properties of a word.

There are dictionaries dedicated to the description of individual groups of vocabulary: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms.

Lexicographers are working on compiling dictionaries of the language of writers, for example, there is Pushkin's Dictionary of Language.

Dictionaries of speech irregularities and difficulties help to avoid speech errors in the use of certain words or their forms.

Questions 1. This dictionary serves to explain the meaning of the words of the language, and also shows the conditions for their correct use. What is this dictionary? (Dictionary.) Tell me, who was the first to introduce this term into Russian lexicography? (V.I. Dal, who called his dictionary “The Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language.”) 2. With the help of this dictionary, you will learn about the origin of the word and the history of its development to the present day. Name this dictionary. (Etymological Dictionary) 3. This dictionary contains words that are close in their lexical meaning, differing only in the semantic shades of this meaning and stylistic coloring. What dictionary are you talking about? (Synonym dictionary) 4. With this dictionary at hand, you will never misspell the most difficult word or its form. What is this dictionary? (Orthographic dictionary) Each word in the spelling dictionary is provided with grammatical marks. Explain what the grammatical marks referring to the word mean. house: house - a pl.-shki, -shek, m. (In the genitive case of the singular, the word ending -a, plural nominative form houses, genitive plural - houses, is a masculine word.) 5. This dictionary helps to enrich the vocabulary of a person with figurative expressions. He interprets the lexical meaning of stable combinations of words, reveals morphological and syntactic properties given language units. What dictionary do you mean? (Phrasebook) 6. This dictionary contains words with the opposite lexical meaning. What is it called? (Dictionary of antonyms) 7. To find out from which languages ​​foreign words came to Russian, this dictionary will help. Which?

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

BASHKIR STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Abstract on the topic:

"Types of linguistic dictionaries"

Completed by: 1st year student

FIA group 104 LMK

Rakhmatullina Albina

Checked by: PhD in Philology, Assoc.

Kurbangaleeva G.M.

1. Introduction............................................... ................................................. .............3

2. Main part.............................................. ................................................. ...6

2.1. Explanatory dictionaries .................................................. ...............................................6

2.2 System dictionaries............................................................... .........................................17

2.3. Dictionaries of foreign words............................................... ...............................26

2.4. Translation dictionaries................................................... ......................................thirty

2.5.Electronic dictionaries............................................................... ................................................33

3. Conclusion ............................................... ................................................. ........35

4. List of references .............................................................. .................36

1. Introduction.

The role of dictionaries in the modern world is great. The dictionary form of presenting material (convenient for quickly obtaining the necessary information) is becoming more and more popular in our dynamic, information-rich age. Many publications that were not previously associated with dictionaries are being "contested", becoming "dictionary-like", supplemented by lexicographic components. Voltaire noted this trend back in the 18th century: "The multiplicity of facts and writings is growing so rapidly that in the near future everything will have to be reduced to extracts and dictionaries." The French lexicographer Alan Rey called modern civilization the civilization of dictionaries. Today, the role of dictionaries in the spiritual life of society, in understanding cultural heritage people. As noted by Kozyrev V.A. and Chernyak V.D., “an alarming decrease in the general level of speech culture makes one particularly acutely aware of the role of the dictionary as the most important and indispensable tool that forms the skills of a conscious attitude to one’s speech.”

There are two main types of dictionaries according to their content: encyclopedic and linguistic. The object of description in the encyclopedic dictionary and encyclopedia is various objects, phenomena and concepts; the object of description in a linguistic dictionary is a unit of language, most often a word. The purpose of a description in a linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the designated object itself, but about

linguistic unit (about its meaning, compatibility, etc.), the character

The information provided by the dictionary differs depending on the type of linguistic dictionary.

Most people have to deal with only a few "classic" types of dictionaries: explanatory ones, which are used to find out the meaning of some (usually incomprehensible) word; bilingual; spelling and orthoepic, in which they inquire about how

correctly write or pronounce a particular word; and, perhaps,

etymological. In reality, the variety of types of dictionaries is much greater. Almost all of them are presented in the Russian lexicographic tradition and are available to the Russian reader.

The primary function of a dictionary is to describe the meanings of words, and dictionary descriptions, or interpretations, should be clear and understandable, if possible without using words that are less common and less understandable than the interpreted word itself. Usually, the more commonly used meanings are interpreted first, followed by the rarer ones. Since the exact meaning of a word often depends on the context, more detailed dictionaries provide examples of how words are used in various contexts.

In addition to interpretations and examples of usage, dictionaries include a rich store of linguistic information. They are a generally accepted source of information about the correct spelling and pronunciation of words, giving preferred and alternative pronunciations and spellings in

in cases where more than one is allowed, as in the case of English. theater and

heat"theatre", catalog and catalog"catalog" or in Russian. overshoe and galosh. Dictionaries may also provide grammatical information, the etymology of words (their origin and historical development), derivative forms (for example, plural forms in English) in cases where they are unusual or their formation is fraught with difficulties, synonyms and antonyms. Larger dictionaries include technical terms, geographical names, foreign words and biographical articles. More often, however, these types of information are spread across different types of more specific dictionaries.

Insofar as fast pace modern life correspond to constant changes in the language, dictionaries must be updated in accordance with the requirements of the time. New words should be included in frequently updated dictionaries in the order in which they are added. Equally important is completeness and scrupulousness. The most comprehensive are complete (as opposed to abbreviated) dictionaries, defined in the English lexicographic tradition as unabridged. For the English language, for example, such dictionaries contain more than 400 thousand words.

The criteria for choosing a dictionary depend on the age of the user and the situations in which he is going to work with the dictionary. For example, the complex arrangement of adult dictionaries can be frustrating and intimidating. junior schoolchildren, and therefore for primary and secondary schools are compiled

special dictionaries.

Main part.

2.1. Explanatory dictionaries .

EDITIONS OF "EXPLANATORY DICTIONARY OF THE LIVING GREAT RUSSIAN LANGUAGE" by V. I. DAL

Many dictionaries have been created in the world, surprising with their volume and richness of content. But perhaps the most outstanding of them is the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by Vladimir Ivanovich Dal. The importance of the dictionary for Russian culture and education is especially great. Dalev Dictionary is a fascinating reading about the Russian language, its life and history. Having opened the page of any volume, one plunges into a truly folk speech, figurative, clear, simple.

Dahl began to collect words for his dictionary at the age of eighteen and worked on it until the last days of his life.

The first edition of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I. Dahl was published in 1863-1866. This was the result of almost half a century of work, as a result of which the scientist collected, studied and systematized a huge stock of words and phraseological expressions in the Russian language. In terms of the richness of lexical and phraseological material, the Dalev dictionary surpasses all dictionaries published in Russia before and after it.

V. I. Dal sought to include in his dictionary all the vocabulary, including words taken both from written monuments and from oral folk speech. He put the living Great Russian language as the basis of the dictionary - the language of the people with all regional dialects and dialects. V. I. Dal collected these lexical materials on his own during his trips around the country for 40 years. In addition, the name of V. I. Dal as a scientist and collector of living Russian speech was widely known among the Russian intelligentsia, and therefore, starting from 1840, he systematically received records folk words and phraseological units either from numerous correspondents, or through the editors of periodicals that printed dialectological articles or received records of folk words from collectors.

In his work on the dictionary, V. I. Dal could not but use the rich previous lexicographic tradition. He wrote about this in his "Password" to the dictionary. First of all, V. I. Dal was guided by the most complete of the dictionaries of the Russian language - the "Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language", compiled by the Second Department Imperial Academy Sciences (St. Petersburg, vols. 1-4, 1847). This choice is due to the fact that this dictionary was a major phenomenon in the history of Russian lexicography. The academic dictionary enjoyed well-deserved authority in the progressive Russian society at the end of the 1st half of XIX century.

Simultaneously with this explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, V. I. Dal widely used dialect dictionaries of folk dialects and dictionaries of trades and crafts: “The experience of the regional Great Russian dictionary”, compiled by the Second Department of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg, 1852), “Supplement to the experience of the regional Great Russian dictionary "(St. Petersburg, 1858)," Experience terminological dictionary agriculture, factory work, crafts and life of the people" Vl. Burnasheva (St. Petersburg, vols. 1-2, 1843-1844).

In total, according to the calculation of V. I. Dal, about 200,000 words were placed in the first edition of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. Of these, 80,000 words he collected on his own. Approximately 120,000 words and expressions he extracted from previous dictionaries. But V. I. Dal transferred all this lexical material to his dictionary not mechanically: he revised it and supplemented it with new data. V. I. Dal arranged words into nests, removed stylistic marks, excluded “completely obsolete words” from the scope of his work, clarified the semantic characteristics of words and phraseological units, revised the system of local dialect marks, introduced marks for words of foreign origin, indicating the nearest sources borrowing. Having introduced into his work the vocabulary of the literary and bookish language and partially the verbal fund of monuments of old literature, and thereby proving the need for convergence of the literary language with living folk speech, V. I. Dal created such a dictionary, which became the most authoritative historical and lexicological reference book for studying the Russian language 19th century and subsequent time.

After the release of the first edition of the Explanatory Dictionary, reviews, reviews of scientists, writers, and public figures appear. The dictionary becomes the center around which various lexicographic works are carried out, directly or indirectly outlined by V. I. Dahl. There are additions and notes to the dictionary indicating the words that exist in the Russian language, but not taken into account by V. I. Dahl for some reason. V. I. Dal collects these materials for further replenishment and correction of the dictionary, thereby preparing a stock of words and phraseological expressions for the second edition.

The second edition of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language was published in 1880-1882 after the death of V. I. Dahl. True, he managed to make major changes, additions and corrections to the new edition, although this work was finally carried out by the editors of the bookseller-publisher M. O. Wolf, who acquired the right to publish the dictionary from the heirs of V. I. Dahl, and science editor(It is assumed that it was Professor P.N. Polevoy).

When preparing the second edition, V. I. Dal did not set himself the task of revising the principles of constructing a dictionary. As before, he retained the root (nested) method of grouping words, in which groups of words raised to common root, are combined into nests, and the original word or the root itself is placed at the head of the nest, as was done in the Dictionary of the Russian Academy (St. Petersburg, 1789-1794). The main work for the second edition of the dictionary was carried out in the following directions: the lexical and phraseological material was supplemented and expanded (more than 1500 new words, about 300 proverbs and sayings were introduced into the dictionary), the semantic characteristics of a number of words were refined. In addition, Dahl eliminated a number of dubious words, rearranged several heading and intra-nested words and corrected some incorrectly constructed nested articles, clarified the etymology and spelling of words and phraseological units.

Of the numerous critical analyzes of the dictionary published during the lifetime of V. I. Dahl, the additions and corrections of J. K. Grot and L. I. Schrenk deserve to be noted. Already after the death of V.I. From critical analyzes of the dictionary and additions to it, V. I. Dal, as well as the editors, introduced more than 550 new words and expressions into the second edition of the dictionary.

The third edition of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language was published in 1903-1909. Before embarking on a new edition of the dictionary, the publishing house "Partnership of M. O. Wolf" refers to many outstanding experts in the Russian language - academicians, professors, writers, including A. A. Shakhmatov, A. I. Sobolevsky, A. N Pypin, E. F. Budde, S. K. Bulich, A. F. Koni, D. L. Mordovtsev, S. A. Vengerov, with a request to express an opinion whether the new edition of the dictionary should be completely revised in accordance with the comments critics and reviewers, or to keep it in its original form, only correcting obvious errors and adding new materials.

the editor of the third edition introduced new words and expressions into the text of the dictionary, which for various reasons were absent in the first two editions. First of all, here are words from the notes of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay himself, which he kept during his professorship at Kazan University (1875-1883). Basically, these are dialect records of words and expressions with marks-names of those provinces that I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay visited. Examples of such entries are as follows: spit up vyat. "shout out in a rough voice, shout loudly"; voboloko app. "cloud", etc.

In 1935, the State Publishing House Khudozhestvennaya Literatura published the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, made using a phototype method, with an introductory article written by A. M. Sukhotin. This facsimile edition reproduces the text of the second edition of 1880-1882. In 1955 (with a repeat in 1956), the State Publishing House of Foreign and national dictionaries undertakes a new edition of V. I. Dahl's dictionary with an introductory article by A. M. Babkin (it is also typed and printed from the second edition of 1880-1882). This edition of the dictionary has eliminated spelling errors and misprints of the second edition. The publishing house "Russian language" in 1978-1980 (with a repetition in 1981-1982) publishes another edition of the dictionary. It reproduces in a photomechanically reduced format the 1955 edition, in turn typed and printed from the second edition. This edition also reproduces the 1955 edition. Thus, V.I. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language comes out as the eighth (and, taking into account the repetitions of 1956 and 1981-1982, the tenth) edition.

One-volume dictionary of the Russian language .

INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR USERS OF THE DICTIONARY

COMPOSITION OF THE DICTIONARY.

§ I. A one-volume dictionary of the Russian language is a guide to the correct use of words, to the correct formation of their forms, to the correct pronunciation, and also to the correct spelling of words in the modern Russian literary language.

The modern Russian literary language is the national Russian language in its literary processed form, which serves as a means of communication and exchange of thoughts in all areas of life and activity, an instrument for the cultural development of the people. The vocabulary of the Russian literary language of our era is rich and complex: it is the product of the entire centuries-old development of the Russian language up to our Soviet era, reflecting, therefore, the changes that have occurred in it in connection with the development of Soviet society, its culture, science and technology. But a one-volume dictionary cannot set itself the task of reflecting the entire diversity of the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language.

§ 2. In accordance with the tasks of the dictionary, as a rule, it does not fit:

1) special words that are narrow professional, private terms of a particular branch of science and technology and which are necessary only for a relatively limited circle of workers in that or other specialty;

2) local, dialect words, if they are not widely used in the literary language as a means of expression;

3) words with a pronounced rough connotation;

4) old or obsolete words that have fallen out of the language, are practically not needed from the point of view of modern language communication, understanding of the nearest historical reality or texts of classical literature;

5) abbreviated and compound words, as well as letter abbreviations, if they do not have a new shade in meaning compared to the meaning of the phrase from which they arose, or if they do not go beyond the limits of a relatively narrow, professional use;

6) proper names of various types - personal, geographical, names of institutions, etc.

Dictionary of the Russian language.

In 4 volumes / Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Institute of Rus. lang.; Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. - 2nd ed., Rev. and additional - M .: Russian language, 1981-1984.

How to use a dictionary

Composition of the Dictionary

The dictionary contains commonly used vocabulary and phraseology of the modern Russian literary language. material base For the Dictionary, the card index of the Dictionary Sector of the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences served, containing selections from works of fiction from Pushkin to the present day, as well as from works of journalistic and scientific literature in its classic samples of the 19th-20th centuries.

In accordance with the tasks of the Dictionary, it does not include:

a) regional words, with the exception of those that are widely represented in works of art by various authors or denote objects, phenomena, concepts that are especially important and characteristic of life, life, etc. of the population of a particular region and are widely known outside of it (bass, beetroot, chatter etc.);

b) many words of rough vernacular;

c) obsolete words that have fallen out of use, with the exception of those that had wide use in the literature of the 19th century;

d) highly specialized terms of certain areas of science, technology, arts, which are necessary only for specialists, are not included in the Dictionary.

Due to the limited volume of the Dictionary, the following categories of words are also not given in it.

a) proper names (personal, geographical, names of institutions, etc.), as well as common nouns, which are the names of residents of cities and localities ( Leningrader, Muscovite, Volgar etc.);

b) those groups of derivative words that are easily formed and easily understood: 1) derivative nouns, if they do not have meanings other than those introduced by suffixes: nouns with suffixes of emotional evaluation (diminutive, endearing, derogatory, scornful, magnifying); many of the titles actor male and female derived from verbs and adjectives, for example: questioner, questioner, whitewasher, whitewasher; little-used nouns with an abstract meaning of property, quality and state with suffixes -ost, -is, derivatives of adjectives and participles, for example: inclusion, indifference, multi-coloredness, striping; 2) adjectives with suffixes -ovat-, -evat-, expressing incompleteness or weakness of quality, for example: whitish, bluish, adjectives with suffixes of emotional evaluation (diminutiveness, flattery, amplification); many possessive adjectives with the suffixes -ov, -ev and -in, for example: tenants, girls; compound adjectives denoting shades of colors, for example, crimson red; 3) adverbs in -ski, -ь and with the prefix po-, for example: like a human, like a bear; adverbs formed from the dative case singular. h. adjective with prefix po-, for example: at home;

c) abbreviations (which are letter abbreviations) are not given in the Dictionary, with the exception of those that entered the language as words that have a gender and change in cases.

Note. A list of commonly used abbreviations of the modern Russian language is given in the appendix to the fourth volume.

Russian semantic dictionary.

Explanatory dictionary, systematized by classes of words and meanings / Russian Academy Sciences. In-t rus. lang. them. V. V. Vinogradova; Under the general editorship. N. Yu. Shvedova. - M .: "Azbukovnik", 1998.

Theoretical foundations of the dictionary

The theoretical basis of the dictionary is the position according to which the verbal composition of the modern Russian literary language is a historically formed natural system with all the characteristics belonging to such a system: it is a fairly clearly defined integrity, consisting of a number of sections, each having its own organization, varying degrees openness for replenishment, interacting with each other according to certain laws and at the same time obeying the system as a whole. Lexical system lives according to the laws common to any living natural system: it is actively functioning and at the same time is in constant development, ultimately determined by the life of its subsystems and their interaction; changes occurring in a particular area, its loss and replenishment, directly or indirectly, necessarily affect the entire organization and stimulate the processes taking place in it. The lexical system, like any historically established natural integrity, has a high degree stability: those of its main classes that stand out for the current state of the language have existed for a long time; over the course of centuries and decades, it is not the system itself that changes, but certain sections within it and the relationships between these sections; this is precisely the nature of additions and losses, trends in the development of vocabulary, noted for certain periods in the life of the language. Naturally, taking place in the bosom of the system, such processes do not leave it indifferent: they ensure its existence as a living and developing organism. The concept of the "Russian Semantic Dictionary" is based on the thesis according to which the division of the entire verbal composition into parts of speech given by the language itself is the initial division of the lexicon: the abstract meaning of the part of speech, expressed in grammatical categories and forms, represents the highest level of abstraction from the lexical meanings of all those words that are included in a given part of speech and form it. All parts of speech of the Russian language (words and non-integral units equal to them) exist in the system: 1) indicating words (pronouns), 2) naming words, 3) proper connecting words - conjunctions, prepositions, copulas and their analogues, 4) proper qualifying words - modal words and combinations, particles and their analogues, interjections. Naming words, i.e. those whose lexical meanings are based on concepts of an object, feature, state or process, include nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and predicates, as well as counter words. Indicative words are grammatically divided into classes of names and adverbs. See diagram No. 1, p. VIII. All together, the words of these classes are united by a common feature: each of the units included in any of these classes is a word, that is, a material linguistic sign that serves to designate the realities of the physical and mental world ( abstract representations of objects, features, processes), relations between such realities, as well as for naming such realities themselves or for pointing to them. Each part of speech is formed by words grouped into proper lexical classes, appearing as a branched tree with branches diverging from top to bottom.

The unit that exists in the composition of the tree as its smallest particle is the meaning of the word (word meaning): for an unambiguous word, this is its own meaning, for a polysemantic word, one of its meanings, each meaning separately. The lexical tree in relation to each part of speech is built on the basis of a study of the entire array of words that is presented in the modern explanatory dictionary of the middle type with significant additions from other explanatory dictionaries and from various contemporary texts; the total number of such units in our dictionary is about 300,000 (three hundred thousand).

2.2.System dictionaries.

Dictionary of Russian morphemes

Kuznetsova A. I., Efremova T. F.

The dictionary consists of the Root, Prefix and Suffix parts, as well as the Index and Applications.

The structure of the Root, Prefix and Suffix parts of the dictionary is described in detail in the introductory article "Principles of morphemic analysis and the construction of a morpheme dictionary".

The index to the dictionary is an alphabetical list of all the words included in the dictionary. To the right of the word, after the dash, its root is given. Homonymous roots are indicated, as in the dictionary corpus, by Arabic numerals. For example:

go back - 1 gate gate - 2 gates

With homonymous words in brackets, a brief semantic indication of a particular character is given (interpretation through a synonym, through a phrase), an indication of a part of speech, etc. For example:

to cram (about notches) - tooth

to memorize (about memorization) - bison

all (n.) - 3 weight

whole (places) - 4 weight

The dictionary contains about 52,000 words, composed of approximately 5,000 morphemes (morphemes are given in their written form).

HOW TO FIND THE NECESSARY WORD IN THE DICTIONARY.

1 If the reader wants to find a word in the dictionary and determine its morphemic composition, he must first turn to the Dictionary Index. Having determined the root of the word of interest to him, he can then find this root in the Root part of the dictionary.

The root part is a dictionary of roots arranged in alphabetical order. The dictionary entry is headed by the root (a number of allomorphs is given in parentheses, if any), after which the words are given, with having this root. The capital root is replaced in the article by the radical sign (V). Significant parts of words (morphemes) are separated from each other by a hyphen

Substituting the capital root in place of the radical sign, we get the words: babble, babble. babble.

In the dictionary entry, the material is arranged as follows.

First, there are non-affix words with a zero or materially expressed ending (the zero ending is indicated by the sign in); if there are several endings with the same stem, they are listed under numbers in alphabetical order. After words with a zero or materially expressed ending, represented by variable parts of speech, invariable parts of speech are given - adverbs, interjections, etc. (the absence of endings in them is indicated by the sign ^).

Then the remaining unprefixed words are given, taking into account the alphabet of suffixes.

To find out, for example, the morphemic structure of words color, flowers, colorful and fade, it is necessary, as mentioned above, to determine the root of these words by finding them alphabetically in the Index. After that, it will become clear that they are all in the dictionary in the entry headed by the root COLOUR. Turning to this article, we find in the part where unprefixed words with a zero or materially expressed ending are given, the words color, flowers and learn their morphemic structure: color-o, color-s.

Word colorful we find in the article among the suffix words and in the same way we recognize its morphemic articulation: color-ast-th.

Word fade located in the article under consideration in a series of prefixed words. Its morphemic structure is: you-color-and-be.

2. If the reader is interested in the question of in which words any particular prefix morpheme occurs and with what other morphemes it is combined in a word, he will find it by the general alphabet of capital units in the Prefix part of the dictionary. After the head prefix, the models of all words in which the given prefix occurs are given alphabetically by affixes. By model we mean the affixal environments of the root that act as a model in the language. If there are several endings in the model, they are given in alphabetical order under numbers.

To the right of the model, after the dash sign, the roots themselves with numbers are given (if there are several endings in the model) , corresponding to the numbers of the endings in the model. Substituting mentally into the model in place of the radical sign a root with the same number that the inflection has in the model, we restore the words formed according to the model with this prefix.

3. In order to find out in which words any particular suffixal morpheme occurs and with what other morphemes it combines, you need to find it alphabetically by capital suffixes in the Suffixal part of the dictionary.

C dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar in meaning

expressions. Abramov N.
Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning: About 5,000 synonymous rows. Over 20,000 synonyms - 7th ed., stereotype. - M.: Russian dictionaries, 1999.

The purpose of this book is to give a more or less complete selection of Russian synonyms, that is, words similar in common sense, but different shades. The book should serve as a guide in finding forgotten expressions.

To find the concept you are looking for, you must remember some word, somewhat, even if not very close, suitable to it, and look it up in the dictionary. It is possible that just with this word there will not be a list of corresponding synonyms, but there will be a link to another word, to which the desired concept is associated in the dictionary. If none of the words included in the indicated nest of synonyms expresses the desired concept, this means that a word is taken that is too far from the desired one, and the search must continue, guided by the links available with the found word.

We tried to date the nests to the most common or most common of the synonyms. Very often, in a synonymous nest, a word is also indicated that is opposite in meaning (“prot.”); this gives a new synonym, since it remains only to attach negative particles, like "not", "without", "not very", etc., to get the right word with a new hue. But this is not enough: it is worth finding all the synonyms of the opposite word and attaching the indicated negative particles to each of them in order to get a new series of synonyms. In addition, here it is possible to search for words by their opposites. You forgot, for example, the word "non-detailed", "short"; you just have to find the word "detailed", and you will get a thread for finding all the expressions that are opposite to the concept of "detailed". In many cases, in order to save space, we left it to the reader to form synonyms of the adverb by the synonyms of the corresponding adjective or synonyms of the adjective by the synonyms of the noun (by replacing the ending). For example, the instruction "see. In detail" means: to form adverbs from all adjectives does not mean: see the "Details" nest (there is no such nest), but nests "Detailed". At many words their epithets are given. They are appropriate as a help to those who are looking for a forgotten definition of a given word (such, for example, are epithets for the words: eyes, rain, duty, proof, etc.); in addition, their existence in the dictionary of synonyms is justified by the following consideration: epithets give shades of words; together with the word being defined, they form, as it were, a new synonym, and many epithets are so closely fused with the word being defined that they are inseparable in speech. Often the volume of a word is clear from the epithets with which it is used.

Verb types constitute one of the most serious difficulties in the dictionary of Russian synonyms. There are verbs that, with their perfect form, belong to one nest, and imperfect ones to another. In these cases, we placed the corresponding species under each nest. If both species belong to the same nest of synonyms, we, in order to save space, usually left only one species, imperfect.

The examples given in our dictionary are intended to show how certain expressions that are included in the number of synonyms are used. This is done especially when a given synonym is used in only one sentence. None of the examples are made up out of our heads. All of them are taken either from classical Russian writers (at the same time, if they are taken in full sentences, it is indicated from which one), or from the Academic Dictionary (where examples, as you know, are compiled by recognized experts in the Russian language) or from Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary. Not wanting to expand the volume of the book in vain, we were forced to confine ourselves to the most necessary examples. The same circumstance explains the extensive content of some synonymous nests and relatively a large number of references to other nests: if we repeated its synonyms with each word, then the size of the book would increase by 4-5 times, which would be extremely unprofitable for its accessibility.

For the same purpose, we introduced parentheses. Words in parentheses without which the sentence makes sense. For example: “in (really) actually” represents, in essence, two sayings: “in fact” and “in fact”. The parentheses in the example have a slightly different meaning: "I threw (thrown) it out of my head." Expanding this bracket, we get two sayings: "I threw it out of my head" and "I threw it out of my head." However, in those cases where the use of brackets could give rise to misunderstandings, we left the expressions unabbreviated.

In conclusion, we consider it necessary to give two pieces of advice to those who use this dictionary. First of all, first of all, read or at least leaf through it in order to get used to its content and arrangement of words; and secondly, to mark on your copy of the dictionary, under the appropriate headings, all the new words and expressions encountered, written or colloquial speech, which have the right to exist in the language. The "Dictionary of Synonyms" can never be complete, since the language lives and is constantly changing for various reasons. Let everyone, in the sphere of his vocabulary, the dictionary of synonyms reach the greatest completeness.

Russian spelling dictionary.

about 160,000 words / Russian Academy of Sciences. In-t rus. lang. them. V. V. Vinogradova: Editorial staff: V. V. Lopatin (editor-in-chief), B. Z. Bukchina, N. A. Eskova and others - Moscow: "Azbukovnik", 1999.

VOLUME OF THE DICTIONARY AND GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DICTIONARY.

The new "Russian Spelling Dictionary", being a standard reference for the widest range of users, reflects the vocabulary of the Russian literary language of the mid-90s of the XX century. Along with active common vocabulary, the dictionary includes vernacular, dialect (regional), jargon, obsolete words, historicisms - to the extent that these categories of words are reflected in fiction, in newspaper and journalistic and colloquial speech. A significant place in the dictionary is occupied by special terminology of various areas of scientific knowledge and practice.

The dictionary was prepared in the sector of spelling and orthoepy of the Institute of the Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradov RAS. E. V. Beshenkova, S. N. Borunova, L. P. Kalakutskaya, N. V. Mamina, I. V. Nechaeva took part in the work on the dictionary at different stages.

The dictionary gives the correct spellings of words and their forms, as well as some types of verbal compounds, one way or another correlative with words. Such compounds include, for example, separately and hyphenated combinations of words, similar in structure and meaning to fused words ( bread and salt ,booster ,read-reread ,vital), prepositional case combinations similar to adverbs ( basically ,retail ,on the run ,out of habit), compound names in which one word (or more) is spelled with capital letter (The State Duma ,Black Sea).

Compared with " spelling dictionary of the Russian language", published in 1956 - 1998 (editions 1 - 33), the vocabulary of this dictionary has been significantly expanded (from 100 to 160 thousand units). Particular attention is paid to the vocabulary of those conceptual areas that have been updated in last years: first of all, on church-religious vocabulary, terminology of the market, business, banking, programming, computer technology, etc. The circle of common lexicon is replenished with a variety of new words and expressions that are characteristic of modern newspaper and journalistic, colloquial speech and vernacular. The representation of derived words has been significantly increased. The range of separately written (non-single-word) units placed in the dictionary has been expanded, and, first of all, the functional equivalents of a word.

The principal difference between the new dictionary and the Russian Spelling Dictionary is the inclusion of words written with a capital letter (the authors of the previous dictionary did not aim to reflect such spellings).

The following categories of capitalized words and their combinations are presented as independent vocabulary units in the "Russian Spelling Dictionary":

1) proper names (personal, literary, mythological, geographical), also used in a common sense, for example: Hamlet ,Gargantua ,Plushkin ,Mitrofanushka ,Munchausen ,Apollo ,Nemesis ,Cassandra ,Themis ,Rothschild ,Juvenal ,Mecca ,Vendée ,Hiroshima ,Chernobyl ,Cheryomushki ;

2) the names of the sacred concepts of religion, for example: Lord ,Mother of God ,Bible ,Gospel ,Koran , Holy Bible ,Christmas ,Candlemas ,Exaltation ,God the Father ,Holy Gifts ,Mother of God ,Resurrection of Christ ,Holy Sepulcher ;

3) names historical eras, for example: Reformation ,Risorgimento ,Quattrocento ,Proto-Renaissance ;

4) geographical and other names formed according to the word-building models of common words, for example: Moscow region ,Volga region ,Transcaucasia ,Orenburg region ,Oryol region ,Vologda region ,Podkamennaya Tunguska ,Vodovzvodnaya tower , (Andrei)First-Called , (Simeon)God-bearer ;

5) proper names (personal, mythological, geographical), acting as part of stable combinations - such as, for example: law of Archimedes ,boyle-mariotte law ,binomial theorem ,morse code ,Geiger counter ,Kalashnikov assault rifle ,lynching ,hippocratic oath ,Botkin's disease ,two-faced Janus ,Thomas is unfaithful ;between Scylla and Charybdis ,cross the Rubicon ,sink into oblivion ;where Makar did not drive calves ;Ivana ,not remembering relatives ;GMT ,Celsius ,on the Richter scale(corresponding combinations can be found in the dictionary corpus for words written in these combinations with a capital letter);

6) composite names (geographical, astronomical, names of historical persons, mythological and literary characters, historical epochs and events, calendar periods and holidays, organizations and institutions, states and state associations), including common names(including words not used in the proper direct meaning), for example: Moscow river ,Mediterranean Sea ,Sergiev Posad ,Tsarskoye Selo , Far East ,the great Wall of China ,The country rising sun ,The eternal City ,Golden Horde , Poklonnaya Gora ,Milky Way ,Peter the Great ,Ivan Tsarevich ,Zmey Gorynych ,Middle Ages ,World War I , Bartholomew night ,Battle of Kulikovo ,The Last Supper ,Holy Week ,great post ,Ilyin's day ,trinity day , New Year ,The first of May , Parisian Commune ,United Nations ,the Russian Federation ,Commonwealth of Independent States ,Federal Assembly ,The State Duma .

2.3 Dictionaries of foreign words.

New dictionary of foreign words

Zakharenko E. N., Komarova L. N., Nechaeva I. V.

25,000 words and phrases. - M .: "Azbukovnik", 2003.

COMPOSITION OF THE DICTIONARY

The "New Dictionary of Foreign Words" is intended for the widest range of readers, of different ages, education, different interests and queries that will find in it information about the meaning of the word, its origin (etymology), scope, spelling and stress.
In terms of its structure and the information contained in it, the Dictionary continues the tradition of dictionaries of foreign words that has developed in Russian lexicography. Being a dictionary of foreign words of the classical type, it reflects the foreign vocabulary in the Russian language systematically, in its entirety, including borrowings from past historical eras, new words that have appeared in the Russian language in recent decades, the established terminology related to various areas knowledge, non-terminological, everyday vocabulary.

The Dictionary is based on common vocabulary, widely used in various fields life (science and technology, politics, art, religion, sports, etc.), as well as words and expressions found in everyday life.
The Dictionary includes direct borrowings from different languages, including from the languages ​​of the peoples of the former USSR, internationalisms, as well as words formed in Russian from elements of Greek, Latin and other languages.

As separate vocabulary units in the Dictionary are given: proper words, stable combinations various types, first and second parts compound words, some consoles.

When working on the "New Dictionary of Foreign Words", explanatory and encyclopedic dictionaries of recent years, special dictionaries in various fields of knowledge (especially in computer science, economics, art, cultural studies, religion, ecology, music, sports), as well as dictionaries of foreign words, published recently: traditional ones - "Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words", philological dictionaries of foreign words - "Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words" by L.P. Krysin, and dictionaries that fix only foreign neologisms, words that have recently appeared in the language, which are on different stages of mastering them in Russian. Words that are not described in lexicographic literature, but often found in press materials, popular science and fiction, heard on radio and television, were selected and carefully considered.

The basis for the development of principles for the selection of words, the formation of a vocabulary, the construction of a dictionary entry was the time-tested and recognized by readers "Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words" (M., "Russian language", 1992).

The relevance of the "New Dictionary of Foreign Words" is due to the fact that it attempts to reflect the linguistic situation in terms of the entry into the Russian language of borrowings in this historic moment, at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries.

The Dictionary includes foreign (foreign language) words that have long entered the Russian language and constitute the base array in the dictionaries of foreign words, belong to the category of "old" words known to the reader, which are no longer perceived as foreign. These are, for example, the names of old social institutions, the realities of the old way of life, individual names of clothing found in fiction.

The dictionary contains a systematically presented terminology of various sciences, includes a large number of terms and terminological combinations; their interpretations reflect modern level knowledge.

When working on the glossary, special attention was paid to that part of the terminological vocabulary, which previously remained outside the dictionaries due to its highly specialized nature, and now has become commonly used, has become widespread ( alloplant, default, immunodeficiency, implantology, installation, cloning, copyright, nuclear, passion, performance, sequestration, suicide, testing, identikit, shunting and etc.)

The Dictionary also includes separate thematic groups of foreign words, which for some reason did not previously find a place in dictionaries (explanatory and foreign words) and are now rightly returning to the lexicographic mainstream. These are, for example, words from the sphere of religion, the names of rituals, church attributes, places of worship ( advent, antiphonary, antiphonal chant, stichera, stupa, tantra, triode, phelonion, banner etc.), words associated with the life, life, art of other peoples and states, which have become widespread in our country in connection with the expansion and deepening of international and interstate contacts ( bonsai, hamburger, gohua, green card, intifada, karaoke, contras).

Popular Dictionary of Foreign Words

Muzrukova T. G., Nechaeva I. V.
Popular Dictionary of Foreign Words : about 5000 words / Edited by I.V. Nechaeva. – M.: Azbukovnik.

Brief annotation:

The dictionary is a revised and expanded edition of " Concise Dictionary foreign words", published by the publishing house "Russian language" in 1995. Includes commonly used borrowings, in addition to the most famous, well-mastered by native speakers of the Russian language, everyday words. The dictionary entry contains the interpretation of the word, etymological reference, brief pronunciation and grammatical characteristics of the word, examples of it usage in speech, stable combinations. great attention is given to the description of figurative, expansive meanings of words. The authors tried to make the interpretations simple and understandable to any reader.

This edition is supplemented with foreign borrowings of recent times, such as blockbuster, virtual, default, interactive, mass media, PR, slogan etc. Some dictionary entries updated with new values pirate, summary). In accordance with the recommendations of the "Russian Spelling Dictionary" (M., "Azbukovnik", 1999), the spelling of some borrowings has been clarified, the spelling of which has so far fluctuated ( karate weekend), as well as the use of capital letters. In some cases, examples of the use of words have been updated in accordance with the time.

2.4. Translation dictionaries.

English-Russian dictionary

Dubrovin M.I.

English-Russian dictionary: A guide for students. - 2nd ed.-M .: Education, 1991.

The dictionary is a textbook for high school students. It is designed for independent work of students on texts of medium difficulty.

The dictionary is compiled in accordance with the requirements of the school curriculum in foreign languages ​​for secondary secondary school. It contains about 8,000 words.

The first edition was published in 1985 under the title: "School English-Russian Dictionary".

This dictionary is written for high school students. It contains about 8,000 words.

English, like Russian, consists of many tens of thousands of words. Thus, the largest English dictionary contains more than 600,000 words, and the largest English-Russian dictionary contains about 150,000 words. However, not all words in the language are used equally often. A lot of research has been done and even several dictionaries have been released, which indicate how often this or that is used. English word. Using these dictionaries and analyzing a large number of popular science and socio-political texts, we chose these 8,000 most common words.

The main task of this dictionary is to reveal the meanings of English words in Russian. It also contains a lot of other information about English words. In order to fully use the information contained in the dictionary and master the ability to quickly find the right word or meaning, you need to know the structure of the dictionary and the system of abbreviations (litters) used in the dictionary. Therefore, before using the dictionary, you must carefully read the contents of the introductory article.

What is a dictionary

The dictionary consists of head words and dictionary entries.

A headword is a bold word whose meaning is explained and often illustrated with examples.

All capital words, including geographical names, are located in the dictionary in alphabetical order. "Moreover, if the first two letters in the words are the same, then the words are arranged taking into account the succession of the third letters. If the first three letters are the same, then the fourth letters are taken into account, etc.

Muller's Russian-English Dictionary.

Preface to the first edition.

This Russian-English Dictionary is basically a bilingual translation dictionary conventional type, but at the same time, it differs from other similar dictionaries in some features that may or may not be taken into account when using it, depending on the goal that the user of the dictionary sets for himself, and on how much he knows Russian language on the one hand, and English on the other.

Among the features of this dictionary is, first of all, that in it, to a greater extent than is usually done in such dictionaries, attention is paid to the grammatical aspect of the word.

The dictionary deals primarily with words, not their individual forms. Therefore, each form is grammatically mutable word, if it is not specifically distinguished as its given form, is, so to speak, a representative of the whole word as a whole, of the totality of its grammatical forms. So, for example, the form is named. singular case. numbers horse represents the whole word as a whole, with all its grammatical forms: horse, horses, horse, horses etc.; likewise english horse(horse) usually acts as a representative of the totality of the grammatical forms of this word: horse , horse's , horses , horses". Usually translated Russian word and the English word, which is its translation, are given, if possible, in forms that correspond to each other to the extent that some general correspondences can be established between the forms of Russian and English. More particular, special relationships between Russian and English forms, of course, cannot be reflected in the dictionary: they can only be determined on the basis of knowledge of grammar. Thus, although the dictionary takes into account, if possible, the correspondence between Russian and English grammatical forms, and when translating well-known phraseological combinations individual particular correspondences are also taken into account - nevertheless, you should not always use only the grammatical design of the word that is given to it in the dictionary, but you need to apply your knowledge of grammar and, in certain cases, make some grammatical changes in the proposed translation. This applies, in particular, to translations of whole phrases or phrases, where the word order given in the translation or the tense of the verb used in it may often be unsuitable for a certain context. , of course, it was not possible to avoid a number of errors regarding accepted system. The authors and the editors will be very grateful for all comments and suggestions.

2.5.Electronic dictionaries.

Electronic ABBYY dictionaries Lingvo 12.

There are situations when it is very important to find the most accurate version of the translation. And quickly. There must be an easy solution somewhere in this world.

It really exists and is called ABBYY Lingvo 12. This is the most complete electronic dictionary that contains modern vocabulary from different subject areas, both universal and special. More than a hundred dictionaries that are part of Lingvo (80% of them published in 2003-2006) allow you to get detailed information about each word with possible meanings and examples of usage. This means that with the help of Lingvo you can always determine the only translation option that is suitable in this case, and eliminate the possibility of an annoying mistake.

ABBYY Lingvo 12 is available in three versions, which differ in the composition of languages ​​and dictionaries, but have the same interface and set of functions.

2.6. X - translator PLATINUM Version:5.0.0.15

X - translator PLATINUM - This is a translator-editor that provides the ability to translate text from a file, from the clipboard (including in automatic mode and with text accumulation), as well as when typing text on the keyboard in the editor window. The application provides simultaneous translation when typing, as well as minimizing the editor window to an icon in the SystemTray. In addition, there is a special function for intercepting keyboard input.

This version of the program includes several new features and capabilities that allow you to quickly and easily tune in to the translation of various texts and make working with the program more convenient and efficient: Additional specialized dictionary "Commerce" for Russian-English, Russian-German and Russian-French translation directions. Mode "On top of all windows". Text accumulation mode when translating the clipboard. Text playback function using MicrosoftAgent technology.

The description of the listed new functions can be found in the corresponding help articles for the program. How to work with the program:

To quickly translate text: Set up the main program settings. In the upper window of the program, type the text you want to translate, or paste the text copied earlier into clipboard, or open a source document. Specify from which language to which you want to translate. Current translation direction indicated on the indicator in the status bar. Choose the right one theme template. The current theme template is indicated by an indicator in the status bar. Click the button Translate. The translation of the text will appear in the lower half of the window. Edit if necessary original text or translation text. Save the resulting translation.

3. Conclusion.

Late 1990s and the beginning of the XXI century were marked by an extraordinary rise in lexicographic activity and the release a large number dictionaries. This was the result of a strong change in the socio-political, economic, cultural concepts of society, the expansion of international relations, the introduction computer technology, which led to significant changes in the vocabulary of the Russian language, the emergence of a mass of neologisms, and a change in the meanings of existing words. Language transformations had to be recorded in new linguistic dictionaries. Change economic structure countries, the emergence of a large number of commercial publishers and the need for linguistic dictionaries in the practical and educational fields have led to the publication of many "mass", commercially profitable and publicly available dictionaries. However, their preparation is not given the attention that was possible with the centralized release of dictionaries, when each dictionary project was subjected to comprehensive scientific analysis and became an event in the linguistic world. The same can be said about the editorial preparation of dictionary publications.

4. List of used literature.

1. Abramov N. "Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar in meaning

expressions".

2. Dal V. I. "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language".

3. Dubrovin M. I. "English-Russian Dictionary" Manual for students.- 2nd

ed.-M.: Enlightenment, 1991.

4. Zakharenko E. N., Komarova L. N., Nechaeva I. V. "New Dictionary

foreign words" - M.: "Azbukovnik", 2003.

5. Kuznetsova A. I., Efremova T. F. "Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language".

6. Muller. "Russian-English dictionary".

7. "Single-volume dictionary of the Russian language".

8. "Popular Dictionary of Foreign Words" Edited by I.V.

Nechaeva. M .: ABC.

9. "Russian spelling dictionary". Editorial staff: V. V. Lopatin (responsible editor),

B. Z. Bukchina, N. A. Eskova and others - Moscow: "Azbukovnik", 1999.

10. Russian semantic dictionary. Under the general editorship. N. Yu. Shvedova. – M.:

"Azbukovnik", 1998.

11. "Dictionary of the Russian language". 4 volumes. Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. - 2nd ed.,

correct and additional - M .: Russian language, 1981-1984.

Linguistic dictionaries are delimited taking into account such parameters of the characteristics of the word:

1. Each word has outer shape and inner content. Therefore, the characterization of a word begins with its form (F). The main features of the form: it is material, consists of sounds, it is indicated by letters in writing, one syllable stands out intonation, it is pronounced with stress.

2. The word has an internal content (S). This is the ideal side of the word, its lexical real meaning.

3. The origin of the word, its history.

4. The structure of the word, its morphemic composition. Derivational characteristics of the word.

5. When comparing some words belonging to the same part of speech, various relationships are found between their forms (F) and content (S). For example, if we compare the words outfit"referral to work" and outfit -“clothes”, then they have the same forms (F 1 \u003d F 2), but the content is different (S l ≠ S2). Other the picture is obtained by comparing the verbs walk - walk - trudge - stomp - plod. They differ in shape (F 1 ≠ F2 ≠ F3 ≠ F4 ≠ F 5), and in content they are identical (S 1 \u003d S 2 \u003d S 3 \u003d S 4 \u003d S 5). This option is also possible: words differ in form (F 1 ≠ F 2), for example, evil - good but in content they are opposite (S 1 < – Ø–> S 2).

6. When characterizing a word, the scope of its use is important, i.e. in which speech this word occurs. For example, the names of fish sula (perch), chebak (bream) inherent in the Don dialect; hypocenter, epicenter scientific language; bucks, cool, prices - slang speech.

In accordance with the listed parameters of the word characteristics, the following types of linguistic dictionaries are distinguished:

1. Orthoepic dictionaries, which indicate how the word should be pronounced, which pronunciations are allowed, which pronunciation is considered incorrect.

2. Explanatory dictionaries. Their main purpose is to explain the word, to determine all its meanings. The most complete is the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language. It consists of 17 volumes. The first volume was published in 1950, and the seventeenth - in 1965. This dictionary is the most representative lexico-graphic edition. It contains about 120 thousand words; covers the lexical richness of the Russian literary language with its grammatical characteristics from Pushkin to the middle of the 20th century.

The most famous and more accessible is the Dictionary of the Russian Language, compiled by S.I. Ozhegov. Its 22nd edition was published in 1990. In 1993, a new "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by I.S. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova; its second edition, revised and enlarged, is dated 1994.

In recent decades, the attitude towards much that was cultivated, propagandized, and formed the basis of the Soviet state, the Soviet system, and Soviet society has changed significantly. These changes are reflected in the vocabulary of the Russian language. In 1998, V.I. Mokienko, T.G. Nikitina. In the preface, the authors write that the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Language of the Soviets" should comprehensively present the Soviet era in lexical display.

The group of explanatory dictionaries also includes dictionaries of foreign words. The newest of them is "Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words" (M., 1999). The dictionary contains about 20 thousand words borrowed by Russian from other languages ​​at different times.

3. Etymological dictionaries. From them we learn how the word was formed, what is its morphemic composition, what other words of Russian and other languages ​​it is associated with.

And if the word is borrowed, then when and from what language did it come to us.

A large scientific dictionary in terms of value and volume is the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language, compiled by the honored teacher of the 4th Moscow gymnasium A.G. Preobrazhensky (1850–1918).

The most common modern etymological dictionary is "A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanova, T.V. Shansky, published in 1961 and republished in 1975 (3rd edition). It explains the origin of over 6,000 of the most common words. This is the first popular science etymological reference book in Russian lexicography.

4. Dictionaries of morphemes, in which prefixes, roots, suffixes are given in alphabetical order with a description of their word-formation capabilities.

word-building dictionaries, showing how words are formed. The most complete “Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A.N. Tikhonov.

5. Semonymic dictionaries. Seminymic (gr. sema- sign, entanglement - name) such dictionaries are called, where not individual words are collected and interpreted, but two or more when combined which are taken into account relationship between their sound and/or meaning. These associations may consist of words that are similar or close in meaning, but different in sound ( synonyms); having opposite meanings (antonyms); similar in sound but different in meaning homonyms) or not completely similar in sound, having different meanings and erroneously used one instead of the other ( paronyms).

Undoubtedly, the Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language by 3. E. Aleksandrova, ed. L.A. Cheshko (M., 1968), in which about 9000 synonymic rows are recorded. This dictionary has been reprinted several times. In the 10th edition (1999), there are about 11 thousand synonymic rows in it.

The most complete description of synonyms is found in the two-volume Dictionary of Russian Synonyms, ed. A.P. Evgenieva (L., 1970–1971), containing about 4000 entries.

In 1971, almost simultaneously, the Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language was published, compiled by L.A. Vvedenskaya (Rostov-on-Don), and "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" N.P. Kolesnikova (Tbilisi).

"Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" L.A. Vvedenskaya was significantly revised over time: new antonymic pairs were introduced, the interpretation of antonyms was consistently given, and the illustrative material was expanded. In an updated version, it was published in Rostov-on-Don in 1995.

The most complete dictionary of homonyms is the "Dictionary of homonyms" by N.P. Kolesnikova (Rostov-on-Don, 1995).

6. The last group is dictionaries describing the vocabulary of a limited scope of use. These include:

Terminological dictionaries. They explain the terms of any science: physics, cosmology, bionics, medicine, etc. In 1994, for example, “ Economic dictionary- hypertext. In the preface, the authors emphasize the relevance of the publication: “Dictionaries are deservedly called satellites of civilization. And now, when the terms of a market economy have flooded into our lives, reference books are especially needed to help navigate these complex problems, explaining modern concepts.

dialect dictionaries. Knowledge of dialect vocabulary enriches a person, expands not only his vocabulary, but also his horizons, because through the word there is an acquaintance with the life and way of life of the people. For residents Rostov region interesting is the "Dictionary of Russian Don Dialects", in which there are a lot of ethnographic words that characterize the features of a home device, means of transportation, tools, daily activities, hobbies. Let us give an example of the dialect names of vehicles on water: canoe, canoe - a large boat for transporting fish; budara - a large sailing boat for carrying cargo; on the ground: trouble - a wide cart with high sides for transporting hay, straw; bedarka - a cart with crossbars for transporting barrels.

Dictionaries of jargon, slang vocabulary. Slangy, slang vocabulary is outside the Russian literary language, but it is an integral part of the dictionary of the national Russian language. Its lexical and graphic description began in the middle of the 19th century.

AT Soviet times such dictionaries were available only to employees of the investigating authorities, the police. Starting from the 90s. In the 20th century, their publication was no longer limited, which greatly stimulated the compilation and publication of dictionaries reflecting the slang jargon. To get an idea of ​​this variety of dictionaries, let's name a few: D.S. Baldaev, V.K. Belko, Ch.M. Isupov "Dictionary of prison-camp-thieves jargon" (1992). Dictionary contains 11000 lexical units. V. Bykov “Russian Fenya. Dictionary of Modern Interjargon of Asocial Elements (1993). The dictionary contains 3500 words and expressions. T.G. Nikitin "So say the youth" (1998). This is a dictionary of youth slang.

In recent years, dictionaries - "libraries" - have been published. One dictionary includes several dictionaries. This type of dictionaries includes the "Small Dictionary of the Russian Language" (M., 1999). It includes the "Spelling Dictionary", "Etymological Dictionary" and "Dictionary of Foreign Words".

A complex approach allowed to place in dictionaries materials that complement each other. As a result, the reader can get comprehensive information about the word.

All dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic and linguistic. Encyclopedia presents in a concise form the current state of scientific knowledge in any field, i.e. describes the world, explains concepts, gives biographical information about famous personalities, information about cities and countries, historical events, etc. Purpose linguistic dictionaries the other - they contain information about the word. There are various types of linguistic dictionaries: explanatory, dictionaries of foreign words, etymological, orthographic, orthoepic, phraseological, dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, dictionaries of linguistic terms, syntactic dictionaries, etc. Explanatory dictionaries describe the meaning of words: such dictionaries should be consulted if one needs to find out what a word means. The Dictionary of the Russian Language by S.I. Ozhegov is widespread and well-known. A special place among explanatory dictionaries is occupied by V.I. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, which consists of 4 volumes and contains more than 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs, sayings, sayings, riddles, which are given as illustrations to explain the meanings of words. Although this dictionary is over 100 years old (it was published in 1863-1866), its value does not fade with time: Dahl's dictionary is an inexhaustible treasure trove for all those who are interested in the history of the Russian people, its culture and language. The origin of the word, its path in the language, historical changes in its composition fix historical and etymological dictionaries. In phraseological dictionaries you can find descriptions of stable turnovers, learn about their origin and use. In 1967, ed. A. I. Molotkov published the first special Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language, in which over 4000 phraseological units were explained. Information about the correct spelling of the word can be found in spelling dictionary, and about the correct pronunciation - in orthoepic. There are dictionaries grammar, containing information about the morphological properties of the word. Exist dictionaries dedicated to the description of individual groups of vocabulary: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms. Lexicographers are working on compiling dictionaries of the language of writers, for example, there is Pushkin's Dictionary of Language. Dictionaries of speech irregularities and difficulties help to avoid speech errors in the use of certain words or their forms. When learning a foreign language, it is impossible to do without bilingual dictionaries.

The object of description in a linguistic dictionary is a unit of language, most often a word. The purpose of the description in a linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the designated object itself, but about the linguistic unit (about its meaning, compatibility, etc.), while the nature of the information provided by the dictionary differs depending on the type of linguistic dictionary.

Linguistic dictionaries, in turn, are divided into two types: bilingual (more rarely multilingual), i.e., translation dictionaries that we use when studying a foreign language, when working with a foreign text (Russian-English dictionary, Polish-Russian dictionary, etc.). ), and monolingual. The most important type of a monolingual linguistic dictionary is an explanatory dictionary containing words with an explanation of their meanings, grammatical and stylistic characteristics. The desire to collect and systematize phraseological units of the Russian language found expression in the publication of a number of phraseological collections. There are also dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms and dictionaries of new words; dictionaries of compatibility (lexical), grammatical dictionaries and dictionaries of correctness (difficulties); word-building, dialect, frequency and reverse dictionaries; spelling and orthoepic dictionaries; onomastic dictionaries (dictionaries of proper names); dictionaries of foreign words.

Types of normative dictionaries and principles of working with them

Dictionary . The most complete information about the word is given by the explanatory dictionary. The modern standard explanatory dictionary is the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova. It serves as a guide to the correct use of words, the correct formation of words, the correct pronunciation and spelling. From the whole variety of vocabulary of the modern Russian language, its main composition has been selected for this dictionary. In accordance with the tasks of the dictionary, it did not include: special words and meanings that have a narrow professional use; dialect words and meanings, if they are not widely used in the literary language; vernacular words and meanings with a pronounced rough coloring; obsolete words and meanings that have fallen out of active use; own names.

The dictionary reveals the meaning of the word in a brief definition, sufficient for understanding the word itself and its use.

The dictionary gives a description of the use of the word: bookish, high, official, colloquial, colloquial, regional, contemptuous, special.

After interpreting the meaning of the word, if necessary, examples are given to illustrate its use in speech. Examples help to better understand the meaning of the word and how to use it. As examples, short phrases, the most common combinations of words, as well as proverbs, proverbs, everyday and figurative expressions showing the use of this word are given.

After interpretation and examples, phraseological turns are given, which include this word.

Pronouncing dictionary fixes the norms of pronunciation and stress. The first such dictionary was published in 1959: it is "Russian literary pronunciation and stress.

This dictionary mainly includes words:

the pronunciation of which cannot be unequivocally established on the basis of their written form;

having a mobile stress in grammatical forms;

forming some grammatical forms in non-standard ways;

words experiencing stress fluctuations in the entire system of forms or in separate forms.

The dictionary introduces a scale of normativity: some options are considered equal, in other cases one of the options is recognized as the main one, and the other is acceptable. The dictionary also contains notes indicating the pronunciation of the word in poetic and professional speech.

The following main phenomena are reflected in pronunciation marks:

consonant softening, i.e. soft pronunciation of consonants under the influence of subsequent soft consonants, for example, review, -i [нзь];

changes occurring in consonant groups, for example, pronunciation of stn as [sn] (local);

possible pronunciation of one consonant sound (hard or soft) in place of two identical letters, for example, apparatus, -a [p]; effect, -a [f];

solid pronunciation of consonants followed by the vowel e in place of spelling combinations with e in words of foreign origin, for example, hotel, -ya [te];

lack of reduction in words of foreign origin, i.e. pronunciation of unstressed vowels in place of the letters o, e, a, which does not comply with the rules of reading, for example, bonton, -a [bo]; nocturne, -a [facult. but];

features in the pronunciation of consonants associated with the syllable division in words with collateral stress, for example, head of the laboratory [zaf / l], non-cl. m, f.

Synonym dictionaries Russian languages ​​give the reader the opportunity to find a replacement for any word or combination, answer the question of how to say differently, how to express the same idea in other words, name this or that object. Words in such a dictionary are given in the form of rows of synonyms to the main words, arranged alphabetically.

Dictionaries of paronyms allow you to understand the meanings of words that are close in sound, but different in meaning, such as, for example, deep - deep, heroism - heroism - heroism, wait - wait. The structure of the dictionary entry in the "Dictionary of paronyms of the modern Russian language" by Yu.A. Belchikov and M.S. Panyusheva (Moscow: Russian language, 1994) includes an interpretive part, a comparison of the combined possibilities of paronyms and a commentary that explains the differences in the meanings of paronyms and situations of their use are described, as well as grammatical and stylistic properties paronyms.

foreign dictionaries strange words have the same purpose and structure of a dictionary entry as explanatory dictionaries, differing from them in that they contain words of foreign origin, which is also indicated in the dictionary entry.

Terminological dictionaries have a professional orientation - they are intended for specialists in a particular field of scientific knowledge or practice. These dictionaries do not describe the linguistic properties of words and combinations, but the content of scientific and other special concepts and the nomenclature of things and phenomena that a specialist in a certain branch of science or industry deals with.