Lexical features of the professional Russian language. Terminological vocabulary

Not understanding their meaning, we feel a little out of place when these words refer directly to us. Words that characterize specialized processes and phenomena from any particular branch of knowledge are professional vocabulary.

Definition of professional vocabulary

This type of vocabulary is special words or turns of speech, expressions that are actively used in any person. These words are a little isolated, as they are not used large mass population of the country, only a small part of it, who received a specific education. The words of professional vocabulary are used to describe or explain production processes and phenomena, the tools of a particular profession, raw materials, the end result of labor, and the rest.

The place of this type of vocabulary in the language system used by a particular nation

There are several important issues concerning different aspects professionalisms that linguists are still studying. One of them: "What is the role and place of professional vocabulary in the system of general national language?"

Many argue that the use of professional vocabulary is appropriate only within a certain specialty, so it cannot be called national. Since the formation of the language of specialties in most cases occurs artificially, according to its criteria, it does not fit the characteristics of common vocabulary. Its main feature is that such vocabulary is formed in the course of natural communication between people. In addition, the formation and formation of a national language can take a fairly long period, which cannot be said about professional lexical units. To date, linguists and linguists agree that professional vocabulary is not a literary language, but it has its own structure and characteristics.

The difference between professional vocabulary and terminology

Not all ordinary people know that the terminology and language of the specialty differ from each other. These two concepts are distinguished on the basis of their historical development. Terminology arose relatively recently, the language of modern technology and science refers to this concept. Professional vocabulary reached its peak of development during the time of handicraft production.

Also, the concepts differ in terms of their official use. Terminology is used in scientific publications, reports, conferences, specialized institutions. In other words, it is the official language of a particular science. The vocabulary of professions is used "semi-officially", that is, not only in special articles or scientific papers. Specialists of a certain profession can use it in the course of work and understand each other, while it will be difficult for an uninitiated person to learn what they are saying. Professional vocabulary, examples of which we will consider below, has some opposition to terminology.

1. Availability emotional coloring speech and figurativeness - the lack of expression and emotionality, as well as the figurativeness of terms.
2. Special vocabulary is limited to colloquial style - the terms are independent of the usual style of communication.
3. Some range of deviation from the norm professional communication- strict compliance with the norms of the professional language.

Based on the above characteristics of terms and professional vocabulary, many experts tend to the theory that the latter refers to professional vernacular. The difference in these concepts can be determined by comparing them with each other (steering wheel - steering wheel, system unit - system unit, motherboard- motherboard and others).

Varieties of words in professional vocabulary

Professional vocabulary consists of several groups of words:

• professionalism;
• technicalisms;
• professional jargon.

Professionalisms are lexical units that do not have a strictly scientific character. They are considered "semi-official" and are needed to denote any concept or process in production, inventory and equipment, material, raw materials, and so on.

Technicisms are words of professional vocabulary that are used in the field of technology and are used only by a limited circle of people. They are highly specialized, that is, it will not be possible to communicate with a person who is not initiated into a certain profession.

Professional jargon words are characterized by a reduced expressive coloring. Sometimes these concepts are completely illogical, and only a specialist in a particular field can comprehend them.

In what cases is professional vocabulary used in the literary language?

Varieties special language can often be used in literary publications, oral and sometimes professionalism, technicalism and professional jargon can replace terms with a poorly developed language of a particular science.

But there is a danger of the widespread use of professionalisms in periodicals - it is difficult for a non-specialist to distinguish concepts that are close in meaning, so many may make mistakes in the processes, materials and products of a particular production. Excessive saturation of the text with professionalism prevents it from being perceived correctly, meaning and style are lost for the reader.

professional words. Examples of professionalisms in Russian?

Professionalisms are words that are used in oral speech people in a narrow profession. They are often confused with professional terms. However, this different words, even if professionalism is recorded in the dictionary, the mark professionalismquot ;.

Examples of professionalism:

The spare tire is a wheel for drivers, paws are quotes for a text editor, a corral is a pre-written text for newspaper editors, a billhook is a welder's hammer.

Professional words are those words that are used between people of a certain profession or specialty.

For example, in medicine - history, diagnosis, hypotension; for sailors - cook, galley, keel, fairway, rynda; for artists - watercolor, airbrush, aquatint, etching, impasto.

Professional words, like dialect ones, are used only by people of certain professions. These words are most often not dictionary words, but many of them have already entered common use among people of other professions. Dialect words are words that are used only in specific regions. Examples:

For example, the military often say charterquot ;, buildingquot ;, orderquot ;.

And teachers often use terms such as rulerquot ;, meetingquot ;, plankquot ;.

Professional words, or professionalisms, are words that are characteristic of a particular profession, people who are united by one or another professional activity. Doctors have their own set of such words, as do lawyers, linguists, programmers, etc. As a rule, these words are little known and little understood by a wide range of people, especially highly specialized words, although there are also those that are widely used in the speech of most people.

It is worth noting that official terms and professionalism are not the same thing, for example, professionalism goat - Remains of solidified metal in metallurgy, of. the term is

Here are some examples of professionalism:

candle (doctors have a type of temperature curve),

sandpaper (sandpaper).

Professional words and terms, as a rule, do not have ambiguity and synonyms. They are completely specific. This distinguishes them from all the others. For example: Easel, print, tweezers, accommodation, assimilation, diaeresis, anacrusis, clause, etc.

Professional words are sometimes incomprehensible in meaning, because their meaning denotes a specific action and often words are borrowed from foreign languages.

For example, a cook prepares fondue - this is such a dish and a dancer performs fondue - this is such a movement.

The surgeon uses a scalpel a common person uses a knife.

professional words belong to the vocabulary of a narrow scope of use. Most often, such words are not used actively in the speech of the general public. Often, professionalisms are terms that are full in every field of knowledge or in production, for example:

amalgam, differentiation, arbitration, isotopes.

Professionalisms sometimes have a literary analogue - a word with a different root.

For example, in the speech of sailors there is a professionalism cookquot ;, and in the generally accepted sense there is a name for this profession cookquot ;, and on the ship - this is the kitchen in the generally accepted sense.

This line between true professionalism and the terminological vocabulary of this area is very fragile and thin. An abundance of technical terms is used in works on a production theme, and military terms are used in stories about the war.

The abundance of special vocabulary is used by writers to create an environment speech characteristics heroes and even with a humorous purpose. Here is what A.N. Apukhtin P.I. Tchaikovsky:

Professional words in Russian are a group of words united by one common theme, which are used either in a narrow specific professional activity, like, for example, medical terms, or these are words that have a certain meaning, but in this particular profession, these words have a completely different semantic load. Examples of professional words:

Mathematician - root, task, hyperbole.

Medic: angina pectoris, encephalopathy, epicrisis.

Builder: collar, winch, bucket.

And many others.

Professionalisms are found in every area of ​​activity, only some are widespread, and some are known and recognizable in a narrower circle.

For example, professional words can be distinguished by the following list:

Professionalisms are words that are usually used in a certain field of activity, profession. There are even special dictionaries of professionalisms, which contain words from various fields of activity. For example, bottle in the speech of sailors means half an hourquot ;.

Professionalisms, therefore, are most often used within the same professional group.

PROFESSIONALISMS- These are special words that are used in the field of a wide variety of professions. A significant part of professional words is terminological in nature.

In science, art, agriculture, industrial production- everywhere there are terms.

For example, as a mathematician by education and profession, I have always used mathematical terms: integral, differential, equation, names of trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, tangent, etc.).

Musicians naturally use musical terms, for example: fugue, overture, chord, gamma, backart, dominant, minor tone.

Professional words are special vocabulary characteristic of a particular profession.

However, it should be noted that professional vocabulary is used not only in a certain environment of people united by one professional activity.

It is also used in journalism and fiction so that the reader can imagine the environment in which the character of a certain profession works. The speech of the hero of a work of art may also contain terms related to his activities.

So, for example, many of our classic writers (Turgenev, Aksakov, Nekrasov, Tolstoy and many others) used the so-called hunting terminology: fallen(hidden hare) hang on tail(chase the beast with hounds), copalo(sharp lower fang of a boar), accept the beast(take away the hunted beast from the dog), wheel(loose tail of a capercaillie), etc.

There is even a Dictionary of hunting terms. Of course, there are various other dictionaries that provide professional terms related to a particular profession.

Words that are used by representatives of a particular specialty or profession are called professionalisms.

Professional words in ordinary speech are rare. They can be heard if you ask some employee to tell in more detail about his activities, about what he specifically does.

For example, in medical field Professionals include:

In the Russian language, along with common vocabulary, there are words and expressions used by groups of people united by the nature of their activity, i.e. by profession. These are professionalisms.
Professionalisms are characterized by greater differentiation in the designation of tools and means of production, in the name specific items, actions, persons, etc. They are distributed mainly in the colloquial speech of people of a particular profession, sometimes being a kind of unofficial synonyms for special names. Often they are reflected in dictionaries, but always marked “professional”. In the texts of newspapers and magazines, as well as in works of art they perform, as a rule, a nominative function, and also serve as a figurative and expressive means.
So, in the professional speech of actors, the complex abbreviated name glavrezh is used; in the colloquial speech of builders and repairmen, the professional name of capital repairs is used; the attendants of computer centers are called machinists and EVEM workers; on fishing boats, workers who gut fish (usually by hand) are called skerries, etc.
According to the method of education, we can distinguish:
1) actually lexical professionalisms, which arise as new, special names. For example, in this way arose in the speech of professional fishermen the above word shkershchik from the verb shkerit - “gut the fish”; in the speech of carpenters and joiners the names various kinds planer: kalevka, zenzubel, tongue-and-groove, etc.;
2) lexical-semantic professionalisms that arise in the process of developing a new meaning of a word and its rethinking. This is how, for example, the professional meanings of words in the speech of printers arose: Christmas trees or paws - a kind of quotation marks; cap - a common title for several publications, corral - spare, additional set, not included in the next issue; in the speech of hunters, the professional names of animal tails are distinguished: for a deer - kuiruk, burdock, for a wolf - a log, for a fox - a pipe, for a beaver - a shovel, for a squirrel - fur, for a hare - a flower, bunch, repeek, etc .;
3) lexical and derivational professionalisms, which include words like a spare wheel - a spare mechanism, part of something; glavrezh - the main director, etc., in which either a suffix is ​​​​used, or a way of adding words, etc.
Professionalisms usually do not receive wide distribution in the literary language; their scope remains limited.
Terminological vocabulary includes words or phrases used for logical exact definition special concepts or subjects of some area of ​​science, technology, agriculture, art, etc. Unlike commonly used words, which can be ambiguous, terms within a particular science, as a rule, are unambiguous. They are characterized by a clearly limited, motivated specialization of meaning.
The development of science and technology, the emergence of new branches of science is always accompanied by the abundant appearance of new terms. Therefore, terminology is one of the most mobile, fast-growing and rapidly changing parts of the national vocabulary (cf. just some names of new sciences and industries: automation, allergology, aeronomy, biocybernetics, bionics, hydroponics, holography, cardiac surgery, cosmobiology and many other sciences related to space exploration, plasma chemistry, speleology, ergonomics, etc.).
Ways of forming terms are different. For example, there is a terminology of words existing in the language, i.e. scientific rethinking of the well-known lexical meaning. This process goes in two ways: 1) by abandoning the generally accepted lexical meaning and giving the word a strict, precise name, for example: a signal in information theory “changing physical quantity, displaying messages"; 2) through the full or partial use of those features that serve as the basis for the lexical meaning of the word in popular use, i.e. name by similarity, adjacency, etc., for example: a hole is a defective electron in nuclear physics; drapri - a kind of form aurora borealis; neck - the intermediate part of the machine shaft, etc. Note that the expressive-emotional meanings inherent in words with diminutive suffixes, as a rule, disappear during terminology. Wed also: tail (for tools, fixtures), foot (part of the machine frame; part of the instruments), etc.
For the formation of terms, the word composition is widely used: nuclear-powered ship, smoke catcher, crank, current drive; affixing method: casting, cladding, constellation, melting, heater; the addition of foreign language elements: air, auto, bio, etc. The method of terminology of phrases is widely used: elementary particles, primary radiation, cosmic rays, optical density, space medicine and etc.
An important role in terminological systems is played by foreign borrowings. For a long time, many Dutch, English nautical terms have been known; Italian and French musical, art history, literary terms; Latin and Greek terms are found in all sciences. Many of these terms are international (see § 10).
The spread of scientific and technical terminology, its penetration into various spheres of life leads to the fact that in the language, along with the process of terminology of commonly used words, there is also a reverse process - mastering the literary language of terms, i.e. their determinology. For example, the frequent use of philosophical, art criticism, literary criticism, physical, chemical, medical, industrial and many other terms made them common words, for example: abstraction, argument, dialectics, materialism, thinking, concept, consciousness; concert, plot, style; amplitude, accumulator, contact, contour, reaction, resonance; analysis, vitamin deficiency, diagnosis, immunity, x-ray; capron, harvester, conveyor, motor; incandescence, soldering, recoil, filtering, etc. Often found in the context of commonly used words, the terms are metaphorized and lose their special purpose, for example: the anatomy of love, the geography of a feat, sclerosis of conscience, inflation of words.
Determinologized words are widely used in different styles of speech: colloquial, bookish (in journalism, works of art, etc.). Along with them, professionalisms and terms are often used. However, the excessive saturation of artistic, journalistic works with scientific and technical terminology reduces their value and was condemned back in the late 20s and early 30s by A.M. Gorky, who wrote: “... No need to abuse shop terminology, or you should explain the terms. This must be done without fail, because it gives the book a wider distribution, makes it easier to assimilate everything that is said in it.

More on the topic 13. Professional and terminological vocabulary:

1. 1.19. Special vocabulary (professional and terminological)
2. §one. The use of dialect, professional and terminological vocabulary in speech
3. 1.5.4. Unique suffixes of nouns formed according to the model of borrowed words, replenishing the terminological vocabulary

2.1 The semantic essence of the term

most significant group in special vocabulary are scientific and technical terms that form a variety of terminological systems. Terminological vocabulary includes words or phrases used to logically accurately define special concepts, establish the content of concepts, their distinctive features.

A term is a nominative word or phrase (a noun or a phrase with a noun as a reference word), which is the exact designation of a certain concept of any field of knowledge, production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which are the essence of the terminological system of this science. Consequently, for a term (unlike any word in general), the main characteristic function is the function of definition, called the definitive one, and the terminological disclosure of the content of the concept itself is the definition.

The semantic essence of the term and its specificity lie in the nature of its meaning, which is established in the process of conscious, deliberate agreement and within the given terminological system, is direct, nominative, syntactically or constructively unconditioned. AT different systems the meanings of terms can be expressed differently - with the help of words and phrases, formulas or other systems of signs. Terms are, to a certain extent, an artificial lexical-semantic formation, their semantic essence must necessarily reflect that amount of information, that amount scientific knowledge which help to reveal the content of the concept.
Unlike non-terms, words of unlimited use, many of which are ambiguous, terms within the same science, as a rule, must be unambiguous. They are characterized by a clearly limited, predominantly motivated specialization and absolute semantic accuracy. However, the concept of uniqueness, usually used as an absolute differential feature of terms, is somewhat relative. This is most likely a requirement for ideal terminological systems. In real-life terminologies, there are many terms that are characterized by so-called categorical ambiguity. For example, one of the types of terms that have it are nouns with the meaning of an action and its result: bobinage- 1) distribution of turns of something; 2) the cone-shaped or cylindrical shape of the product, acquired as a result of winding (compare also the ambiguity of a number of other terms of textile production: chevauchement, transformation other). Thus, the term "conversion" in linguistics means: 1) in grammar and vocabulary, a way of expressing subject-object relations in sentences equivalent in meaning (the machine removes garbage - the garbage is removed by the machine), 2) in word formation, a way of forming a new word without using affixes , i.e., the transition from one part of speech to another without changing the form of the word. This term is widely used in other terminological systems, and in this case one usually speaks of interbranch homonymy. For example, it is used in economics and politics with the meaning of adapting a production or industry to other needs (conversion of the military-industrial complex). But when we open the dictionary entry in Petit Robert, we find that it is also included in whole line terminological system: fin. Conversón d "une somme d" argent liquide ef valeurs; math, Conversion des fractions ordinaires en fractions decimale*; inform. Changement de code; milit. Mouvement tournant effectué dans un but tactique; sport. Demi-tour sur place_ effectué par u\\ skieur; psijehan. Somatization d "un conflict psychique.

Thus, due to its etymological meaning (from lat. conversion“I transform, I change”) the term “conversion” is in demand by various branches of human activity.

The rapid growth in the number of terms, due to scientific and technological progress leads to such negative phenomena as the appearance of ambiguous terms ( acceleration, impact, area), synonymous terms, the lack of uniform principles for ordering terminologies.

The ambiguity of terms, as well as their synonymy (linguistics - linguistics), as well as homonymy (reaction - chemical and socio-political) and antonymy (polysemy - monosemy) are usually noted among the shortcomings of many modern terminologies. In this case, apparently, the general lexico-semantic patterns of the functioning and development of the language also apply to terminological systems. Therefore, speaking of unambiguity, ambiguity, homonymy, synonymy of terms, it is necessary to take into account the known real-life relativity of this feature.

Terminologists offer various classifications of synonymous terms. For example, B. N. Golovin and R. Yu. Kobrin, exploring the issues of synonymy, distinguish three types of terminological synonyms [Golovin,

Kobrin 1987: 54 - 58]: 1) doublet terms foreign origin, for example, linguistics - linguistics - linguistics; 2) terms are syntactic synonyms, i.e. syntactic constructions, correlated in structure and coinciding in meaning. Scientists divide this type of synonyms into three subgroups: a word - a phrase (tonnage - the register capacity of a vessel); phrase - phrase (passenger ship - ship for passengers); full - short form of the term (TU - specifications); 3) definitional synonymy, i.e. coincidence of the meaning of the term and its definition. For example, a sensor is a remote measuring transducer.

The problem of polysemy also does not have an unambiguous solution. Polysemy is interpreted as “the presence of several interconnected meanings in the same word, usually resulting from the modification and development of the original meaning of this word” [Akhmanova 2004: 335]. The solution to the problem of polysemy is again associated with two directly opposite views on the nature of the term. Some scientists consider the term as a word, a unit of the general literary language, thereby recognizing the term's right to ambiguity. Adherents of another point of view attribute the quality of unambiguity to the term. The term is "one sign, which corresponds to one concept" [Danilenko 1977: 36]. Consequently, the phenomenon of polysemy is excluded from the terminology and it is argued that any shade of meaning should receive its own designation [Kulikova, Salmina 2002: 36].

There is another way to solve this problem. Polysemy exists, but within one terminological field, within one specific terminological system, since the principle of unambiguity is never achieved in the terminology as a whole [Komarova 1991: 25, Kutina 1970: 94].

V. M. Leychik reveals several cases of ambiguity. The most common is the use of the term in related branches of knowledge, the reason for this ambiguity is intersystem borrowing. The second case, he considers categorical ambiguity (for example, the designation of both the process and the result by one term) [Leichik 2006: 45]. In this case, metonymic relations are established between the meanings, one term serves for the name of both science and an aspect of the language (phonetics, morphology) [Kulikova, Salmina 2002: 31]. Categorical polysemy, according to E. N. Tolikina, belongs to the category of true polysemy, and only this type has the right to exist in terminological systems [Tolikina 1970: 60]. As a special type of polysemy, they call the author's polysemy, which is defined as "the designation by a term already existing in science of new objects and concepts, depending on the author's research position, belonging to scientific school» [Golovin, Kobrin 1987: 51].

Terms- words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent an accurate and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms, which are the essence of the terminological system of this science.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several "layers" can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, the features of the designated object.

1. First of all, these are general scientific terms that are used in various fields of knowledge and belong to the scientific style of speech as a whole: experiment, adequate, equivalent, predict. These terms form a common conceptual fund of various sciences and have the highest frequency of use.

2. There are also special terms that are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology; for example, in linguistics: subject, predicate, adjective; in medicine: heart attack, cardiology, etc.

Terminological vocabulary, like no other, is informative. Therefore, in the language of science, terms are indispensable: they allow you to briefly and extremely accurately formulate an idea. However, the degree of terminology of scientific works is not the same. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation, the addressing of the text.

Peculiar a sign of our time has become the spread of terms beyond scientific works . This gives grounds to talk about the general terminology modern speech. So, quite a few words that have terminological meaning have been widely used without any restrictions: tractor, radio, television, oxygen. Another group consists of words that have a dual nature: they can function both as terms and as commonly used words. In the first case, these lexical units are characterized by special shades of meaning, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. So, the word mountain, meaning in wide use - "a significant hill rising above surrounding area"and having a row figurative meanings, does not contain specific height measurements in its interpretation.

In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the terms "mountain" and "hill" is essential, a clarification is given - "a hill over 200 m in height." Thus, the use of such words outside scientific style associated with their partial determinology.

Terminological dictionaries- dictionaries containing the terminology of one or more special areas of knowledge or activity, that is, reflecting the achievements of terminological lexicography (terminography) - one of the sections of general lexicography.

Ticket 12. Dialect, slang, colloquial vocabulary: typology, the principle of expediency of use. Dictionary of dialect vocabulary.

1. dialect group- a group of words, the scope of which is limited by one or another territorial fixation. At their core, these are the dialects of the peasant population, which still retain separate phonetic, morphological, syntactic and lexical-semantic features. This makes it possible to single out phonetic dialectisms (w[o]na instead of wife, p[i]snya, m[i]hundred instead of song, place), morphological dialectisms (for example, I saw with my own eyes[s]) and lexical dialectisms , among which are lexical and lexico-semantic.

Lexical dialectisms are words that coincide with general literary ones in meaning, but differ in their sound complex. They call the same concepts as the words of the literary language that are identical to them, that is, they are synonyms. So, lexical dialectisms are the words: Basque (Northern) - beautiful, Veksha (Northern) - squirrel, rowing (Southern) - disdain, etc.

Lexico-semantic dialectisms are words that coincide in spelling and pronunciation with literary ones, but differ from them in their meaning. They are homonyms in relation to literary words. For example, peppy (Southern, and Ryazan) - smart, beautifully dressed and peppy (lit.) - full of strength, healthy, energetic.

In its bulk dialect words are not included in the general language. But through colloquial speech, dialectisms penetrate into the literary language. They are also used by Russian writers of the 20th century (M.A. Sholokhov, V. Rasputin, V.M. Shukshin, etc.).

For the modern literary language, dialectisms provide less and less figurative means even when people from a peasant environment are depicted, since the growth of the culture of the entire population, as well as the influence of the media, contributes to the fact that rapprochement is taking place more and more actively. local dialects with literary language.

Dialect dictionaries are a kind of explanatory dictionaries that describe the vocabulary of one dialect or a group of dialects. The formation of Russian. dialect lexicography falls on the middle. 19th century, although interest in folk dialects arose as early as the 18th century, when numerous lists of local words began to appear in various ethnographic, historical, economic and geographical descriptions. Examples: "Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" by E. A. Steinfeldt (1963), "Pskov Regional Dictionary with Historical Data" (1967)".

2. Slang vocabulary.

Jargon - social variety speech used by a narrow circle of native speakers, united by a common interest, occupation, position in society. In modern Russian, they distinguish youth jargon or slang, professional jargon, camp jargon is also used in places of deprivation of liberty.

Most widespread received youth jargon, popular with students and young people. Jargons, as a rule, have equivalents in the national language: hostel-dormitory, scholarship-stipend, spurs-cribs, etc. The appearance of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to the subject, phenomenon more vividly, more emotionally. Hence such evaluative words: awesome, cool, killer, high, etc. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent in dictionaries.

The camp jargon, which was used by people placed in special living conditions, reflected the terrible life in places of detention: convict (prisoner), gruel (stew), informer (informer).

3. Colloquial vocabulary.

Vernacular is a variety of the Russian national language, the carrier of which is the uneducated and semi-educated urban population.

Spaciousness is realized in oral speech; at the same time, of course, it can be reflected in fiction and in private correspondence of persons - carriers of vernacular. The most typical places for the implementation of vernacular are: the family (communication within the family and with relatives), the court (witness testimony, an appointment with a judge), a doctor's office (a patient's story about an illness). In modern vernacular, two modern layers are distinguished - a layer of old, traditional means that clearly reveal their dialectal origin, and a layer of relatively new means that came into common speech mainly from social jargons. Therefore, vernacular-1 and vernacular-2 are distinguished. The carrier of vernacular-1 are elderly citizens with a low educational and cultural level (mostly elderly women); among the carriers of vernacular-2, representatives of the middle and younger generations, who also do not have enough education, predominate (a significant part are men).

Examples: maybe (maybe a particle), so hot; not so hot (not very good).

Ticket 13. Borrowed vocabulary: typology, features of use and orthology. Etymological dictionary. Vocabulary foreign words

Borrowing- one of the ways to replenish vocabulary. The Russian people throughout its existence stood in the economic, political, cultural connections with other nations, and borrowing is the result of these contacts. Borrowing is based on the principle of expediency. AT original language borrowed words are no more than 10-14% (in some periods, about 20%), but the basis of an independent language is the original vocabulary. "Alien" words were deciphered in different ways: some became synonymous with Russian ones (barbarisms), others, generalizing realities that do not exist in Russian reality, have synonyms (exoticisms).

Borrowings

From the Old Church Slavonic Language of translations of Greek church literature, translations were made by Kirillov and Methodius. The basis is the ancient Greek language, the Macedonian dialect. The main features are: 1) dissonance - -ra, -la-, -re, -le (gate, head, sequence) in place of Russian full agreement (votora, head, sequence) 2) combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of a word (equal , boat) instead of Russian ro-, lo- (smooth, boat) 3) initial e instead of Russian o (single - one, spring - autumn) 4) combination of railway (walking, ignorant) in place of Russian f (walking, ignorant) 5 ) prefixes through-, pre-, water-, from-, bottom-, pre- (excessive, destiny, repay, elect, shoots, expel) 6) roots of good-, good-, evil-, sacrifice- 7) individual words: cross, rod, power, universe, disaster, sackcloth, goalkeeper, guard, helmet. 8) sh-Russian h (lighting - a candle) 9) Russian y - Old Slavonic y

The fate of the Old Slavs:

Usage in speech:

1) create book speech

2) call realities alien to our lives

3) recreate the color of the era

4) create a speech portrait

5) create pasta (inappropriately saturated with borrowings) speech

Functional characteristics of borrowed words:

1) words limited in use - words that have been preserved in varying degrees its "foreignness" (file, holding, sprite)

a) terms of narrow use that do not have synonyms in Russian speech (phoneme, advice note, assimilation)

b) words used to denote national life other peoples (exoticisms) (arba, ditches, Taliban)

c) words that have retained their "native" sound and spelling (c "estlavie - such is life)

d) "slang foreigners" - words used as "fashionable" in certain social strata (horror film, dreadlocks)

2) words not limited in use - words that do not stand out against the background of the original vocabulary.

a) words that have lost any signs of non-Russian origin (picture, chair, bed, iron)

b) words that have retained some signs of "foreignness" (veil, jury), derivational (trainee, antibiotics), paradigmatic (cinema, cafe, salami)

c) internationalisms - words that are equally understood in several non-native languages ​​(terror, dictatorship, telephone)

Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions:

§ The emergence of new words from the existing word-formation elements (roots, prefixes, suffixes) in the language.

§ As a result of economic, cultural, political ties with other peoples, new borrowing words penetrated into the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language consists of native Russian words (Indo-Europeanisms, common Slavic, East Slavic, proper Russian vocabulary) and borrowed words (from Slavic, non-Slavic languages, Scandinavian, Turkic, Latin, Greek and other borrowings).

The main reasons for borrowing:

1. The need for naming new things, phenomena, concepts: computer; blazer (a special cut fitted jacket); grant (monetary allowance issued by special funds and intended for material support of scientific research); digest (a special kind of log containing summary materials from other publications).

2. The need to distinguish between concepts: makeup artist (from French visage - face) and previously borrowed designer (artist-designer, from English, design - idea, drawing, project); player (from English, to play - play) and Russian. player (player - a compact player with headphones, a player - an apparatus for playing music on records).

3. The need for specialization of concepts: marketing (market), management (management), audit (audit, control), real estate agent (real estate entrepreneur), paparazzi (obnoxious gossip reporters), killer (professional, hired killer), leasing ( lease with redemption according to income).

Reasons for borrowing

1) language

a) the absence of the name of the object or phenomenon (camera, hamburger, computer)

b) the desire for semantic and stylistic differentiation

c) the operation of the law of speech economy (fireproof cabinet - safe)

2) connection

a) awareness of foreign words is more prestigious

b) assessment of borrowing as signs of SOMETHING development

c) using borrowings as euphemisms

d) influence of language fashion

Borrowing conditions:

1) The presence of contacts between the language of the donor and the receiving language

2) willingness of society to accept loans

13-17% of borrowed words in the language are considered optimal. The borrowing process is a part metaphorically comparable to a pendulum ("pendulum effect")

exoticisms- words that characterize specific features the lives of different peoples and are used when describing non-Russian reality: horseman, persimmon, pita bread, dollar. Exoticisms do not have Russian synonyms.

barbarisms- foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is of an individual nature. Barbarisms are not mastered by the Russian language, they are not fixed in dictionaries and sound like aliens, they have synonyms in Russian: teenager, upgrade, businessman. Speech saturated with barbarisms is called macaronic.

Signs of borrowed words

1. Availability initial letter"a": lampshade, April, scarlet, army, pharmacy.

2. The presence of the letter "e" in the root of the word: mayor, aloe, emotions, phaeton.

3. The presence of the letter "f" in the word: decanter, spacesuit, February.

4. The presence of combinations of two or more vowels in the roots of words: diet, duel, halo, poem, guard.

5. 5 The presence of combinations of consonants "kd", "kz", "gb", "kg" in the roots of words: anecdote, station, barrier, warehouse.

6. The presence of combinations "ge", "ke", "he" in the root: legend, food, trachea.

7. The presence of combinations "byu", "vu", "kyu", "mu" in the roots of words: bureau, engraving, ditch, communiqué.

8. The presence of double consonants in the roots of words: villa, progress, profession, session, bath.

9. Pronunciation of a solid consonant sound before vowels [e] (letter "e"): model [de], test [te].

10. Inflexibility of words: protege, cashew, barbecue.

Basic rules for pronunciation of borrowed words:

Weak reduction or lack of it. In some words, in place of O, [O] is pronounced: beau monde, trio, poet.

In borrowed proper names, there is no reduction and there is no softening of consonants before E: Voltaire, Chopin.

In some words, [E] clearly sounds at the beginning of the word: aegis, duelist, evolution.

The pronunciation of hard / soft consonants before E depends on the degree of assimilation: completely - only softly (museum, brunette, canned food, overcoat); recently borrowed - only firmly (computer, printer, showman, sandwich); equal options - and so, and so (dean, session, pool, cream - krEm - permissible).

From morphological features the most important is indeclination: taxi, coffee, coat. Derivational features include foreign prefixes and suffixes: deduction, interval, regression; dean's office, student, editor, college.

One of the methods of borrowing is tracing - the construction of lexical units according to the model of the corresponding words foreign language by accurately translating their significant parts or borrowing individual meanings of words.

Kalki are:

Lexical, derivational- arise as a result of a literal translation into Russian of a foreign word in parts: hydrogen, oxygen, skyscraper, spelling.

Semantic- primordial words that acquire new meanings under the influence of another language: a picture as a "work of painting" and as a "movie" - a tracing paper of the English polysemantic word picture.

Another way of borrowing is semi-calques - words that combine word-for-word translated foreign and Russian word-building elements: humanity - latin root, Russian suffix -OST: television - Greek -TELE and Russian - VISION of the base.)

Motivated e - a word that denotes an object whose designation is not in our speech

Unmotivated- vice versa

Nowadays, new borrowings are associated with scientific and technological revolution, changes in politics, economics, culture, with "Americanization", " computer language". For example, among the latest borrowings, the most famous are: iPhone, i-C-Q, holding, computer, bluetooth, bestseller, windsurfing, auditor, monitoring and many others.

The liberalization of the language also led to the excessive, unmotivated use of borrowings in speech. Many cases of using borrowings are meaningless, people try to use them as much as possible, just to look prestigious. For example, when new borrowings replace already Russified foreign words (display - screen, hit - hit, show - spectacle) or native Russian words (victoria - victory, linguist - linguist). Along with borrowings, the modern Russian language is characterized by excessive use of abbreviations: UIN, OBEP, OODUUM and PDN ATC, civil defense and emergency situations.

Errors in the use of foreign words arise due to ignorance of the meaning of words and their semantics. This often leads to the emergence of pleonasms (vacant vacancy, most optimal solution), grammatical and morphological errors (with beautiful blinds), violation of the appropriateness of the statement (if the meaning of the foreign word is not clear to the entire audience).

Etymological dictionaries - explain the history of the appearance of a word in the language (Fasmer M. "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language").

Dictionaries of foreign words - describe borrowed words (E.N. Zakharenko, L.N. Komarova, I.V. Nechaeva "New Dictionary of Foreign Words"). In recent time dictionary entries such dictionaries contain both encyclopedic and linguistic information.

Ticket 14. Old Slavonicisms: signs, place in various fields functioning of the modern Russian language, expressive possibilities

Russian language- a historically established linguistic community, genetically belongs to the group of East Slavic languages, which go back to a common source - the common Slavic language, common and uniform (to varying degrees) for all Slavic tribes.

Aboriginal vocabulary- combines the vocabulary of the Indo-European period, common Slavic, East Slavic and later times. A special place is occupied by the common Slavic vocabulary, according to the observations of linguists, there are no more than 2000 such words, but these are high-frequency words that make up about a quarter of the words in everyday communication.

Borrowing- one of the ways to replenish vocabulary. The Russian people throughout its existence has entered into economic, political, cultural ties with other peoples, and borrowing is the result of these contacts. Borrowing is based on the principle of expediency. In the original language of borrowed words, there are no more than 10-14% (in some periods, about 20%), but the basis of an independent language is the original vocabulary. "Alien" words were deciphered in different ways: some became synonymous with Russian ones (barbarisms), others, generalizing realities that do not exist in Russian reality, have synonyms (exoticisms)

Borrowings

From the Old Church Slavonic Language of translations of Greek church literature, translations were made by Cyril and Methodius. The basis is the ancient Greek language, the Macedonian dialect. The main features are: 1) dissonance - -ra, -la-, -re, -le (gate, head, sequence) in place of Russian full agreement (votora, head, sequence) 2) combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of a word (equal , boat) instead of Russian ro-, lo- (smooth, boat) 3) initial e instead of Russian o (single - one, spring - autumn) 4) combination of railway (walking, ignorant) in place of Russian f (walking, ignorant) 5 ) prefixes through-, pre-, air-, out-, down-, pre- (excessive, destiny, repay, elect, shoots, expel) 6) roots good-, good-, evil-, sacrifice- 7) individual words : cross, rod, power, universe, disaster, sackcloth, goalkeeper, guard, helmet. 8) st.slav.sch-Russian h (lighting - a candle) 9) Russian y - Old Slavonic y

From other languages ​​Grecisms - bread, bed, notebook Latinisms - audience, excursion Türkisms - stocking, shoe, suitcase Anglicisms - electorate, export, relic Gallicisms (from French) - blouse, veil, bureau, attache From Dutch - admiral, felling From German - assault, climbs, bow

The fate of the Old Slavs:

Some have replaced the original Russian words (food - pishcha, thing - forever)

The part has acquired a functional coloring and is used in scientific and official business texts (on demand, claim, condolence)

For a long time were the main education terms (mammals)

Part has kareyads (correspondences) in the modern Russian literary language and is characterized by bookishness, elation, rhetoric (hail, hair, mouth)

Old Church Slavonic vocabulary gives sublimity to the text. In the poetry of classicism, acting as the main component of the odic dictionary, Old Slavonicisms determined the solemn style of "high poetry".

§ Derzhavin is considered the first spokesman of the individual creative principle. "Vision of Murza": high style (truncated adjectives, high vocabulary, suffixes and prefixes of Old Slavonic origin)

§ Lomonosov managed to clearly distinguish between Old Slavonic and Russian words. The basis of the theory of 3 styles is the classification of the speeches of the Russian and Slavic languages.

Ticket 15. Passive vocabulary

Language as a system is in in constant motion, development, and the most mobile level of the language is vocabulary. First of all, it reacts to all changes in society, being filled with new words. At the same time, the names of objects and phenomena that are no longer used in the life of peoples are falling out of use.

The words of the active function in the language vocabulary, constantly used in speech, as well as words in the passive vocabulary, such as obsolete and new words.

obsolete words- these are words that have ceased to be actively used in the vocabulary, but have not yet disappeared from it, are still understandable to speakers of this language, are known from the literature. Such words are given in explanatory dictionaries marked obsolete.

The process of archaization occurs gradually. The reasons for archaization are different: they can be extralinguistic in nature (refusal to use the word is associated with social transformations), or they can be due to linguistic laws (the words oshuyu, odesnaya are out of use, since the words shuytsa and right hand have gone out). In rare cases, there is a revival of the word: gymnasium, lyceum, Duma (after the 17th year they were considered historicisms).

Types of obsolete words:

1. Historicisms - the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts: guardsman, chain mail, gendarme, hussar, tutor, Bolshevik, NEP. As a rule, the emergence of historicisms is caused by extralinguistic reasons: social transformations in society, the development of production, etc. Historicisms do not have synonyms in modern Russian. This is explained by the fact that the very realities that these words denoted are outdated. Historicisms can be words that differ in the time of their appearance: in the days of very distant eras (oprichnina, governor), in very recent times (tax in kind, county).

2. Archaisms - names existing items and phenomena, for some reason superseded by other words: it is necessary - it is necessary, to speak - to speak, to know - to know. Archaisms have modern synonyms In russian language.

Archaisms are:

1. Lexical - obsolete in all their meanings: lying (possible), barber (hairdresser), therefore, very (very).

2. Lexical and derivational - some word-forming elements are outdated: it is necessary, to transgress, fisherman.

3. Lexico-phonetic - outdated phonetic design: young, breg, night, English (English).

4. Lexico-semantic - words that have lost their individual meanings: guest - merchant, dream - thought.

The most numerous group is lexical archaisms.

Neologisms- new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names of the corresponding objects, concepts. Over time, new words are assimilated and move from a passive to an active vocabulary.

This term is used in the history of the language to characterize the enrichment of the vocabulary into separate historical periods- so, we can talk about the neologisms of the time of Peter the Great, the neologisms of individual cultural figures (M. V. Lomonosov, N. M. Karamzin and his school), the neologisms of the period Patriotic War etc.

In developed languages, tens of thousands of neologisms appear every year. Most of them have a short life, but some are fixed in the language for a long time, enter not only into its living everyday fabric, but also become an integral part of literature.

Being fully mastered by the language, neologisms cease to be neologisms, becoming ordinary words of the main stock of the language.

In addition to general language, speech can contain author's (individual, individual-stylistic) neologisms (occasionalisms), which are created by authors for certain artistic purposes. They rarely go out of context, they are not widely used, as a rule they remain an accessory individual style so that their novelty and singularity are preserved.

Depending on the method of appearance, lexical neologisms are distinguished, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages, and semantic, which arise as a result of the assignment of new meanings already famous words(landslide, steep).

Depending on the conditions of creation, they distinguish general language neologisms that appeared along with a new concept or reality (collective farm, Komsomol, five-year plan) and individual author's ones that were put into use by specific authors (in session - Mayakovsky; constellation, full moon, attraction - Lomonosov).

There are also occasional neologisms are lexical units, the occurrence of which is determined by a certain context: in heavy snake hair, wide-noisy oak trees. Artistic and literary occasional neologisms are called individual stylistic. They serve as an expressive means in the context of one, specific work.

Depending on the purpose of creation, neologisms are divided into nominative and stylistic. The former perform a nominative function - they name an object (pre-perestroika, riot police, federals, feminization), and the latter give a figurative description of objects that already have names (pioneer, collapse, steep, lawlessness, starship). The former almost never have synonyms and are highly specialized terms, while the latter have synonyms.

Use of obsolete words:

They give the speech a solemn, sublime sound: Arise, prophet, and see, and listen ...

In works of art to create the color of the era: How it is now assembled prophetic Oleg take revenge on the unreasonable Khazars...

Sometimes high vocabulary is used to create satire.

Use of neologisms:

To denote new realities: feminization, riot police.

As a means of artistic expressiveness of speech: in heavy snake hair, wide-noisy oak trees.