What historical era. Epoch historical

Brief information about trends and eras in painting

REVIVAL

The era in the history of European culture of the 13th-16th centuries, which marked the onset of the New Age. The revival was self-determined primarily in the field of artistic creativity. As an epoch of European history, it was marked by many significant milestones - including the strengthening of the economic and social liberties of cities, spiritual fermentation, which eventually led to the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, the Peasant War in Germany, the formation of an absolutist monarchy (the largest in France), the beginning of the era of the Great Geographic discoveries, the invention of European book printing, the discovery of the heliocentric system in cosmology, etc. However, its first sign, as it seemed to contemporaries, was the “flourishing of the arts” after long centuries of medieval “decline”, the flourishing, which “revived” ancient artistic wisdom, precisely in this sense for the first time uses the word rinascita (from which the French Renaissance and all its European analogues come) G. Vasari. divine Nature". By imitating nature, by reproducing it not conventionally, but naturally, in a medieval way, the artist enters into competition with the Supreme Creator. Art appears in equal measure as a laboratory and a temple, where the paths of natural-scientific knowledge and knowledge of God (as well as the aesthetic feeling, the “sense of beauty”, which is first formed in its final self-worth) constantly intersect.

MANNERISM

A trend in Western European art of the 16th century that reflected the crisis of the humanistic culture of the Renaissance. Outwardly following the masters of the High Renaissance, the mannerists (in Italy the painters J. Pontormo, F. Parmigianino, A. Bronzino, the sculptors B. Cellini, Giambologna) asserted instability, the tragic dissonances of being, the power of irrational forces, the subjectivity of art. Mannerist works are distinguished by complexity, intensity of images, mannered sophistication of form, and often sharpness of artistic solutions (in portraits, drawings, etc.).

BAROQUE

The style that prevailed in the art of Europe from the end of the 16th to the middle of the 18th century and embraced all types of creativity, manifesting itself most monumentally and powerfully in architecture and fine arts. Baroque was the development of the principles laid down in the Renaissance, but due to a radical change in the main aesthetic setting (no longer co-creative following nature, but perfecting it in the spirit of ideal norms of beauty), it gave these principles a new grandiose scope, stormy dynamics, sophisticated decorativeness. Love for whimsical metaphor, verbal or visual, for allegory and emblem, now, it would seem, reaches its climax; however, through bizarre, sometimes semi-fantastic forms and meanings, through all metamorphoses in the Baroque, a strong natural beginning emerges (for example, ornate decorative details of architecture are constantly likened to living natural elements in the spirit of anamorphosis, and the literary language acquires a new picturesqueness, sometimes even closer to national traditions folklore). Different types of art interact (in comparison with the Renaissance) more actively, making up a multifaceted, but unified "theater of life" that accompanies real life in the form of its festive counterpart.

CLASSICISM

Style and direction in literature and art 17 - early. 19th centuries, who turned to the ancient heritage as a norm and an ideal model. Classicism took shape in the 17th century. in France. In the 18th century classicism was associated with the Enlightenment; based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on the ideas of the rational laws of the world, of the beautiful ennobled nature, he strove to express a great social content, lofty heroic and moral ideals, to a strict organization of logical, clear and harmonious images. According to the lofty ethical ideas, the educational program of art, the aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - “high” (tragedy, epic, ode, history, mythology, religious painting, etc.) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable, genre painting, etc.). etc.).

ROCOCO

The stylistic trend that dominated European art during the first three quarters of the 18th century. It was not so much an independent artistic phenomenon as a phase, a certain stage in the pan-European Baroque style. The term "rococo" arose in France at the end of the 18th century, during the heyday of classicism, as a contemptuous nickname for all mannered and pretentious art of the 18th century: a curved, capricious line resembling the outlines of a shell is its main feature. Rococo art is a world of fiction and intimate experiences, decorative theatricality, sophistication, sophisticated sophistication, there is no place for heroism and pathos in it - they are replaced by a game of love, fantasy, lovely trinkets. The heavy and pathetic solemnity of the Baroque is being replaced by a chamber fragile decorative effect. The slogan of the short, short-lived "century" of Rococo is "art as pleasure", the purpose of which is to excite light, pleasant emotions, entertain, caress the eye with a bizarre pattern of lines, exquisite combinations of light elegant colors, which was especially expressed in the architectural decoration of interiors, with the new requirements of which Rococo painting also took shape. The most common form of painting was a decorative panel, for the most part oval, round or bizarrely curved; The composition and drawing are based on a softly curved line, which gives the work a pretentiousness and elegance that is obligatory for this style.

NEOCLASSICISM

The general name of artistic movements of the 2nd floor. 19th and 20th centuries, based on the classical traditions of the art of antiquity, the Renaissance and classicism. In the 1870-80s. German "neoidealists" - painters H. Mare, A. Feuerbach, sculptor A. Hildebrand - opposed the contradictions of life with "eternal" aesthetic norms. The classical tradition was often opposed to individualistic arbitrariness (in the 20th century, the architects O. Perret in France, P. Behrens in Germany, I. V. Zholtovsky, I. A. Fomin in Russia; the sculptors A. Maillol in France, A. T. Matveev in Russia). The movements “new materiality” in Germany and “metaphysical painting” in Italy, connected with neoclassicism, expressed the alienation of the world from man.

ROMANTICISM

Ideological and artistic direction in European and American spiritual culture. 18 - 1st floor. 19th centuries As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and worldview models of the 20th century. Romanticism arose in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region. His ideological ground was the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic trends (sentimentalism, "storming"), the Great French Revolution, German classical philosophy. Romanticism is an aesthetic revolution that instead of science and reason (the highest cultural instance for the Enlightenment) puts the artistic creativity of the individual, which becomes a model, a "paradigm" for all types of cultural activities. The main feature of romanticism as a movement is the desire to oppose the burgher, “philistine” world of reason, law, individualism, utilitarianism, the atomization of society, a naive belief in linear progress - a new system of values: the cult of creativity, the primacy of imagination over reason, criticism of logical, aesthetic and moral abstractions , a call for the emancipation of the personal forces of a person, following nature, a myth, a symbol, the desire for synthesis and the discovery of the relationship of everything with everything. Moreover, rather quickly, the axiology of romanticism goes beyond art and begins to determine the style of philosophy, behavior, clothing, as well as other aspects of life.

Wanderers

The artists who were part of the Russian art association - the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, formed in 1870. They turned to depicting the everyday life and history of the peoples of Russia, its nature, social conflicts, and exposing public order. I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov became the ideological leaders of the Wanderers. The main representatives are I. E. Repin, V. I. Surikov, V. G. Perov, V. M. Vasnetsov, I. I. Levitan, I. I. Shishkin; Among the Wanderers were also artists of Ukraine, Lithuania, Armenia. In 1923-24, part of the Wanderers joined the AHRR.

IMPRESSIONISM

Direction in art last third 19 - beg. 20 centuries, whose representatives strove to capture the real world in its mobility and variability in the most natural and unbiased way, to convey their fleeting impressions. Impressionism originated in the 1860s, in French painting: E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas introduced freshness and immediacy of perception of life into art, the image of instantaneous, as it were, random movements and situations, apparent imbalance, fragmentary composition, unexpected points of view, angles, cuts of figures. In the 1870-80s. impressionism emerged in french landscape: K. Monet, K. Pissarro, A. Sisley developed a consistent plein air system; working in the open air, they created a feeling of sparkling sunlight, the richness of the colors of nature, the dissolution of three-dimensional forms in the vibration of light and air. The decomposition of complex tones into pure colors (imposed on the canvas in separate strokes and designed for their optical mixing in the eye of the viewer), colored shadows and reflections gave rise to an unparalleled light, quivering painting. In addition to painters (American - J. Whistler, German - M. Lieberman, L. Corinth, Russians - K. A. Korovin, I. E. Grabar), sculptors perceived the interest of impressionism in instantaneous movement, fluid form (French - O. Rodin , Italian - M. Rosso, Russian - P. P. Trubetskoy).

POST-IMPRESSIONISM

The general name of the currents in painting con. 19 - beg. 20th century, which arose in France as a reaction to impressionism with its interest in the random and fleeting. Having taken the purity and sonority of color from impressionism, post-impressionism opposed it with the search for permanent beginnings of being, stable material and spiritual entities, generalizing, synthetic painting methods, increased interest in philosophical and symbolic aspects, in decorative, stylizing and formal techniques. Post-impressionism includes P. Cezanne, V. Van Gogh, P. Gauguin, A. Toulouse-Lautrec, representatives of neo-impressionism and the Nabis group.

REALISM

A historically specific form of the artistic consciousness of the new time, which originates either from the Renaissance ("Renaissance realism"), or from the Enlightenment ("Enlightenment realism"), or from the 30s. 19th century ("proper realism"). The leading principles of realism in the 19th and 20th centuries are: an objective reflection of the essential aspects of life in combination with the height and truth of the author's ideal; reproduction of typical characters, conflicts, situations with the completeness of their artistic individualization (i.e., concretization of both national, historical, social signs, as well as physical, intellectual and spiritual features); preference in ways of depicting "forms of life itself", but along with the use, especially in the 20th century, of conditional forms (myth, symbol, parable, grotesque); the prevailing interest in the problem of "personality and society" (especially in the inescapable confrontation between social laws and the moral ideal, personal and mass, mythologized consciousness).

MODERNISM

The cumulative name of artistic trends that established themselves in the second half of the 19th century in the form of new forms of creativity, where it was not so much following the spirit of nature and tradition that prevailed, but the free look of the master, free to change visible world at your own discretion, following a personal impression, an inner idea or a mystical dream (these trends largely continued the line of romanticism). His most significant, often actively interacting, movements were Impressionism, Symbolism and Art Nouveau. New artistic trends usually declared themselves to be highly “modern” art (hence the very origin of the term), most sensitively responsive to the rhythm of the “current” time that daily encompasses us. The image of fresh, momentary modernity was most clearly manifested in impressionism, which, as it were, stopped the “beautiful moment”. Symbolism and modernity selected from these "instants" those that most expressively expressed the "eternal themes" of human and natural existence, connecting the past, present and future into a single cycle of memory-perception-premonition. The desire to create a special “art of the future”, utopically - sometimes through apocalyptic visions - modeling tomorrow, intensified in every possible way. with constructive, "life-building" aspirations, especially in the field of arts and crafts and modern architecture (on the basis of which the functionalism of modern architecture directly arose). The external plausibility of images, initially broken only by a slight, impressionistic-subjective blur, eventually becomes unnecessary and redundant, and in the 1900s, modernist artists came close to the border of abstract art, and some of them crossed it.

SYMBOLISM

Direction in European and Russian art of the 1870-1910s; focused primarily on artistic expression through the symbol of intuitively comprehended entities and ideas, vague, often sophisticated feelings and visions. The philosophical and aesthetic principles of symbolism go back to the works of A. Schopenhauer, E. Hartmann, F. Nietzsche, and the work of R. Wagner. In an effort to penetrate the secrets of being and consciousness, to see through visible reality the supertemporal ideal essence of the world (“from the real to the realest”) and its “imperishable”, or transcendent, Beauty, the Symbolists expressed their rejection of bourgeoisness and positivism, a longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic foreboding of world socio-historical shifts. In Russia, symbolism was often conceived as "life-creation" - a sacred action that goes beyond art. The main representatives of symbolism in literature are P. Verlaine, P. Valery, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarme, M. Maeterlinck, A. A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. I. Ivanov, F. K. Sologub; in the fine arts: E. Munch, G. Moreau, M. K. Chyurlionis, M. A. Vrubel, V. E. Borisov-Musatov; close to symbolism is the work of P. Gauguin and the masters of the Nabis group, the graphics of O. Beardsley, the work of many masters of the Art Nouveau style.

AVANT-GARDISM

The cumulative name of the artistic trends that developed in the 1900s, which are characterized by a programmatic, expressed in a polemical-combat form (hence the name itself, taken from the military-political vocabulary) opposing oneself to the former traditions of creativity, as well as to the surrounding social stereotypes in general. Like the directions of modernism that preceded it, the avant-garde was aimed at a radical transformation of human consciousness by means of art, at an aesthetic revolution that would destroy spiritual inertia. existing society- at the same time, his artistic utopian strategy and tactics were much more resolute, anarchic and rebellious. Not satisfied with the creation of exquisite "centers" of beauty and mystery, opposing the base materiality of being, the avant-garde introduced into its images the rough matter of life, the "poetics of the street", chaotic rhythm of the modern city, nature, endowed with powerful creative and destructive power, he more than once declaratively emphasized the principle of “anti-art” in his works, thereby rejecting not only the former, more traditional styles, but also the established concept of art as a whole. Constantly attracted the avant-garde " strange worlds"new science and technology - from them he took not only plot-symbolic motifs, but also many designs and techniques. On the other hand, “barbaric” archaism, the magic of antiquity, primitive and folklore (in the form of borrowings from the art of African blacks and popular popular prints, from other “non-classical” areas of creativity, previously taken out of the fine arts) more and more actively entered art. The avant-garde gave an unprecedented sharpness to the world dialogue of cultures.

CUBISM

Avant-garde movement in the visual arts of the 1st quarter. 20th century Developed in France (P. Picasso, J. Braque, H. Gris), in other countries. Cubism brought to the fore formal experiments - the construction of a three-dimensional form on a plane, the identification of simple stable geometric shapes (cube, cone, cylinder), decomposition complex shapes to simple ones.

DADAISM

Avant-garde literary and artistic movement in 1916-22. Dadaism developed in Switzerland. (A. Breton, T. Tzara, R. Gulzenbeck, M. Janko, M. Duchamp, F. Picabia, M. Ernst, J. Arp). expressed in separate scandalous antics- fence scribbles, pseudo-drawings, combinations of random objects. In the 20s. Dadaism in France merged with Surrealism, in Germany - with Expressionism.

EXPRESSIONISM

Direction in literature and art 1st quarter. 20th century, which proclaimed the subjective spiritual world of man as the only reality, and its expression - main goal art. The desire for “expression”, heightened self-expression, tension of emotions, grotesque brokenness, irrationality of images, was most clearly manifested in the culture of Germany and Austria (writers G. Kaiser, W. Hasenclever in Germany, F. Werfel in Austria, artists E. Nolde, F. Mark, P. Klee in Germany, O. Kokoschka in Austria, Austrian composers A. Schoenberg, A. Berg, German film directors F. W. Murnau, R. Wiene, P. Leni). Within the framework of expressionism, early examples of abstract art arose (V. V. Kandinsky); a number of artists, primarily German, expressionism received a bright anti-war and anti-imperialist coloring (E. Barlach, J. Gros, O. Dix).

SURREALISM

A trend in the art of the 20th century, which proclaimed the sphere of the subconscious (instincts, dreams, hallucinations) as the source of art, and its method - the breaking of logical connections, replaced by free associations. Surrealism took shape in the 1920s, developing a number of features of Dadaism (writers A. Breton, F. Supo, T. Tzara, artists M. Ernst, J. Arp, J. Miro). Since the 1930s (artists S. Dali, P. Bloom, I. Tanguy) the main feature of surrealism was the paradoxical illogicality of the combination of objects and phenomena, which are skillfully given a visible object-plastic authenticity.

FUTURISM

Futurism - (from lat. futurum - future) literary and artistic movement in the art of the 1910s. Oтвoдя ceбe poль пpooбpaзa иcкyccтвa бyдyщeгo, фyтypизм в кaчecтвe ocнoвнoй пpoгpaммы выдвигaл идeю paзpyшeния кyльтypныx cтepeoтипoв и пpeдлaгaл взaмeн aпoлoгию тexники и ypбaнизмa кaк глaвныx пpизнaкoв нacтoящeгo и гpядyщeгo. An important artistic idea of ​​futurism was the search for a plastic expression of the swiftness of movement as the main sign of the pace of modern life. The Russian version of futurism was called kybofuturism and was based on a combination of the plastic principles of French cubism and European general aesthetic installations of futurism. The name (from the Latin "futurum" - "future") of a special modernist trend in European art of the 1910s-1920s. In their desire to create "the art of the future", the futurists took the position of rejecting traditional culture with its moral and artistic values. They proclaimed the cult of a machine urbanized civilization - large cities, high speeds, movement, strength and energy. Futurism has some related features with cubism and expressionism. Using intersections, shifts, collisions and influxes of forms, the artists tried to express the crushing plurality of impressions of a contemporary person, a city dweller. Futurism originated in Italy.

FAVISM

Characteristic features of Fauvism: extremely intense sound of open colors; comparison of contrasting chromatic planes enclosed in a generalized contour; reducing the form to simple outlines while abandoning the cut-off modeling and linear perspective. Planar interpretation of forms, saturation of pure colors, energetically emphasized outline determine the decorative effect of Fauvist painting. Its participants were united in those years by the desire to create artistic images exclusively with the help of an extremely bright open color. Developing the artistic achievements of the Post-Impressionists, relying on some formal techniques of medieval art (stained glass, Romanesque art) and Japanese engraving, popular in the artistic circles of France since the time of the Impressionists, the Fauvists sought to maximize the use of the coloristic possibilities of painting. Nature, landscape served them not so much as an object of the image, but as an excuse for creating expressive, intense color symphonies, which, however, did not break the ties with the reality they saw. The Fauvists took the main color relationships and motifs from nature, but strengthened and sharpened them to the utmost, often using a color contour to separate color spots from each other. Increased luminosity (“colors literally exploded from the light,” A. Deren later wrote) and expressiveness of color, the absence of traditional light and shade modeling, and the organization of space only with the help of color are the characteristic features of Fauvism.

VORTICISM

An English avant-garde movement founded by Wyndham Lewis in 1914. The name vorticism owes its origin to the remark of the Italian futurist Umberto Boccioni that any creativity is born from a whirlwind of feelings (vortizto in Italian). Like Futurism, Vorticism - a sharp, angular and very dynamic style that spread both in painting and sculpture - sought to convey the process of movement. Although Vorticism did not live to see the end of the First World War, it played an important role as a stage in the formation of abstract art in England. (Bomberg, Lewis)

CONSTRUCTIVISM

A direction in the visual arts, architecture and design of the 20th century, which set as its goal the artistic development of the possibilities of modern scientific and technological progress. In architecture, it closely adjoins rationalism and functionalism. It took shape in the 1910s, primarily on the basis of cubism and futurism, and soon split into two separate (albeit constantly interacting) streams: “social constructivism”, closely related to the tasks of “social engineering”, the creation of a new person by radically transforming the environment. its object-material environment (this line developed most intensively in Soviet Russia 1920s, in the theory and practice of the LEF, in industrial art) and “philosophical constructivism” (more characteristic of capitalist countries), which sets social and transformative goals on a more abstract and contemplative plane (primarily in various types geometric abstraction). Both traditions entered kinetism, reflected parodically in deconstructivism.

ABSTRACTIONISM

Abstractionism as a trend in fine art emerged in the 1910s in the process of stratification of cubism, expressionism, futurism. Breaking with traditional forms of art, he proclaimed a free play of lines, colors, shapes, color spots. Among the founders of abstract art are Russian artists V. V. Kandinsky, K. S. Malevich, the Netherlands P. Mondrian, T. van Dusburgh. In the 1930s, groups appeared in France uniting abstract artists, Concrete Art, Circle and Square, Abstraction and Creativity. During the Second World War, the school of abstract expressionism (J. Pollock, M. Toby) became famous in the USA. Later, in the 1950s, tachisme (“formless art”) took shape in Europe, advocating “pure mental automatism” (P. Soulages, J. Bazin).

SUPREMATISM

Suprematism (from lat. supremus - highest, highest; first; last, extreme, apparently through the Polish supremacja - superiority, supremacy) The direction of avant-garde art of the first third of the 20th century, the creator, main representative and theorist of which was the Russian artist Kazimir Malevich.

ART DECO

Art deco (fr. art deco) is a stylistic trend in the art of Western countries. Europe and America 2nd quarter. 20th century which is characterized by: a combination of monumental weighted forms with sophisticated decoration; a combination of elements of Art Nouveau, cubism and expressionism; the use of expressive forms of "technical design" (mainly materials and style of fashionable "streamlined shapes", borrowed from the latest models of cars and locomotives). It got its name from the International Exhibition of Decorative Arts and Industry (Paris, 1925), which was the starting point for its distribution and development. Exotic and flamboyant, Art Deco is the most mysterious style of the 20th century. He instantly conquered the whole world and still remains a source of inspiration for designers. It is no coincidence that Armani made his last Casa-collection of 2005/2006 in the best traditions of art deco.

CUBO-FUTURISM

Local trend in the Russian avant-garde (in painting and poetry) of the early 20th century. In the visual arts, cubo-futurism arose on the basis of a rethinking of the pictorial findings of Cezannism, Cubism, Futurism, and Russian neo-primitivism. By appearance cubo-futuristic works have something in common with the compositions of F. Leger created at the same time and are semi-subject compositions made up of cylinder-, cone-, flask-, shell-shaped hollow three-dimensional color forms, often with a metallic sheen. Cubo-futurists put forward "new principles of creativity", among which the main ones were: assertion of the poet's right to expand the poetic lexicon at the expense of "arbitrary and derivative words"; discretion of the content of the word in its "descriptive and phonetic characteristic"; focusing on the semantics of prefixes and suffixes, on the significance of the author's writing: handwriting, blots and vignettes in the manuscript as signs of "creative expectation", etc.; denial of spelling in the name of freedom of personal expression and punctuation marks to enhance the semantics of "verbal masses"; increased attention to vowels as signs of time and space and to consonants as symbols of color, sound, smell; the word is proclaimed the creator of the myth; "uselessness, meaninglessness, the mystery of imperious insignificance" are comprehended as new and significant themes of poetry.

PURISM

The trend in French painting of the late 1910s and 20s. The main representatives are the artist A. Ozanfant and the architect C. E. Jeanneret (Le Corbusier). Rejecting the decorative tendencies of cubism and other avant-garde movements of the 1910s, the deformation of nature they adopted, the purists strove for a rationalistically ordered transfer of stable and concise object forms, as if "cleared" of details, to the image of "primary" elements. The works of purists are characterized by flatness, smooth rhythm of light silhouettes and contours of objects of the same type (jugs, glasses, etc.). Having not received development in easel forms, the essentially rethought artistic principles of purism were partially reflected in modern architecture, mainly in the buildings of Le Corbusier. Purism is an intellectual art that excludes randomness and uses clear geometric shapes. Ozanfant and Jeanneret are inspired by constructive methods, end goals and the aesthetics of industrial machines and assert a "general grammar of sensibility". Shapes and colors are simplified and structures are based on rectangles and "correct plans". The themes are dominated by still lifes made up of everyday objects: plates, glasses, decanters, smoking pipes, bottles, which have a functional meaning and are treated economically. Their simple and standardized forms can be easily connected while remaining clear. These items are depicted according to methods taken from industrial drawing using plan. general view and shadows projected according to the rules of perspective. Their organic arrangement produces the regeneration of forms.

NEOPLASTICISM

Neoplasticism is one of the earliest varieties of abstract art. Created by 1917 by the Dutch painter P. Mondrian and other artists who were part of the "Style" association. Neoplasticism is characterized, according to its creators, by the desire for "universal harmony", expressed in strictly balanced combinations of large rectangular figures, clearly separated by perpendicular black lines and painted in local colors of the main spectrum (with the addition of white and gray tones). main feature neoplasticism had strict use means of expression. Neoplasticism allows only horizontal and vertical lines to build form. Crossing lines at right angles is the first principle. Around 1920, a second one was added to it, which, removing the stroke and emphasizing the plane, limits the colors to red, blue and yellow, i.e. three pure primary colors to which only white and black can be added. With the help of this rigor, neoplasticism intended to go beyond individuality in order to achieve universalism and thus create a new picture of the world.

social realism

In 1934, the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers was held, which was called upon to streamline the work of "engineers human souls". As the only artistic method socialist realism was recognized, the principles of which were first formulated in the "Charter of the Writers' Union of the USSR" (1934). The main postulate of socialist realism was party spirit, socialist ideology. The aesthetic concept of "realism" was voluntaristically combined with the political definition of "socialist", which in practice led to the subordination of literature and art to the principles of ideology and politics, to the emasculation of the very content of art. Socialist realism was a universal method prescribed, in addition to literature, music, cinema, visual art and even ballet. A whole era in national culture passed under its flag.

TRANSAVANGARD

The term “transavanguardia” (literally translated from Italian as “beyond the avant-garde”, “post-avant-garde”) was first used in the texts of the famous Italian art critic Bonito Oliva. Launched into art history in the 1980s, the concept of “transavant-garde” was quickly enriched with new meanings and acquired a broad interpretation, becoming a synonym for “postmodernism”. Often these categories describe all works of contemporary art in which there is an element of play with artistic tradition. This broad interpretation of the term was adhered to by its creator himself.

The number of styles and trends is huge, if not endless. The key feature by which works can be grouped by style is the unified principles of artistic thinking. The change of some ways of artistic thinking by others (alternating types of compositions, techniques of spatial constructions, color features) is not accidental. Our perception of art is also historically changeable.
Building a system of styles in a hierarchical order, we will adhere to the Eurocentric tradition. The largest in the history of art is the concept of an era. Each era is characterized by a certain "picture of the world", which consists of philosophical, religious, political ideas, scientific ideas, psychological characteristics of the worldview, ethical and moral norms, aesthetic criteria of life, according to which they distinguish one era from another. These are the Primitive Age, the era of the Ancient World, Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the New Age.
Styles in art do not have clear boundaries, they smoothly pass one into another and are in continuous development, mixing and opposition. Within the framework of one historical artistic style, a new one is always born, and that, in turn, passes into the next. Many styles coexist at the same time and therefore there are no “pure styles” at all.
Several styles can coexist in the same historical era. For example, Classicism, Academicism and Baroque in the 17th century, Rococo and Neoclassicism in the 18th century, Romanticism and Academicism in the 19th century. Such styles as, for example, classicism and baroque are called great styles, since they apply to all types of art: architecture, painting, arts and crafts, literature, music.
It should be distinguished: artistic styles, trends, trends, schools and features of the individual styles of individual masters. Within one style, there can be several artistic directions. The artistic direction is made up of both signs typical for a given era and peculiar ways of artistic thinking. The Art Nouveau style, for example, includes a number of trends from the turn of the century: post-impressionism, symbolism, fauvism, and so on. On the other hand, the concept of symbolism as an artistic movement is well developed in literature, while in painting it is very vague and unites artists who are so different stylistically that it is often interpreted only as a worldview that unites them.

Below are the definitions of eras, styles and trends that are somehow reflected in modern fine and decorative arts.

	- art style, formed in the countries of Western and Central Europe in the XII-XV centuries. It was the result of the centuries-old evolution of medieval art, its highest stage and at the same time the first pan-European, international art style in history. It covered all kinds of art - architecture, sculpture, painting, stained glass, book design, arts and crafts. The basis of the Gothic style was the architecture, which is characterized by lancet arches directed upwards, multi-colored stained-glass windows, visual dematerialization of the form. Elements of Gothic art can often be found in modern interior design, in particular, in wall painting, less often in easel painting. Since the end of the last century, there has been a gothic subculture, clearly manifested in music, poetry, and fashion design.
	(Renaissance) - (French Renaissance, Italian Rinascimento) An era in the cultural and ideological development of a number of countries in Western and Central Europe, as well as some countries in Eastern Europe. The main distinguishing features of the Renaissance culture: secular character, humanistic worldview, appeal to the ancient cultural heritage, a kind of "revival" of it (hence the name). Renaissance culture has specific features transitional era from the Middle Ages to the new time, in which the old and the new, intertwined, form a peculiar, qualitatively new alloy. Difficult is the question of the chronological boundaries of the Renaissance (in Italy - 14-16 centuries, in other countries - 15-16 centuries), its territorial distribution and national characteristics. Elements of this style in modern art are often used in wall paintings, less often in easel painting.
	- (from the Italian maniera - technique, manner) a trend in European art of the 16th century. Representatives of mannerism moved away from the Renaissance harmonious perception of the world, the humanistic concept of man as a perfect creation of nature. A sharp perception of life was combined with a programmatic desire not to follow nature, but to express the subjective "inner idea" of the artistic image that was born in the artist's soul. Most clearly manifested in Italy. For Italian Mannerism 1520s. (Pontormo, Parmigianino, Giulio Romano) are characterized by dramatic sharpness of images, tragedy of world perception, complexity and exaggerated expression of postures and motives of movement, elongation of the proportions of figures, coloristic and light and shade dissonances. AT recent times began to be used by art historians to refer to phenomena in contemporary art associated with the transformation of historical styles.
	- historical art style, which was originally distributed in Italy in the middle. XVI-XVII centuries, and then in France, Spain, Flanders and Germany in the XVII-XVIII centuries. More broadly, this term is used to define the ever-renewing tendencies of a restless, romantic worldview, thinking in expressive, dynamic forms. Finally, in every time, in almost every historical artistic style, one can find its own "baroque period" as a stage of the highest creative upsurge, tension of emotions, explosiveness of forms.
	- artistic style in Western European art XVII - early. XIX century and in Russian XVIII - early. XIX, referring to the ancient heritage as an ideal to follow. It manifested itself in architecture, sculpture, painting, arts and crafts. Classicist artists considered antiquity to be the highest achievement and made it their standard in art, which they sought to imitate. Over time, it was reborn into academism.
	- a trend in European and Russian art of the 1820s-1830s, which replaced classicism. Romantics brought individuality to the forefront, opposing the ideal beauty of the classicists to "imperfect" reality. Artists were attracted by bright, rare, extraordinary phenomena, as well as images of a fantastic nature. In the art of romanticism, a sharp individual perception and experience plays an important role. Romanticism liberated art from abstract classicistic dogmas and turned it towards national history and images of folklore.
	- (from lat. sentiment - feeling) - the direction of Western art of the second half of XVIII., expressing disappointment in a “civilization” based on the ideals of “reason” (the ideology of the Enlightenment). S. proclaims feeling, solitary reflection, the simplicity of the rural life of the “little man”. J. J. Rousseau is considered to be the ideologist of S..
	- a direction in art that strives to display both the external form and the essence of phenomena and things with the greatest truth and reliability. How a creative method combines individual and typical features when creating an image. The longest time of existence direction, developing from the primitive era to the present day.
	- direction in European artistic culture of the late XIX-early XX centuries. Arising as a reaction to the domination of the norms of bourgeois "sanity" in the humanitarian sphere (in philosophy, aesthetics - positivism, in art - naturalism), symbolism first of all took shape in French literature of the late 1860s and 70s, and later became widespread in Belgium, Germany , Austria, Norway, Russia. The aesthetic principles of symbolism in many respects went back to the ideas of romanticism, as well as to some doctrines of the idealistic philosophy of A. Schopenhauer, E. Hartmann, partly F. Nietzsche, to the work and theorizing of the German composer R. Wagner. Symbolism contrasted the living reality with the world of visions and dreams. A universal tool for comprehending the mysteries of being and individual consciousness was considered a symbol generated by poetic insight and expressing the otherworldly, hidden from everyday consciousness, the meaning of phenomena. The artist-creator was considered as an intermediary between the real and the supersensible, finding "signs" of world harmony everywhere, prophetically guessing the signs of the future as in contemporary phenomena as well as past events.
	- (from French impression - impression) a trend in art of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries, which arose in France. The name was introduced by art critic L. Leroy, who disparagingly commented on the exhibition of artists in 1874, where, among others, C. Monet's painting “Sunrise. Impression". Impressionism claimed beauty real world, emphasizing the freshness of the first impression, the variability of the environment. The predominant attention to solving purely pictorial problems reduced the traditional idea of ​​drawing as the main component of a work of art. Impressionism had a powerful impact on the art of European countries and the United States, aroused interest in scenes from real life. (E. Manet, E. Degas, O. Renoir, C. Monet, A. Sisley, etc.)
	- a trend in painting (synonymous with divisionism), which developed within the framework of neo-impressionism. Neo-Impressionism originated in France in 1885 and also spread to Belgium and Italy. Neo-Impressionists tried to apply in art latest achievements in the field of optics, according to which painting, made by separate points of primary colors, in visual perception gives a fusion of colors and the whole gamut of painting. (J. Seurat, P. Signac, K. Pissarro).
	post-impressionism- conditional collective name of the main directions of French painting to. XIX - 1st quarter. 20th century The art of post-impressionism arose as a reaction to impressionism, which fixed attention on the transfer of the moment, on the feeling of picturesqueness and lost interest in the form of objects. Among the post-impressionists are P. Cezanne, P. Gauguin, V. Gogh and others.
	- style in European and American art at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Art Nouveau rethought and stylized the features of the art of different epochs, and developed its own artistic techniques based on the principles of asymmetry, ornamentality and decorativeness. Natural forms also become the object of stylization of modernity. Этим oбъяcняeтcя нe тoлькo интepec к pacтитeльным opнaмeнтaм в пpoизвeдeнияx мoдepнa, нo и caмa иx кoмпoзициoннaя и плacтичecкaя cтpyктypa - oбилиe кpивoлинeйныx oчepтaний, oплывaющиx, нepoвныx кoнтypoв, нaпoминaющиx pacтитeльныe фopмы. Closely connected with modernity is symbolism, which served as the aesthetic and philosophical basis for modernity, relying on modernity as a plastic implementation of its ideas. Modern had in different countries different names, which are essentially synonymous: Art Nouveau - in France, Secession - in Austria, Jugendstil - in Germany, Liberty - in Italy.
	- (from French modern - modern) the general name of a number of art movements of the first half of the 20th century, which are characterized by the denial of traditional forms and aesthetics of the past. Modernism is close to avant-gardism and opposed to academicism.
	- a name that unites the range of artistic movements that were widespread in the 1905-1930s. (Fauvism, Cubism, Futurism, Expressionism, Dadaism, Surrealism). All these areas are united by the desire to renew the language of art, to rethink its tasks, to gain freedom of artistic expression.
	- direction in art to. XIX - present. XX century, based on the creative lessons of the French artist Paul Cezanne, who reduced all forms in the image to the simplest geometric shapes, and color - to contrasting constructions of warm and cold tones. Cézannism served as one of the starting points for cubism. To a large extent, cezannism also influenced the domestic realistic school of painting.
	- (from fauve - wild) avant-garde trend in French art n. 20th century The name "wild" was given contemporary critics a group of artists who spoke in 1905 at the Paris Salon of the Independent, and was ironic. The group included A. Matisse, A. Marquet, J. Rouault, M. de Vlaminck, A. Derain, R. Dufy, J. Braque, K. van Dongen and others. , the search for impulses in primitive creativity, the art of the Middle Ages and the East.
	- deliberate simplification of visual means, imitation of the primitive stages of the development of art. This term refers to the so-called. naive art of artists who did not receive a special education, but were involved in the general artistic process of the late 19th - early 19th century. XX century. The works of these artists - N. Pirosmani, A. Russo, V. Selivanov and others are characterized by a kind of childishness in the interpretation of nature, a combination of generalized form and petty literalness in details. The primitivism of the form by no means predetermines the primitiveness of the content. It often serves as a source for professionals who borrowed forms, images, methods from folk, essentially primitive art. N. Goncharova, M. Larionov, P. Picasso, A. Matisse drew inspiration from primitivism.
	- a direction in art that has developed on the basis of following the canons of antiquity and the Renaissance. It existed in many European schools of art from the 16th to the 19th centuries. Academism turned classical traditions into a system of "eternal" rules and regulations that fettered creative searches, tried to oppose imperfect living nature with "high" improved, extra-national and timeless forms of beauty brought to perfection. Academism is characterized by a preference for plots from ancient mythology, biblical or historical themes to plots from contemporary life for the artist.
	- (French cubisme, from cube - cube) direction in the art of the first quarter of the 20th century. The plastic language of cubism was based on the deformation and decomposition of objects into geometric planes, the plastic shift of form. The birth of cubism falls on 1907-1908 - the eve of the First World War. The undisputed leader of this trend was the poet and publicist G. Apollinaire. This trend was one of the first to embody the leading trends further development art of the twentieth century. One of these trends was the dominance of the concept over the artistic value of the painting itself. J. Braque and P. Picasso are considered the fathers of cubism. Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay, Juan Gris, and others joined the emerging current.
	- a trend in literature, painting and cinema that arose in 1924 in France. It greatly contributed to the formation of the consciousness of modern man. The main figures of the movement are Andre Breton, Louis Aragon, Salvador Dali, Luis Bunuel, Juan Miro and many other artists from all over the world. Surrealism expressed the idea of ​​existence beyond the real, the absurdity, the unconscious, dreams, daydreams acquire an especially important role here. One of the characteristic methods of the surrealist artist is the removal of conscious creativity, which makes him a tool, different ways extracting bizarre images of the subconscious, akin to hallucinations. Surrealism survived several crises, survived the second world war and gradually, merging with mass culture, intersecting with the transavant-garde, entered postmodernism as an integral part.
	- (from lat. futurum - future) literary and artistic movement in the art of the 1910s. Oтвoдя ceбe poль пpooбpaзa иcкyccтвa бyдyщeгo, фyтypизм в кaчecтвe ocнoвнoй пpoгpaммы выдвигaл идeю paзpyшeния кyльтypныx cтepeoтипoв и пpeдлaгaл взaмeн aпoлoгию тexники и ypбaнизмa кaк глaвныx пpизнaкoв нacтoящeгo и гpядyщeгo. An important artistic idea of ​​futurism was the search for a plastic expression of the swiftness of movement as the main sign of the pace of modern life. The Russian version of futurism was called kybofuturism and was based on a combination of the plastic principles of French cubism and European general aesthetic installations of futurism.

Ancient world (1st century BC - 5th century AD).

Music in primitive society : one). ritual nature (accompanied rituals and ceremonies of a peaceful or military nature); music at an early stage of development was mainly of a rhythmic and invocative nature. 2). Syncretic character (indissoluble unity of singing, dance and music).

Music in ancient states played a significant role in the rituals of the church (initiation into rulers, priests, wars) and secular nature (accompanying festivities and funeral processions). The important role of music in ancient states is evidenced, first of all, by frescoes depicting musicians and dancers, and references in the literary sources of those times.

Egypt.

"Passion-mysteries"- the highest achievement of the serious musical art of Egypt, telling about Gods and heroes, instructive in nature. Instruments: brass, percussion, strings (ancestors of the harp).

Greece.

Music functions: 1). accompaniment of ceremonies; 2). accompaniment of theatrical performances; 3). reading accompaniment poetic texts; 4). music as a medicine of the spirit (certain modes brought up the soul in a certain way); 5). music as part of mathematical science (intervals measured the distances between the planets).

The largest musical theorist of antiquity:PYTHAGORAS- invented the monochord (6th century BC) - a single-string instrument for measuring the pitch. Pythagoras developed the theory "harmonies of the heavenly spheres" and the aesthetic impact of music on a person.

ancient theater - the most important cultural achievement of Greece, which gave rise to many theatrical and musical traditions. Features of theatrical performances in Greece: a). the texts were spoken in a chant = later, from the revival of this tradition came opera; b). played only by men who used masks and katurna- shoes on a high platform; in). the names of theater venues gave rise to modern theatrical terms; G). seats for spectators were located in a circle with the elevation of each next row above the previous one.

Theatrical antique terms:

orchestra(a platform where the choir stood, commenting on the events) - an orchestra;

skena(the tent where the actors changed) - the stage.

Famous composers of tragedies (they were also directors and, often, actors of their plays):Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. Created a category catharsis - purification of the soul through suffering.

Famous comedy writers:Aristotle, Archilochus.

In antiquity, tragedies were much more popular as carrying high moral ideals.

The paradox of ancient musical art: music contains the most references in literary and historical sources, many sculptural and fresco images of people playing music, and musical samples are almost gone. Those that have been deciphered do not give an idea of ​​the greatness of the musical art in Greece.

Middle Ages (5th - 16th centuries).

Worldview, psychology, ideals.

The worldview of ordinary people developed in line with the moods that the church imposed. Medieval man felt himself worthless before the power of the punishing Creator, he felt his endless sinfulness, which was strengthened by the ministers of the church in their own interests (monetary requisitions).

Attitude to life: as a test, suffering, waiting for the Last Judgment.

Characteristic features of medieval art: 1). asceticism, weak emotionality (especially in the first half of medieval art); 2). symbolism, conventionality (this is especially strongly reflected in the icon painting of the early stages of the Middle Ages) 3). irreconcilable antitheses (good-evil, God-devil); 4). the absence of personality as a creative ideal - everything is created in the name of God (therefore, for a very long time, music and painting of the Middle Ages were anonymous, i.e. without indicating the authors); 5). the introduction of a person to the comprehension of the mysteries of divine being -task of the medieval creator(this influenced the strict selection of genres and means of expression0.

Music in the church.

Strict style - a rigid system of composing a melody (even quarts were considered dissonances and jumps to these intervals were forbidden for a long time). Singing in the church remained for a long time monodic, i.e. monophonic. Later, with the development of musical art, there appeared counterpoints, suggesting the presence of several voices and their rearrangement. The earliest form of polyphony is organum(the end of the 9th century, the masters of this genre are Leonin and Perotin).

Gregorian chant - the most important meta of the Middle Ages, reflecting the unity of consciousness in the face of God. GH is a male choral singing in unison of a detached character in Latin (for a long time, services in the church were held only in this language, incomprehensible to ordinary people). GH were created from a variety of chants that existed at that time, ordered by the pope Gregory 1 at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries.

Sequence "Dies irae" ("Day of Wrath") - genre of medieval monody, expanding strict church melodies. The systematization of sequences is creditedNotker Zaika."Dies irae" appeared around the 13th century as a reflection of the peak of the worldview of the Middle Ages with the expectation of the Last Judgment and formidable retribution for sins. This sequence was very often cited in the world musical literature either as a sign of the Middle Ages, or as a symbol of the inevitable, the inevitable (Rakhmaninov, Tchaikovsky) or even the demonic (Berlioz, "Fantastic Symphony", 5th movement, "The Witches' Sabbath").

Notation.

For a long time, the chorales were not recorded, being in the oral tradition. Then they began to use nevma, denoting not a note, but a whole tune. Gradually, rulers began to appear, the number of which varied from 1 to 18. The stave was improved in the 11th century Guido Aretinsky, which, instead of many options, legalized 4 lines.

The most important genre of the late Middle Ages is Mass( the first of those that have come down to us - 1364. G. de Macho) - a cyclic vocal or vocal-instrumental work based on the texts of the Catholic liturgy of the same name. The 5 parts of the mass are ordinariumand are binding and unchangeable. Parts dedicated to certain holidays and Sundays areproprium- variable part of the mass.Proprium Parts: 1). Kyrie eleison (Kyrie eleison - “Lord, have mercy”);2). Gloria (Gloria - "Glory");3). Gredo (Credo - "I believe");4). Sanctus, Benedictus (Sanctus, Benedictus - "Holy, Blessed");5). Agnus Dei (Agnus Dei - "Lamb of God"). The genre of the mass reached its highest perfection in the work ofO.Lasso and D. Palestrino.

Music in a medieval castle (court culture).

Appealed to a person, cultivated admiration for beautiful lady(the image is often fictional, collective). In line with secular castle art, vocal and instrumental genres developed. courtly love("courteous") - assumed the observance of certain rules of versification, behavior and musical accompaniment.

Genres of courtly culture(poetic and musical): 1). canzone(a kind of lyric poem); 2). server(song about knightly exploits); 3). alba(song at dawn); 4). pasturella or pasturel(a song in the bosom of nature, praising the simple love of a shepherdess); 5). ballata(song epic - narrative content) 6). rondo (round dance song).

The Art of the Vagants, Troubadours and Trouvers.

Art de trobar (the art of inventing) - the art of free singers of love, which originated in Provence in the 11th and 12th centuries.Troubadours were often wealthy people(for example, knights), who wandered around their native land and composed songs (albs, canzones, etc.) in honor of the Beautiful Lady. Some troubadours were of humble origin and made a living performing their songs.Trouvers(from root trover - find, invent) appeared in the north of France in the 13th century. About 2000 songs have survived, some of the most famous composers of love songs are known, for example,Adam de la Al. In Germany the singers of love were calledminnesingers.In the work of these singers, in addition to the theme of love, there were also moral and instructive motives. Minnesingers establishedsinging competitions (meistersang), who demonstrated their vocal and poetic skills. He reflected the competition of German singers in his operaR. Wagner "Nuremberg Meistersingers". History knows the names of such German minnesingers asTannhäuser(Wagner has an opera of the same name),Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walther von Vogelweide.

In addition to troubadours and minnesingers, there were wandering singers of a different nature - they werepeople from the people, whose art was acutely social and controversial, condemned politics and the church, the texts of these wandering artists often contained frivolous, vulgar plots, which is explained by the origin of these artists and the fact that they worked for the needs of the public low level. In different countries, these wandering artists were called differently:shpilmans(gamers) in Germany,jugglers in England, buffoonsin Russia. Often a generalized term is used for these musicians -VAGANTS, denoting wandering singers and composers of free poetic texts. Often, half-educated students (schoolchildren) who could not pass the difficult exams and left universities, embarked on wanderings, earning their bread by teaching the received wisdom (Latin, mathematics) to those who could pay, often became vagants. But the vagantes could also steal, cheat, and kill, depending on how strong the moral foundations of each of these representatives were. Excommunicated or runaway monks, impoverished nobles also became vagants. Thus, the contingent was predominantly intellectual and observing the underside of life - the greed and deceit of the ministers of the church, racial riots. The life of many brave vagants ended either in prison or at the stake, as, for example,Hugh of Orleans.

Notable works based on texts by Vagants:

"In the French side" in the processing of D. Tukhmanov;

“Carmina Burana” by K.Orff.

rebirth (15th - 16th centuries; in Italy - from the 14th century).

Worldview, psychology, the subject of rebirth.

Revival of ancient forms of art (sculpture, painting. Architecture). Close attention to a person = greater psychological content in paintings and sculptures, greater accuracy in the transfer of anatomy and perspective. Time of great discoveries (H. Collumb, Magelan), formation of the European nation.

Art Nova. GREAT NAMES:

Painting, sculpture, architecture:

bernini, Leonardo da Vinci, Rafael Santi, Michelangello Buanorotti, Jan van Eyck, P. Veronese, Giotto, Lucas Cranach, A. Durer, Titian, I. Bosch.

Literature, poetry:

Dante("The Divine Comedy"), petrarch(sonnets), Boccacho (freestyle plays), E. Rotterdam("Praise of stupidity"), T.Mor (poetry), F. Rabelais("Gargantua and Pantagruel"), Lope de Vega (plays, theatrical art).

Music has acquired independent meaning, ceasing to be only applied (that is, to accompany festivities and rituals), music began to appear on its own. As a kind of professional art.

The heyday of Renaissance polyphony in the work of composers of the Dutch school - F. Landino, G. Dufay, Okegema, J. Despres, Obrecht.

Development instrumental performance, the development of genres only for instrumental playing (viola, lute).

Genres of secular musical art:

madrigals, chanson, villanels, frottolas, ballads, motets.

Unusual composer of the Renaissance - Gesualdo da Venosa(late 16th - early 17th century), created a complex chromatic style and bold tonal juxtapositions that reflected conflicting sentiments composer's musical compositions. Venosa is the largest master of madrigal (songs in the native language). The gloomy story of the murder of his wife and child is also connected with him, after which the composer committed suicide. This story was based on the Soviet composer's opera A. Schnittke (opera "Gesualdo").

Baroque (2nd half of the 17th - first half of the 18th century).

The meaning of the term Baroque.

Translated from Portuguese - "pearl irregular shape» - whimsical, strange = invention of new genres and instruments, detailing the nuances of music.

Worldview, psychology.

Characteristic features of the time: one). “The connecting thread has broken. How can I connect the pieces of them? .. "( Shakespeare,"Hamlet") = "torn" picture of the world (invention microscope and telescope expanded people's ideas about the world); 2). acceleration of the pace of life (God is the eternal watchmaker; added tempo dynamic notation into works; Madonnas in the paintings do not sit, but “soar” in chairs); 3). time is understood as an alternation contrast processes; 4). mixture of tragic and comic, violation of the laws of ancient Greek tragedy(Shakespeare's plays, for example. In tragedies they always contain a comic farce, and in comedies there is seriousness); 5).trend to violation of the canons, ingenuity; 6). freedom in the interpretation of any genre.

Features of musical art.

one). destruction of ideas about the logic of the old voice leading, the introduction of parallelisms, tritones, unexpected transitions to distant keys (especially in music J.S. Bach).

2). development polyphonic art (in translation - polyphony) - a type of music in which each of the voices has a certain independent trajectory of movement, and at the same time, obeys certain rules for composing counterpoint;

3). music is proclaimed an independent art.

Composers: J.S. Bach, G.F. Handel(Germany); G.Caccini, C. Monteverdi, O.Chesti (Italy); earlier polyphonic composers: Gabrieli, Frescobaldi, Kunau, Buxtehude, Pahebel.

Genres of musical works:

1). fugue(in translation - “running”) - a genre of polyphonic music in which a certain number of voices (from 3 to 10) consistently carry out a theme, and then begin to rearrange relative to each other according to the rules of contrapuntal technique;

2). toccata(from "tokkare" - to strike) - a genre of prelude-improvisational nature, often an introduction to the strict part of the work (for example, fugue);

3). invention (translated("invent", "invent") - free name of plays of free-imitation construction;

4). opera(in translation - "labor", "creation") - a genre of stage art that combines singing, instrumental performance, ballet, decorative and staging skills.

5). suite(in translation - “row”, “sequence”) - a sequence of mandatory (4 old dances) and optional plays;

6). oratorio(in translation - eloquence) - a monumental work for the choir, soloists and orchestra on a certain plot basis, intended for concert performance;

7). cantata - composition for solo singers, orchestra and, possibly, choir, consisting of completed numbers-episodes, intended for concert performance. Cantatas are smaller than oratorios in terms of the scale of the plot and in terms of duration in time;

8). sonata(translated as "to sound") - in the Baroque era - any instrumental work for four instruments with an obligatory keyboard player who performed the basso continua part;

9). concert(in translation - “competition”, “competition”) - a virtuoso work for orchestra and soloist (in the Baroque era, various groups of the orchestra competed - large and small, not all composers had a pronounced solo part of the soloist),

Musical instruments:

clavichord, harpsichord, violin(Amati, Guarneri, Stradivari), viola, cello.

Classicism (2nd half of the 18th century - 1st half of the 19th century).

The direction that has developed in France and has become the leading one for this country and Germany.

Worldview, psychology.

The mind is at the head of everything. The desire for a rational solution of conflicts, edification in plays, literary works(return to ancient forms of harmony in plays). New forms of city design like a reflection new psychology: straight paths trimmed to specific geometric figures bushes, etc.

Appearance encyclopedists(J.-J. Rousseau, D. Diderot etc.), who systematized vast knowledge in the first encyclopedias.

Features of musical art.

The orderliness of the form of the main genres, bringing their diversity to a common standard. Classic - translated as "exemplary".

Active development of instrumental genres.

domination sonata form - one of the most complex musical forms, comparable in dramatic complexity to the novel. Sonata form suggests the presence exposure, development and reprises, in which there is a display, development and return of themes to their original tonality.

Genres:

1). symphony(in translation - "consonance") - usually - a 4-part cycle for a symphony orchestra, in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

2). sonata(translated as "to sound") - A 3-movement piece for piano or for solo instrument(s) and piano, in which at least one of the movements is written in sonata form.

3). quartet(in translation - “fourth”) - a 4-part work for 4 instruments (most often these are strings - violin, viola, cello, double bass), in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

4). concert(in translation - "competition", "competition") - a virtuoso 3-part virtuoso work for orchestra and soloist, in which at least one of the parts is written in sonata form.

5). theme with variations a genre designed to demonstrate the virtuoso mastery of a composer or performer in handling a theme (composers or performers often improvised at concerts on a theme given by the audience). The theme could be borrowed from any composition (even from an opera) one's own or someone else's.

Composers:

D. Scarlatti (early classicism), J. Haydn("father" of the genres symphony, sonata and quartet - that is, he brought these genres into an exemplary, classical form), W. Mozart,L. van Beethoven.

Romanticism (2nd half of the 19th century).

Worldview, psychology.

1). A romantic is a person with a heightened perception of the events of the outside world, vulnerable, sensitive, prone to dramatization or idealization of events.

2). The contradiction of the inner and outer worlds;

3). feeling of loneliness;

4). Feeling the hostility of the outside world;

5). Admiration for nature, endowing it with animated qualities;

6). Interest in folk culture (processing of folk melodies, use of folk texts).

Features of musical art.

one). increased emotionality of music or its meditative-reflective character;

2). significant connection with literary and artistic images (from program headings to leitmotifs that have specific figurative expressions);

3). tendency to choose small forms (impromptu, musical moments, ecossaises) = confidence in the statement, designed for a small circle of the closest, understanding people;

4). feeling of improvisation;

5). complex emotional and dramatic basis of music;

6). complication of texture (often of a mixed type with several solo voices in the form of a dialogue - Schumann, Chopin) and harmony (transitions to distant keys, complication of the composition of harmonic functions).

Writers:

G. Heine, E. Hoffman, V.Hugo, O. Balzac, A. Dumas.

Composers:

Early Romanticism: K.-M. Von Weber, F. Mendelssohn, F. Schubert, G. Rossini.

Mature romanticism:R. Schubert, F. Chopin, B. Smetana, R. Wagner, G. Verdi.

Late romanticism:A. Dvorak, R. Wagner, G. Verdi, G. Mahler, G. Puccini.

Multistyle (XX century).

Worldview, psychology.

1. socio-historical cataclysms (World Wars, revolutions);

2. NTCP(scientific and technical progress);

3. plurality of attitudes;

4. pluralism - permissiveness; everything is relative, even the eternal categories of goodness, beauty and truth = cynicism, cruelty of perception;

5. general acceleration of the pace of life.

The difference between directions and style: style manifests itself in all forms of art, direction- in one or more (for example, in literature and painting). Style has a more comprehensive meaning than a direction and can give a name to an entire era (for example, the Middle Ages and the Baroque).

Features of musical art.

1. close connection of all types of art, the transition of the properties of one art to the properties of another(for example, symbolist poets often called their poems music or musical genres);

2. transformation and rethinking (change) of musical genres;

3. invention of new genres and techniques.

Composers:

Foreign:

C. Debussy, M. Ravel, A. Schoenberg, A. Berg, A. Webern, K.Orff, B.Bartok, D. Millau, F. Poulenc, J.Taifer, P. Hindemith, P. Boulez, D. Lighetti, K. Penderetsky.

Domestic:

S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, G. Sviridov, V. Gavrilin, A. Schnittke, S. Gubaidulina, Ustvolskaya.

Modern times (21st century, Ural and Russian composers):

O. Viktorova, V. Yakimovsky, O. Payberdin, V. Kobekin, A. Zhemchuzhnikov, D. Pavlov, L. Tabachnik, L. Gurevich.

The name of this period was given by Renaissance historians, defining the middle “gap” between ideal Antiquity and the revival of its traditions in the 14th-16th centuries. The term "Middle Ages" for a long time had a negative and dismissive character.

Comedy is not in the sense that the text contains something funny, but according to the ancient principle: it starts badly and ends well (in tragedy it is the other way around).

Years before the new era.
4 thousand years. Unification of small states in the Nile Valley. First pyramid. Sumero-Akkadian kingdom in Mesopotamia. The invention of cuneiform. The Harappan civilization emerges in the Indus Valley. In the Huang He valley, silkworms are bred and bronze is smelted; there is nodular and picture writing.
2.5-2 thousand years. Minoan civilization. Assyrian state with its capital in Nineveh. The Phoenicians create an alphabetic letter, open the way to the Red Sea. Trypillian agricultural culture in the Dnieper region.
2 thousand years. Aryan tribes penetrate into India, and the Achaean Greeks - into Hellas.
1.5 thousand years. In China, the state of Shang (Yin) arises.
1400 Exodus of Jews from Egypt led by Moses.
OK. 15th century Separation of the Proto-Slavic tribes from the Indo-European unity.
XV-XIII centuries Achaean Greek period.
1300-1200 The Hittites discover a way to obtain iron. 970-940 The reign of King Solomon, the construction of the Jerusalem temple.
IX-VIII centuries The first mention of the state of the Persians.
800 Founding of Carthage by the Phoenicians.
776 First Olympic Games.
753 Legendary date of the founding of Rome.
660 First emperor of Japan.
560 Birth of the Buddha.
551 Birth of Confucius.
489 - 4th c. n. e. State of Greater Armenia.
461 "Golden Age" of Pericles in Greece. Construction of the Parthenon.
334-325 Conquests of Alexander the Great in the East.
317-180 AD Mauryan Empire in India.
264-146 AD Three Punic Wars Rome with Carthage and the destruction of Carthage.
246 Construction of the Great Wall of China begins.
146 Subordination of Greece to Rome.
73-71 years Roman slave revolt led by Spartacus.
49-44 years Dictatorship of Julius Caesar in Rome.
6 BC - 4 AD e. Probable date of birth of Jesus Christ.

Years of the new era.
I century. The emergence of Christianity.
OK. 29 AD Crucifixion of Jesus Christ by order of the Roman procurator Pontius Pilate.
I-II centuries The first mention of the Slavs among ancient authors.
132-135 AD The beginning of the dispersion of Jews around the world.
164-180 AD A plague ravages the Roman and Chinese empires.
3rd-9th centuries Maya civilization in America.
395 Division of the Roman Empire into East and West.
4th-5th centuries Introduction of Christianity in Georgia and Armenia.
476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Beginning of the Middle Ages.
482 Baptism of the Franks. First kingdom of the Franks.
570 Birth of Muhammad, founder of Islam.
630 Formation of an Arab state.
End of the 7th century Formation of the Bulgarian state.
711-720 Arab conquest of Spain.
732 Battle of Poitiers. Stopped the advance of the Arabs in Europe.
VIII-X centuries Khazar Khaganate.
The first chronicle information about Novgorod.
d. The legendary date of the founding of Kyiv.
IX century The formation of Kievan Rus.
Late 9th - early 10th century Formation of the Czech state.
X century Formation of the Old Polish state.
1054 Rupture between Orthodoxy and Catholicism.
1096-1099 First crusade.
1136-1478 Novgorod feudal republic.
1147 The first mention of Moscow.
1206-1227 The reign of Genghis Khan. The emergence of the state of the Mongols.
1236-1242 Tatar-Mongol invasion to Russia and European countries.
1242 Defeat by Alexander Nevsky German knights on Lake Peipsi.
Ser. 10th century - 1569 Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia.
1325 Aztec kingdom founded in Mexico.
1348-1349 The plague wipes out half the population of England.
1370-1405 The reign of the great emir Timur the conqueror.
1378 Victory of the Moscow army over the Tatars on the Vozha River.
1380 Battle of Kulikovo - the defeat of the Tatars under the leadership of Dmitry Donskoy.
1389 Battle of Kosovo (defeat of the Serbs by the Turks).
1410 Defeat of the Teutonic Order by the Polish-Lithuanian-Russian army (Grunwald).
1431 Burning of Joan of Arc by the Inquisition.
1445 Gutenberg Bible. Beginning of printing in Europe.
1453 The fall of Constantinople and Byzantium under the blows of the Turks.
1478 Beginning of the Inquisition in Spain.
1480 "Standing on the Ugra". The end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
1492 Expulsion of the Arabs from Spain. Discovery of America by Columbus.
1517 Martin Luther opposes the authority of the popes. Beginning of the Reformation.
1531-1533 Pizarro's conquest of the Inca state.
1533-1584 The reign of Ivan the Terrible.
August 24, 1572 St. Bartholomew's Night (Massacre of the Huguenots in France).
1588 The death of the "Invincible Armada" (Spanish fleet).
1596 Union of Brest. Formation of the Greek Catholic ("Uniate") Church. 1604-1612 "Time of Troubles".
Liberation of Moscow by the militia of Minin and Pozharsky.
d. The election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom.
1620 The Pilgrim Fathers establish a colony across the ocean in New England.
The beginning of the bourgeois revolution in England is considered the beginning of the New Age.
1640 Beginning of the bourgeois revolution in England. 1644 Manchus take over China.
1654 Decision on the transfer of Ukraine under the rule of the Tsar of Russia (Pereyaslav Rada).
1667-1671 Peasants' War under the direction of Stepan Razin.
1682-1725 The reign of Peter I.
1701-1703 War of the Spanish Succession. The strengthening of England at sea.
June 27, 1709 Battle of Poltava.
1762-1796 The reign of Catherine I.
1773-1775 - Peasant war under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev.
1775-1783 American Colonial Wars of Independence. US education.
July 24, 1783 Georgievsky treatise about the transition of Georgia under the protection of Russia.
July 14, 1788 The storming of the Bastille and the start of the French Revolution.
1793-1795 Accession of Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia to Russia.
1812 Napoleon's army invades Russia. Battle of Borodino.
1815 Napoleon defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.
1837 Accession of Queen Victoria in England.
1853-1856 Crimean War. Defense of Sevastopol.
February 19, 1861 The abolition of serfdom in Russia.
1861-1865 American Civil War between North and South. Abolition of slavery.
1862 Unification of Germany by Bismarck.
1867 Creation of the dual Austro-Hungarian Empire.
1877-1878 - Russian-Turkish war, the liberation of the Bulgarians, Serbs, Romanians.
1896 Coronation of Nicholas P. Catastrophe on the Khodynka field.
1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War. The death of the Varyag, the fall of Port Arthur.
G. " Bloody Sunday". The beginning of the revolution in Russia. Manifesto October 17th.
Mr. First State Duma.
1911-1913 Revolution in Imperial China.
1914 Archduke Ferdinand is assassinated and World War I begins.
1917 February Revolution in Russia, the overthrow of the autocracy.
1917 Victory October revolution in Petrograd. Education of the RSFSR.
1417 Formation of the Ukrainian People's and Soviet Republics.
1918 Revolution in Germany, formation of independent Poland and Czechoslovakia.
1918 End of the First World War. Beginning of the Civil War in Russia.
1919 Treaty of Versailles between the Allies and Germany.
1919-1923 Kemalist revolution in Turkey, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.
December 30, 1922 Formation of the USSR.
1929 Beginning of collectivization in the USSR. World economic crisis.
1931-1933 Great famine in the USSR.
January 30, 1933 Establishment of the Nazi dictatorship in Germany.
1436-1939 General Franco's rebellion and the Spanish Civil War.
1437-1938 Mass repression in USSR.
d. "Kristallnacht" (the massacre of Jews in Germany).
d. Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Beginning of World War II.
June 22, 1941 German attack on the USSR.
The Battle of Moscow - the first defeat of the Wehrmacht
d. Signing of the declaration of 26 states on the struggle against Germany.
1442-1943 Battle of Stalingrad. Fighting in North Africa.
The Battle of Kursk. The landing of allied troops in Italy.
d. Landing of the allied troops in Normandy.
May 8-9, 1945 Unconditional surrender Germany.
1945 Japanese surrender. End of World War II.
1445-1946 Nuremberg Trials over Nazi war criminals.
1947 US adoption of the Marshall Plan.
1448 Proclamation of the State of Israel.
1949 NATO formed. Proclamation of the GDR, the FRG, the PRC.
1950-1953 War in Korea.
1955 Conclusion Warsaw Pact.
October 4, 1957 Launch of the first artificial Earth satellite in the USSR.
April 12, 1961 First manned flight into space. Yu. A. Gagarin (USSR).
1961-1973 War in Vietnam.
1966-1976 "Cultural Revolution" in China.
1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.
July 21, 1969 First man on the moon (N. Armstrong, USA).
1975 Helsinki Agreement on Security and Cooperation in Europe.
1980-1988 Iran-Iraq war.
1985 Beginning of "perestroika" in the USSR.
April 26, 1986 Accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.
1991 Referendum on the fate of the USSR (70% - for the preservation of the Union). Putsch GKChP.
d. Belovezhskaya agreements and the collapse of the USSR.
1991-1992 The collapse of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia.
d. Beginning of "shock therapy" in Russia.
1994 Start of the war in Chechnya.
Union of Russia and Belarus. Conclusion Russian troops from Chechnya.
The collapse of the ruble (default) in Russia.
The bombing of Yugoslavia by NATO aircraft. Operation Desert Storm.
BN Yeltsin's resignation. His successor is V. V. Putin.
d. Election of VV Putin as President of the Russian Federation.
September 11, 2001 Massive terrorist attack in New York. Thousands of dead.
d. US and allied invasion of Iraq. Fall of Hussein's regime.
d. "Orange Revolution" in Ukraine.
g. Catastrophic tsunami in Indonesia. Hurricane Katrina in the USA.
d. Crisis of power in Ukraine.

Some historical dynasties
Starting with the legendary Jimmu, a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, who ascended the throne on February 11, 660 BC. e., Japan had 134 emperors.
Beginning with the Apostle Peter, the first bishop of Rome, who was executed around the year 65, there have been 344 popes on the Holy See, of which 39 are not recognized (“anti-popes”).

Lecture "Theme No. 2"

Epochs, styles, directions

A work of art is a form of existence of art. It reflects the world in all the complexity of diversity, aesthetic richness.

Artists* always strive to convey the world truthfully. In the process of creativity, a certain artistic method is born, so the truth in art is not always identical with the likelihood.

In the formation of artistic and figurative techniques, methods, many social and cultural prerequisites are involved, associated with ideas about truth, with the religious and ideological views of society, with the worldview of the artist himself.

The historically established structural uniformity of artistic techniques, artistic language, relationships between content and form, which in a given era unites the works of masters who worked in different types and genres of art, is calledstyle .

The word style can be used in a broad sense - lifestyle, game style, clothing style, etc., and in a narrow sense - "style in art."

In different historical eras, Style manifests itself in separate forms, which are called actual.

Social development is uneven. If it is slow-moving, as in Antiquity, then the system of artistic forms changes very slowly over millennia, centuries, then such development is usually called an artistic era.

Later, from the 17th century world public development is significantly accelerated, art is faced with diverse tasks, exacerbation of social contradictions, so there is a rapid change in styles.

In the art of the 19th - 20th centuries, only separate stylistic tendencies are manifested, the ideological instability of society prevents the formation of unified styles and rapidly changing trends emerge.

primitive art (20000 - 5000 BC) developed in complete dependence on nature, on the everyday needs of man, was associated with magic. The development of ceramics of the correct form, ornament, carving, and realistic depiction of animals (rock paintings) is characteristic.

*The word "artists" is used in a broad sense, i.e. artists, architects, writers, etc. , i.e. art creators.

:

Rock art depicting animals. Paintings in the caves of Lascaux (France), Altamira (Spain), Tassilin Ajer (North Africa).

Sculptures of women, the so-called Paleolithic Venus.

Megalithic structures Stonehenge (England), Stone Grave (Ukraine).

Ancient despotisms (the art of the interfluve and ancient Egypt (5000 BC - VIII century BC)) represent an artistic era. During this period, there are many artistic discoveries, but the main thing that defines the era remains unchanged:

Complete submission to religion

The development of funeral cults,

Development of canons in all kinds of art,

Formation of the foundations of construction equipment,

Synthesis of arts in architecture,

gigantism.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Mesopotamia.

Bulls - Shedu from the palace of Sargon II in Dur Shurrukin.

Bull head harp royal tomb Hooray.

Gate of the goddess Ishtar. Babylon.

ancient th Egypt:

Pyramids at Giza

Temples of Amon Ra at Karnak and Luxor

Temple of Abu Simbel

Thutmose. Sculpture. Head of Queen Nefertiti

Sculpture of the royal scribe Kai

Fayum portrait of a young man in a golden crown

Antiquity (art Ancient Greece(VII-III century BC) and Ancient Rome (III century AD)) explained the world mythologically. It was both realistic and illusory - a fantastic view of the world. In art, this is expressed in:

heroization of the ideal image

harmony of internal and external appearance

humanization of art

Sculpture becomes an actual art. Ancient artists convey the image of a perfect man with the highest skill and realism. In ancient Rome, a sculptural portrait develops.

Antiquity developed building systems that we still use today. In ancient Greece, an order building system developed, this is a combination of columns and ceilings, and in ancient Rome, based on the discovery of cement, a round arch and a dome were used. Created new types of public and engineering buildings.

:

Knossos Palace, ca. Crete

Lion Gate, Mycenae

Ancient Greece:

The architectural ensemble of the Parthenon (main temples: Parthenon, Erechtheion).

Pergamon altar.

Mausoleum of Halicarnassus.

Phidias (sculptor). Sculpture of the Parthenon.

Phidias. Sculpture of Olympian Zeus.

Miron (sculptor). Discus thrower.

Polykleitos (sculptor). Spearman.

Sculpture. Venus de Milo.

Sculpture. Nike of Samothrace.

Sculpture. Laocoon.

Ancient Rome:

Pantheon in Rome (temple of all gods)

Colosseum, Flavian Amphitheater (Rome)

Pont du Gard (France)

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius

Trajan's Column (Rome)

medieval art (V - XVI century) is subordinated to Christian ideology, filled with allegories and symbols. The synthesis of art subordinated to the Christian liturgy is characteristic. The current view was architecture.

The era is divided into two periods: Romanesque (XI - XII centuries) and Gothic (late XII - XIV centuries).

Romanesque architecture uses the design features of the architecture of Ancient Rome (Roma). Romanesque cathedrals are built in the form of basilicas, they are heavy with dark interiors, with two round towers on the facade of the building. The sculpture decorating the cathedral is planar, schematic (often a relief), located mainly above the portals.

gothic art - This is a qualitative leap in the development of medieval art. The cathedral, retaining the shape of a basilica, is now being built on the basis of a new frame system. The essence of which is that using a pointed arch a brick frame is built. The gaps between the pillars - supports (buttresses) are filled with stained-glass windows. Therefore, the interiors become as if permeated with light. The building is richly decorated with sculpture and architectural decor. The façade is flanked by towers now square in plan. The facade of the cathedral is the only real wall richly decorated with sculpture. Very realistic, round sculpture now prevails. Above the main portal is a round carved window, which is called the "rose".

Late Gothic (XV - XVI century) is distinguished by the architectural decoration of the facade - it resembles flames, the window disappears - a rose. This gothic was called flaming.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Worms Cathedral (Germany) – Romanesque architecture

Notre Dame de Paris (Paris) - Gothic

Cologne Cathedral (Germany) - late

Cathedral of St. Anne (Vilnius, Lithuania) - flaming

After the collapse of the Great Roman Empire in the 4th century AD, it was divided into the Western Empire with its capital in Rome and the Eastern Empire with its capital in Byzantium. In the West, Catholicism developed and, accordingly, Romanesque and Gothic culture. And in the Eastern (it began to be called Byzantium) spread Orthodoxy. In Byzantium, all culture was also subordinated to religious ideology. Byzantium existed from the 4th to the 15th centuries. but art reached its highest flowering during the reign of Justinian (VI century AD). In architecture, Orthodoxy corresponded to centric, domed, and later cross-domed cathedrals. Monumental painting (mosaic and fresco) and easel painting (icon painting) are developing. Subject to religious dogma, painting was strictly canonized.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Sophia of Constantinople (Istanbul)

Church of San Apolinare (Ravenna)

Church of San Vitale (Ravenna)

Old Russian state (X - XVII centuries) adopted Orthodoxy, respectively, the cross-domed system of temple buildings and the picturesque canon. But in the process of development it developed unique national features. There is a national type of temple building: cross-domed, cuboid with wavy or keeled completion of the walls (zakomar). Domes are raised on high drums.

In strictly canonized painting, the Slavic type of face predominates, Russian saints appear, national ornaments appear, and the whole characterization of the images becomes more humane.

The influence of folk architecture was very strongly manifested in the transfer of artistic sayings, decor, colors to stone construction and was called "patterned" (XVI - XVII centuries). Folk techniques were embodied in the appearance of stone and hipped temples.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Sofia Kyiv, Kyiv. (13 domes)

Demetrius Cathedral, Vladimir. (1 dome)

Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Chernihiv. (1 dome)

Aristotle Fiorovanti. Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. (5 domes)

Icon of Our Lady of Vladimir.

St. Basil's Cathedral (Protection on the Moat), Moscow.

Icon of the Intercession with a portrait of B. Khmelnitsky.

Oranta. Mosaic of St. Sophia of Kyiv.

A. Rublev. Trinity (icon).

rebirth (Renessanse), as the foundation of the ancient heritage at a new historical stage, arose in Italy, here at the end of the 13th - 16th centuries the humanistic ideals of antiquity were revived. Hence the name of the era "Renaissance". The Renaissance claims that the world is knowable, and man is a titanic personality capable of changing the world. Artists discovered the individuality of a person, so the portrait appeared; they developed the theory and practice of perspective, artistically mastered the anatomy of the human body, developed the harmony of composition, used color effects, the depiction of nudity, the female body was a visible argument in the fight against medieval asceticism.

In sculpture, the image of the shuttle becomes the main thing, and not the deity. The main types of sculpture developed: monumental and decorative. After antiquity, the equestrian statue is revived again.

In architecture, along with the requirement of ancient forms (the use of arcades, the Greek portico), there is a development of its own artistic language. A new type of public buildings is being created, the city palace (parade ground) and country houses - pitchforks.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Giotto di Bonde. Frescoes in the Arena Chapel, Padua.

Botticelli. Birth of Venus.

Leonardo da Vinci. Giocon. Mona Lisa.

Leonardo da Vinci. Madonna in the rocks.

Leonardo da Vinci. Painting "The Last Supper" (Milan).

Rafael Santi. Sistine Madonna.

Rafael Santi. Frescoes in the Vatican (Vatican Stanzas, Rome).

Michelangelo. Sculpture. David.

Michelangelo. Ceiling paintings of the Sistine Chapel (Vatican)

Giorgione. Judith.

Giorgione. Thunderstorm.

Titian. Portrait of Pope Paul III with his nephews.

Titian. Young man with a glove.

Titian. Assunta.

Veronese. Marriage in Cana of Galilee.

Brunelleschi. Church of Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence.

Palladio. Villa near Rome.

Donattello. Equestrian statue of Gattamelata, Padua.

In the Nordic countries (Netherlands, Germany, France) Renaissance ideas penetrate from the end of the 15th century. The originality of national cultures, medieval traditions, combined with the ideas of the Italian Renaissance, developed a peculiar style, which is commonly called Northern Renaissance.

The 17th century is a time of intensive formation of national states, national cultures, the establishment of absolute power in some countries and the emergence of bourgeois relations in others. It became impossible to express the complexity and inconsistency of the era in one artistic formula, therefore, in the 17th century, a variety of artistic forms arose, i.e. styles. In the 17th century, styles appeared: classicism, baroque, realism.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Durer. Portrait of a Venetian.

Durer. Four Apostles.

Durer. Graphic illustrations for the "Apocalypse"

Van Eyck. Madonna of Chancellor Rollin.

Van Eyck. Ghent altar.

The Limburg brothers. Miniatures of The Magnificent Book of Hours of the Duke of Berry.

Brueghel. Blind.

Bosch. Ship of fools.

Baroque - the most common style of the XVII century. This art is built on contrasts, asymmetry, gravitation towards grandiosity, congestion with decorative motifs.

In painting and sculpture characteristic:

diagonal compositions

image of exaggerated movement

illusory image

black and white contrasts

bright color, picturesque spot (in painting)

In architecture:

curved, volute-like shapes

asymmetry

use of color

abundance of decor

the desire to deceive the eye and go beyond the real space: mirrors, enfilades, plafonds on the ceilings depicting the sky.

ensemble organization of space

synthesis of the arts

the contrast of elaborately decorated architecture and the clear geometry of gardens and parks, or city streets.

Baroque triumphed in those countries where feudalism dominated and Catholic Church. These are such countries: Italy, Spain, Flanders, later Germany and in the XVIII century - Russia. (in architecture)

Major monuments and leading artists :

Caravaggio. lute player.

Rubens. Perseus and Andromeda.

Rubens. Self-portrait with Isabella Brant.

Bernini. Sculpture "The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa"

Bernini. Sculpture "Apollo and Daphne"

Jules Hardouin Mansart. Palace of Versailles (France).

Bernini. St. Peter's Square in Rome.

Classicism (lat. exemplary). French absolutism of the 17th century. regulated life, enclosing it in the rigid framework of statehood. The hero of classicism is not free in his actions, but is subject to strict norms, public duty, humility of feelings with reason, adherence to abstract norms of virtue - such is the aesthetic ideal of classicism.

A model for himself is the classicism of the 17th century. chose Greek antiquity. AT architecture the Greek order is used. In sculpture - ideal mythological images. In painting:

strict stateliness

sublime beauty of images

horizontal or rocker composition

careful selection of details and colors

standard images, theatricality of gestures and feelings

Major monuments and leading artists :

Poussin. Arcadian shepherds.

Poussin. Seasons.

Lorrain. The abduction of Europe.

Dutch culture. In the 17th century in the countries where capitalism was born, there was a struggle for national independence. The victory of the burghers determined the nature of Dutch culture, the birth of realism, the emergence of independent genres of easel painting (portrait, everyday genre, still life).

Major monuments and leading artists :

Holland XVII :

Rembrandt. Self-portrait with Saskia on her knees

Rembrandt. The return of the prodigal son.

Vermar of Delft. Girl reading a letter.

Vermar of Delft. Geographer.

Terborch. A glass of lemonade.

Hals. Gypsy.

Spain XVII :

Velasquez. Spinners.

Velasquez. Portrait of Pope Innok X

Velasquez. Surrender of Breda

Velasquez. Portrait of Infanta Margherita

El Greco. Funeral of the Count of Orgaz

Rococo. With the beginning of the 18th century, a crisis of French absolutism emerged. Strict etiquette is replaced by an atmosphere of frivolity and pleasure. There is an art capable of satisfying the most pretentious and refined tastes - this is Rococo. This is a completely secular art, the main theme is love and erotic scenes, favorite heroines are nymphs, bacchantes, mythological and biblical themes of love.

This art of miniature forms found its main expression in painting and applied art. Light colors, fractional and openwork forms, complex ornamentation, asymmetry, creating a feeling of anxiety.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Watteau. Society in the park.

Bush. Bathing Diana.

Bush. Portrait of Madame Pampadour.

Fragonard. Swing.

Fragonard. Sneak kiss.

Education. Since the 1940s, a new social stratum of the emerging bourgeoisie, the so-called "third estate", has appeared in France. This is what determined the development of the new philosophical and artistic movement of the Enlightenment. It originated in the depths of philosophy, and its meaning was that all people from birth have equal opportunities and only education and enlightenment (i.e. training) can distinguish them from total weight equal members of society.

The main genre is the everyday painting, depicting the modest life of the third estate, glorifying integrity and diligence.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Chardin. Cook.

Dreams. Spoiled child.

Houdon. Sculpture. Voltaire in the chair.

In England, the Enlightenment originated in literature at the end of the 17th century. Therefore, everyday painting becomes narrative, i.e. artists and graphic artists create a whole series of paintings that consistently tell about the fate of the heroes and are morally instructive in nature. The English Enlightenment is characterized by the development of portraiture.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Hagarth. fashionable marriage.

Gainsborough. Portrait of the Duchess de Beaufort.

Russian Enlightenment developed in the 18th - early 19th centuries, is associated with an ideological and philosophical trend. Russian Enlighteners: philosophers - F. Prokopovich, A. Kantemir, M. Lomonosov and writers - Tatishchev, Fonvizin, Radishchev believed in the boundless mind of man, in the possibility of harmonizing society through the development of the creative principles of each individual, through education. At this time, home education is rapidly developing in Russia, new educational institutions are opening, and newspaper, magazine and book publishing houses are developing.

All this served educational purposes, the upbringing of the personality - the "son of the Fatherland"; and hence the development of the portrait.

But the Russian Enlightenment also had an anti-serf orientation, because. quite rightly believed that the peasants (serfs) were also endowed with a wealth of mental and emotional abilities.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Argunov. Portrait of P. Zhemchugova.

Nikitin. Portrait of an outdoor hetman.

Livitsky. Portraits of Smolyanka.

Borovikovsky. Portrait of Lopukhina.

Rokotov. Portrait of Struyskaya.

Shubin. Portrait of Golitsyn.

Falcone. Monument to Peter I in Saint Petersburg("Bronze Horseman")

But creating ideal images of peasants, the art of the Enlighteners of the late 18th - early 19th centuries. merged with sentimentalism .

Major monuments and leading artists :

Tropinin. Portrait of A. Pushkin.

Tropinin. Goldsmith.

Venetsianov. Spring.

Venetsianov. On the arable land.

Baroque in Russian and Ukrainian architecture. With the advent of absolutist monarchies, including in the Vatican, the center of the capitalist church, the splendor, pomp, and theatricality of court art intensified, which contributed to the development of baroque in the architecture of Italy and France in the 18th century, in Russia (18th century), Ukraine (“Cossack baroque ”), the second half of the 17th – 18th centuries.

Features of baroque architecture:

synthesis of arts in architecture

ensemble (a palace in a park with a large number of pavilions)

an increase in decorativeness, moldings, sculpture

the use of order elements: curved gables, bunches of pilasters or semi-columns, niches that completely cover the wall and enhance the light and shade contrast

color use: turquoise wall, white architectural details, gold stucco

interiors: lush decorative theatricality, enfilades, painting with illusory effects, the use of mirrors

Ukrainian or "Cossack baroque"- This is a completely independent stage in the development of European Baroque. It does not have palace splendor. Bent pediments, “creases” of roofs and domes of churches are used. Wall decor is flat carving, white on a white or light blue wall background. Instead of palaces, houses of the Cossack elite, offices, collegiums are being built. And religious architecture continues the traditions of folk wooden architecture (three-domed cathedrals).

Major monuments and leading artists :

Rastrelli. Winter Palace (St. Petersburg)

Rastrelli. Andrew's Church (Kyiv)

Grigorovich Barsky. Church of St. Nicholas on the Embankment (Kyiv)

Kovnir. Belfry on the Far Caves (Kiev-Pechersk Lavra)

Kovnir. Intercession Cathedral in Kharkov.

In the last third of the 18th century, a bourgeois revolution took place in France. Its tasks, requirements for the citizens of society coincided with the heroic-civil ideals of Roman antiquity. In ancient Roman society, the individual, his freedom and even life are sacrificed to society. History was interpreted as an act of an outstanding personality. It is the hero, the outstanding personality, who is the bearer of the moral values ​​of society. This became a model for artists of the late 18th century. and developed into the last great pan-European style.

Classicism (in the work of J. David - it is customary to say "revolutionary classicism").

Painting is characterized by the artistic techniques of classicism of the 17th century. But the historical picture reflects the civic-journalistic themes, and the portraits, in accordance with the ideals of the revolution, reflected the personality, the image of a contemporary of the great changes.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. classicism in painting loses its citizenship, only the external side remains: the strict logic of the composition of details, colors, statuary figures. Thus, classicism in painting turns into academicism.

Major monuments and leading artists :

David. Death of Marat

David. Oath of the Horatii

Ingres. Odalisque

Classicism in architecture. In France at the end of the 18th century, and in Russia since the beginning of the 19th century, the style of classicism dominated in architecture. The style was formed under the influence of the ideas of patriotism and citizenship based on the use of ancient samples. Compositional techniques:

symmetry; usually the main building with a portico in the center and two outbuildings

the sculpture is concentrated on the main entrance - the portico. Often used is a sculptural image of a chariot harnessed by four, six horses controlled by the goddess of Glory.

Classicism is associated with the growth of cities, the need to organize their space. In Russia, classicism appears as an idea of ​​a universal style that creates unified building techniques; the use of local materials, plaster, creates new types of buildings: gymnasiums, universities, trading houses, triumphal arches, a type of noble estate.

The architectural style of late classicism is called empire- completing the development of style. Along with the use of ancient forms (both Greek and Roman), stylized Egyptian motifs appear especially in interiors.

Major monuments and leading artists :

Russia. General Staff building (St. Petersburg)

Voronikhin. Kazan Cathedral (St. Petersburg)

Bozhenov. Pashkov house. Moscow.

Baretti. University building. Kyiv.

Souffle. Pantheon (Paris)

Romanticism. The great French bourgeois revolution ended with the restoration of the monarchy. The style of romanticism (early 19th century) was the result of people's disappointment in the possibility of a reasonable transformation of society based on the principles of freedom, equality, and fraternity. The desire to rise above the prose of life, to escape from the oppressive routine, is why artists are so interested in exotic subjects, the dark fantasy of the Middle Ages, the theme of the struggle for freedom. Artists are interested in the ancient world of man, his individual exclusivity. The romantic hero is always portrayed in emergency situations, usually a proud loner hero experiencing bright and strong passions. This found expression in the expressive and sensual power of color, where color begins to dominate the pattern.

Painting is characterized by:

nervous excitement, composition expression

strong color contrasts

exotic themes, gothic symbols

software works, i.e. based on historical and literary subjects

Major monuments and leading artists :

Géricault. Raft "Medusa".

Delacroix. Freedom at the Barricades.

Rud. Sculptural relief "La Marseillaise" on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.

Goya. Mahi.

Goya. Portrait of the king's family.