Talk about phonetics as a branch of linguistics. Cheat sheet Phonetics as a section of linguistics

The main form of the existence of language is sound, written form secondary.

Writing - historically specific shape fixation of sounding speech and has no direct relation to the essence of the language. In general, phonetics can be defined as the level of a language, reflecting its sound side (and, accordingly, the science about it).

PHONETICS(Greek phonetikos “sound, voice”, phone “sound”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound means of language.

Exist various definitions the subject of phonetics: some scientists consider the subject of phonetics only the ways of sound design of significant units of the language - morphemes, words (R.I. Avanesov, A.A. Reformatsky), other scientists include intonation means of the language in the field of phonetics (L.L. Bulanin, A A. Gvozdev, L. L. Kasatkin, M. V. Panov); ways of designating sound units in writing (graphics) + rules for writing significant units (Shcherba).

Phonetics studies the system of sounds, their regular alternations in the flow of speech, stress, its types, intonation, division of the sound flow into syllables, phonetic words, speech beats, phrases.

The task of phonetics- the study of the methods of formation (articulation) and the acoustic properties of sounds, their changes in speech stream.

Phonetics as a language level has the following functions: 1) basic- constitutive (construction) and, on the contrary, differentiating (semantic); the latter is the main one, since it is she who is responsible for the basic principle of speech - articulation; 2) additional- symbolic (the acquisition of semantic significance by sound in poetry, for example) and aesthetic.
Types of phonetics.

Depending on the subject and tasks of phonetics, general and particular phonetics are distinguished.
General phonetics on material various languages considers the theoretical questions of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, the structure of the syllable, the relationship of the sound system of the language to its grammatical system.

Private phonetics the same, only within the same language.

In terms of approach:

Synchronous (descriptive)

Diachronic (historical) (dia - through, through)
Descriptive phonetics (SF) explores the sound structure of a particular language in a synchronous way, i.e. on the present stage language development.

SF source yavl. living sounding language.

DF studies the sound side of the language in its historical development.

Comparative phonetics establishes similarities and differences in the phonetic structure of different languages.
Experimental phonetics (instrumental) is part of general phonetics, studies the sound side of the language using instrumental methods:

Direct observation (using various instruments)

Introspection

A student of B. de Courtenay - V.A. Bogorodetsky was the first in the world to create an experimental laboratory at the Kazan University in 1884.

Established in Paris in 1886.

In 1899 S.K. Bulich creates the same laboratory in St. Petersburg. Univer. In 1909 L.N. Shcherba.

Such a laboratory has now been created at the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Basic methods of phonetic research.

1. Palatography (palatum - palate) (statistical and dynamic).

Using this method, the places of contact of the tongue with the palate during sound production are established.

2. Radiography allows you to see the position of the speech organs and their movement.

3. Oscillography allows you to determine the duration, strength and intensity of sounds.

4. Glotography (Greek gloto - throat, tongue) - an electronic device for recording work vocal cords.

5. Laryngoscope: to study the work of the larynx

6. Computer since the 80s.

7. Questionnaires, questionnaires, etc. - sociophonetics.

Sections of phonetics.

1. Actually phonetics - studies the general issues of the sound organization of the language (article-acoustic. St. sounds, etc.)

2. Phonology is the study of the sound nature of a language in its functional significance.

3. Accentology - studies the issues of stress.

4. Intonology (lat. intonare - to pronounce loudly) - the study of general and particular intonations.

5. Syllabic (Greek syllabe - syllable) - studies the nature of the syllable and the problem of syllable division.

6. Orthoepy (Greek orthos - correct, epos - speech) - studies the normative pronunciation.

Communication of phonetics with other disciplines. Applied value phonetics.

Communication of phonetics with other sciences.

Among all linguistic disciplines, only phonetics studies the plan of expression linguistic sign. The sound side is autonomous and develops according to its own laws - this gives phonetics the right to independent existence.

Phonetics is directly related to spelling: Phonetics formulates the rules for the pronunciation of individual sounds and their groups, studies and establishes the rules for the relationship of phonemes and graphemes, their correspondence:

For example: [p] → p: p en

→ pp:ha pp y

→ gh:hiccou gh/hiccup

→ the grapheme is present, but there is no sound: pn eumonia

Phonetics is associated with grammar

1. through reading rules.

Reading the endings of nouns in plural. number: base +S = [s] / [z] /

Reading endings regular verbs in past tense: base +ed = [t] / [d] /

1. alternation of phonemes (vowels or consonants) in the formation of the plural of nouns and temporary forms of irregular verbs.

f oo t-f ee t-

s i ng–s a ng–s u ng [i] - [æ] - [Λ]

lea f– lea v es [f] - [v]

ba th–ba th s [θ] – [ð]

1. through intonation.

Intonation helps determine the logical predicate of a sentence.

‘He came home. (Who?)

He 'came home. (Did he come?)

He came 'home. (Where?)

Phonetics is associated with lexicology

1. only the accent distinguishes grammatical category and the meaning of the word:

‘object (subject) - to object (do not approve)

‘abstract (abstract) - to ab’stract (extract)

1. compound words and combinations of words differ in stress:

'bluebottle - cornflower and 'blue'bottle - blue bottle; 'blackbird - blackbird and 'black'bird - black bird

1. Homographs are words with the same spelling but different pronunciations. Thanks to pronunciation, you can determine their lexical meaning.

Wind - wind / - coil

Bow - bow / - bow

Tear - gap / - tear

Phonetics is associated with style through intonation and its components: rhythm, pause, melody, as well as through such phenomena as rhyme, alliteration, which are based on the repetition of sounds. For example, repeating the sound [m] in a poem creates a mood of fun (merriment):

There are twelve months in all the year,

As I hear many men say,

But the merriest month in all the year

Is the merry month of May.

Another stylistic tool that illustrates the connection with phonetics is called onomatopoeia. These include words that conditionally convey natural sounds or animal cries:

Bow-wow, says the dog;

Mew-mew, says the cat;

Grunt-grunt, goes the hog;

And squeak, goes the rat.

Of the non-linguistic sciences that study the sound side of a language, phonetics is associated with acoustics, physiology, anatomy. But phonetics studies the linguistic essence of sound phenomena (that is, what function they perform in speech).

Phonetics is associated with medicine and psychology in the treatment of people with speech pathology.

Phonetics is related to the social sciences.

Sociophonetics studies the interaction of pronunciation and society, the change in phonetic structures in accordance with different social functions.

Who(male/female, old/young, urban/rural…)

as(affectionately, with a threat, calmly ...)

using what phonetic means

to whom(friend, boss, stranger...)

when(at work, at home...)

and why(to persuade, to ask...)

He speaks.

Phonetics is associated with a number technical disciplines. First of all, this is experimental phonetics - to build a device, conduct research, calculate the result.

APPLIED SIGNIFICANCE OF PHONETICS. Phonetics has whole line applied aspects: teaching the Russian language to non-Russians, correcting speech defects, teaching the sounding speech of people who are deaf in speech therapy, deaf education. Phonetic data are widely used in the study of the features of higher nervous activity human, in medicine in the diagnosis and study of aphasia. In a number of technical directions phonetic data are also used: to improve the quality of speech transmission over communication channels, in robotics when developing systems controlled by sounding speech, for automatic speech recognition, etc.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of a language. Sound is the shortest, then indivisible unit of language. Sounds in the language serve to distinguish between sound shells various words: volume, there, ladies, gift, heat, ball, etc.

Sounds are produced by the organs of speech, the totality of which is called the speech apparatus. The speech apparatus consists of the vocal cords, the oral cavity, which contains the tongue, lips, teeth, palate, alveoli and nasal cavities. The organs of speech are active (mobile) and passive (fixed). The active ones include the vocal cords, tongue, lips, and back of the palate. To passive - all the rest.

Of all the organs of speech, only the vocal cords are created by nature specifically for the pronunciation of sounds. All other organs of speech originally had a different purpose (which, by the way, they retain to this day). So, the original and main function of the teeth is to chew food, the function of the tongue is to push the chewed food further along the alimentary tract, the function of the nasal cavity is to serve as a respiratory channel, etc. And only later all these organs were adapted for the production of sounds.

The vocal cords, unlike other organs of speech, produce rhythmic vibrations of the sound jet, which are called tone. The remaining organs of speech produce non-rhythmic vibrations of the sound jet, which are called noise.

The work of the organs of speech, necessary for the formation of a particular sound, is called articulation. The articulation of any sound consists of three phases: excursion, exposure and recursion. An excursion is called bringing the organs of speech into the state necessary for the production given sound, excerpt - the stay of the speech organs in this state, and recursion - the transition to the articulation of the next sound.

Sounds are vowels and consonants. Vowels are sounds that are formed by trembling of the vocal cords and consist of only one tone without the admixture of noise. Consonants are called sounds, in the formation of which noise is involved.

Depending on the ratio of noise and voice, all consonants are divided into three groups: sonorous (sonants), voiced consonants and deaf consonants. Sonorants are sounds that consist of tone and noise, in which tone predominates. In Russian, sonorants are "m", "n", "r", "l", as well as their soft variants. Like vowels, sonorants can be drawn, even sung. In some languages, sonorants, along with vowels, play a syllabic role. An example of this is the Czech word vlk (wolf), where the sonant plays a syllabic role. The ability to form a syllable brings sonants closer to vowels.

Voiced consonants are sounds that consist of tone and noise with a predominance of noise. Voiceless consonants are sounds that consist only of noise.

Vowel sounds are classified depending on the place of their formation and the features of articulation. Special meaning for the classification of vowels, it has the position that the tongue takes at the moment the sound is pronounced. Vowels in which the tip of the tongue is close to the lower row of teeth are called front vowels. In Russian to front row include [e] and [and]. Other languages ​​have more front vowels. So, for example, in German, the sounds [ä], [ö], [ü] also belong to the front row.

Vowels in which the tip of the tongue is maximally shifted towards the larynx are called back vowels. In Russian, the back row includes [o], [y].

An intermediate position between the vowels of these groups is occupied by the vowels of the middle row. In Russian, it is [s], [a].

Another important characteristic vowels is the level of elevation of the tongue during their pronunciation. High vowels in Russian include [i], [s], [y]. During the articulation of these sounds, the tip of the tongue is at the very palate. The sounds [e] and [o] belong to the middle rise, and the vowel [a] belongs to the lower one.

Vowels are rounded (labialized) and unrounded (non-labialized). The rounded ones in Russian include [o], [y], the non-rounded ones - all the rest. In other languages, the circle of rounded vowels is somewhat wider. For example, in German they also include the sounds [ü] and [ö].

Some languages ​​distinguish between nasal and non-nasal vowels. Nasal sounds are called, during the formation of which part of the sound jet goes through the nasal cavity. Nasal vowels are found in Polish, Kashubian, Lithuanian, Portuguese, French, Occitan, Breton and a number of other languages ​​of the world.

For many languages, it is important to distinguish between vowels by longitude/shortness. Replacing a short vowel with a long vowel and vice versa can completely change the meaning of a word. So, for example, in Czech the word pas (with a long vowel) means "belt", and the word pas (with a short vowel) means "passport".

Consonants are classified by the ratio of tone and noise (this has already been mentioned above), by the place of formation and by the method of formation.

At the place of formation, consonants can be back-lingual: [g], [k], [x]; front-lingual: [w], [w], [h], [p]; dental: [d], [t], [h], [s], [l], [n], [c]; labial: [b], [n], [c], [f], [m]. There is also one middle language sound in Russian - [th].

According to the method of formation, all consonants are divided into explosive (instantaneous), slotted (long, fricative) and vibrants. Explosive consonants are called, the formation of which is due to the fact that a stream of air coming from the larynx breaks the obstacle created by certain organs of speech. Explosives in Russian include [b], [k], [g], [t], etc. Slotted consonants are called, which are formed due to the friction of an air jet against the walls of a gap formed by certain organs of speech. In Russian, the slots include [w], [h], [f], etc. Vibrants are sounds that are formed due to the trembling of the tip of the tongue or the back of the palate. In Russian, there is only one vibrant - [r].

Affricates stand out in a special group. Affricates are called consonants, consisting of two components - explosive and fricative. There are two deaf affricates in Russian - [h], [ts]. In English, we meet with a voiced affricate [j] - in the words joke, job, large, juge, etc., in Polish - with a voiced pair k [c] - [dz] in the words: dzwon - “bell”, dzban - "jug", chodzą - "go" and many more. others

In Russian and others Slavic languages consonants often have an additional sign of hardness / softness: carried - cart, small - crumpled, table - so much.

In some languages, consonants differ in length/shortness. So, for example, in Estonian kas is an interrogative particle, and kass is "cat".

Not all of the above categories of sounds are present in all languages ​​of the world. For example, the Mangaraya language (one of the indigenous languages ​​of Australia) does not have voiceless consonants at all, and the Polynesian languages ​​do not have affricates.

A.Yu. Musorin. Fundamentals of the science of language - Novosibirsk, 2004

Topic questions:

2. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics. The subject and tasks of phonetics.

3. Sections of phonetics.

4. Methods of phonetics.

The word "modern" indicates that this is the language we currently use. However, the question of the chronological boundaries of the concept of "modern" in linguistic literature interpreted in different ways: it is widely believed that they mean the period "from Pushkin to the present day." Academician V. V. Vinogradov brought the lower limit of this concept closer to our time, expressing the idea that the boundaries of the modern Russian language are the time from the nineties of the nineteenth century. to the present day. Further clarification of the concept of "modern" can be found in the book by K. S. Gorbachevich "Norms of the modern Russian literary language." The author of the book believes that modern Russian literary language becomes from the late thirties - early forties of the twentieth century. It was at this time that a new one was formed in its own way. social composition intelligentsia. This leads to noticeable changes in the norms of both word usage and pronunciation and stress.

With this understanding of the chronological boundaries of the modern Russian language classic literature XIX and early XX centuries should be considered as a powerful source that feeds the modern literary language in a significant part of the norms of grammar, word usage, stress and pronunciation. The concept of "Russian" indicates that this language belongs to the Russian people. The Russian language includes the entire set language tools Russian people: literary language, territorial dialects, social jargons and urban vernacular.

Literary language is highest form national language, which is characterized by strict normativity. The language norm, according to the definition of S. I. Ozhegov, “is a historically determined fact, a manifestation of historical patterns of language development and development trends typical for each era, supported and approved by society in its language practice. Consequently, a norm is a set of the most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) language means for serving society, which is formed as a result of the selection of linguistic elements (lexical, pronunciation, morphological, syntactic) from among the existing, present, formed again and extracted from passive reserve past in the process of social broad sense evaluation of these elements. The norm is the main feature of the literary language. Everything that does not correspond to the norm is a deviation from the generally accepted rules, refers to irregular speech. Compliance with uniform norms by all native speakers of a given language facilitates the communication process, therefore, compliance with language norms mandatory for all who use the literary language.

Literary language functions in two forms - oral and written. Spoken language preceded written language. In the oral form of the literary language, a simpler syntax is often used incomplete sentences, word order is violated, everyday household and colloquial words. In written speech, normative requirements are strictly observed both in the use of vocabulary and grammatical

forms. In written speech, the normative requirements of graphics, spelling and punctuation are strictly observed, vocabulary and phraseology are carefully selected.

Finally, the literary language has a developed system functional styles, i.e. with the help of the nominative resources of the Russian literary language, all realities that can become the subject of thought of a Russian person are encoded; and texts written in the literary language encode and preserve in time the knowledge of Russian speakers about the universe.

1.2. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics.
The subject and tasks of phonetics

Phonetics (from the Greek φωνή - “sound”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of the language. This scientific discipline explores phenomena related to two levels of the sound structure of the language - segmental and supersegmental. "Segmental" means a segment: the speech stream is divided into segments of different lengths. The shortest, further indivisible phonetic units - segments, segments of the speech flow are the sounds of speech. They are located in the flow of speech one after another, form a sequence, a chain, a line. Segmental phonetic units are generalized segments of the speech chain, obtained as a result of its sequential linear division. The basic unit of segmental phonetics is the phoneme, which is realized in speech in the form of specific sounds. Thus, the main segmental phonetic units in the Russian language are sound and phoneme (on the phonetic and phonological levels).

Consolidation of segment units into larger units is carried out thanks to super-segment units. Super-segment (or supra-segment, prosodic or intonation) - units that are superimposed on segment ones: melodic units (tone), dynamic (stress) and temporal (tempo or duration), form a new unity. They seem to be superimposed on segment units. The supersegmental units are the syllable (according to M.V. Panov), stress and intonation. Thanks to supersegmental units, such units of linear articulation of the speech stream as a syllable, a phonetic word, a syntagma (or a speech beat), a phrase are formed.

The purpose of phonetics as an academic discipline is to teach how to correctly, undistortedly evaluate the facts of living speech. Phonetics requires from everyone who begins to study it, a change in point of view on sounding speech: sound speech is "more important" than written. Each person speaks more than he writes, and usually listens more than he reads. First, a person learns to speak, and only then - to write. Written language skills lie on top of oral language skills and are largely dependent on them. Physiologists note that even when a person reads “to himself” (not aloud), when he simply thinks, he is not free from speaking skills. When a person speaks aloud, in the muscles of the organs of speech, for example, in the tongue, biocurrents are amplified, which can be registered with the help of devices. But even when a person thinks hard about something (for example, solving a problem), biocurrents in the muscles of the tongue increase, as when speaking. The great Russian physiologist I.M. Sechenov wrote about such a phenomenon: the intensification of biocurrents speaks of inhibited movement, that the muscles are activated.

In phonetics, it is very important to distinguish between sound and letter. For example, in the sound shell of the word “mint”, the letter “i” does not mean two sounds, but the sound [a] after a soft consonant: [m'at].

Writing is the "clothes" of oral speech, it conveys, depicts oral speech. The sound is pronounced and heard, the letter is written and read. To read a letter means to pronounce the sound that this letter stands for. The difference between a letter and a sound can be seen in the following example: in the lines
F. I. Tyutcheva “Tears of people, oh tears of people, / you pour early and late at times ...” there is not a single sound [e].

Sound is the minimum indivisible unit of the speech flow, which is the result of a complex articulatory activity of a person and is characterized by certain acoustic and perceptual (perception - from lat. perception- perception) properties. Letter- written sign in the alphabet of a given language, usually corresponding to a particular sound. Alphabet – a system of written signs representing the sound image of a word through symbols depicting individual sound elements. There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet. Two letters - b and b - do not represent sounds; 10 letters - A, E, E, I, O, U, Y, E, Yu - serve to designate vowel sounds; the remaining letters (21) serve to designate consonants.

From a theoretical point of view, the significance of phonetics is due to the fact that it studies the sound shell, which is a material form of expression of the content of the language:

1) phonetics explains the sound phenomena in the language, for example, positional alternations voiced and deaf, etc.;

2) phonetics explains the grammatical phenomena associated with phonetic alternations: discard - discard; hand - pen, etc .;

3) phonetics helps to establish the origin of individual words, to establish family ties between words (throat - necklace; end - beginning and below), as well as find family ties between languages;

4) since the phonetic subsystem of the language is closed and contains a small number of units, the educational value of phonetics is that it teaches the philologist to understand that the language is a single, harmonious, internally consistent integrity; many patterns of language are easier to understand in phonetics;

5) the isolation and internal consistency of the phonetic subsystem makes phonetics an effective platform for testing new linguistic theories.

The practical meaning of phonetics is as follows:

1) phonetics is necessary to master the rules of the normative, literary pronunciation native language;

2) study foreign language always starts with a phonetic course: in order to master a language, you need to learn how to pronounce its sounds;

3) phonetics data are used by speech therapists who correct deficiencies in the pronunciation of sounds, and by deaf teachers who teach spoken language the deaf and dumb;

4) phonetics data is also used in telephone communications to improve the throughput of telephone lines.

Thus, Russian phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of the Russian literary language, its changes and the patterns of combining sound units and translinear means in a speech stream for communication.

Sections of phonetics

Depending on the amount of material that is the object of phonetics, there are general phonetics, comparative and particular. General phonetics explores the patterns that are characteristic of the sound side of any language, i.e. universal signs of Human language. Comparative phonetics deals with the identification of common and special in the sound side of two or more languages. Private phonetics studies the features of the sound side of a particular language. Russian phonetics is a private phonetics. In private phonetics, such disciplines as articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, perceptual phonetics, phonology, accentology (the study of word stress), and intonology (the study of intonation) are also distinguished.

Since the study of a language is carried out both in a synchronous and diachronic aspect, in the private phonetics of a particular language, descriptive and historical phonetics are distinguished. Descriptive phonetics studies the sound side of a language in a certain period of its development, as a rule, at the present stage. Historical phonetics studies the formation and development of a sound system over time. The history of the sound means of the language can be traced to the extent that it is reflected in the monuments of writing, dialect speech etc.

Descriptive phonetics can be based on both acoustic characteristics of speech sounds and articulatory ones. Acoustic and articulatory characteristics of sounds are based on the results obtained using experimental phonetic methods.

Experimental phonetics, using instrumental methods, studies the acoustic and physiological aspects of the sound system of a language.

With the development of the science of language, the areas of phonetic research are expanding. Thus, a new branch appeared - sociophonetics. This term appeared relatively recently. It is believed that it was first used in 1974 in an unpublished dissertation by Dezey-La Fontaine. Since that time, the term has been occasionally used in studies aimed at identifying the interdependence of the phonetic-phonological form and some social factors such as the style of speech and the background of the speaker. In reference linguistic literature, the term sociophonetics was first mentioned in 2003.

Phonetics methods

Descriptive phonetics studies living colloquial speech and uses two methods for this: 1) the method of direct sensory observation or self-observation (aimed primarily at the speaker's muscular sense), 2) the experimental method.

The first method is that the speaker or listener, perceiving sound speech, singles out such speech elements in it as phonetic phrases, speech beats, phonetic words, syllables and sounds. With the help of sensory observation, one can determine the method of formation of a particular sound, its difference from other sounds. This method suffers from subjectivity.

Experimental methods are carried out with the help of special instruments and fixtures, equipment that allows you to objectively determine the deepest properties of sound elements. Wherein experimental methods divided into separate techniques: somatic (observe the position speech apparatus, its individual organs), pneumatic (measure speech breathing when pronouncing a sound, they monitor the formation of noise resulting from the movement of an air jet), electroacoustic (determine the number of basic voice vibrations, their amplitude, the number of overtones, etc.), expressive (allow to synchronously describe speech, facial expressions and gestures of the speaker).

The study of the sound side of the language with the help of special devices and methods is carried out by experimental phonetics. Among the experimental phonetic methods, there are acoustic(to study the acoustic properties of sounds) and somatic(they are based on the registration of movements of the organs of speech). Acoustic methods include spectrographic and oscillographic. Oscilloscope turns sound vibrations in electric, which are recorded on paper tape or film. The spectrograph makes it possible to obtain an instantaneous spectrogram that captures the sound spectrum, i.e. the set of values ​​of the amplitudes of its frequency components. The sonograph also produces a spectrogram, but dynamic. The intonograph records the change in the frequency of the fundamental tone and the intensity of the sound in the form of intotones (vertical lines). Somatic methods include radiographic. The radiograph gives a profile picture of all organs of speech. The bones are more clearly visible on the x-ray. The tomograph provides a clear fixation of the soft organs of speech. The palatograph registers the place where the tongue touches the palate, and the odontograph records the place where the tongue touches the lower teeth. A photograph is also used to fix the work of the lips in the process of speech.

Questions for self-control

1. What is the meaning of the word "modern" in the title of the discipline under study?

2. What is the difference between a literary language and a dialect language?

3. What does Russian phonetics study?

4. What is the difference between super-segment phonetic units and segment units?

5. What is the attention of the speaker directed to when using the method of self-observation?

6. What devices do you know for studying various aspects of the speech organs?

7. What signs of the literary variety of the Russian national language do you know?

Practical tasks

Exercise 1. Determine what sounds are pronounced in place of the letters E, E, Yu, I in the following words: mint, raccoon, census, nurse, connect, blue, more, her, jaguar, Jamaica, ruffy, clerk, non-nuclear, jewelry, drive up, blizzard, happiness, spear, nickel, forest, family man, mint, union, meat, month , watch, Japanese, long neck.

Task 2. Determine what functions b performs in the following words: zero, pedestal, rye, door, remove, smile, mouse, family, get, be, water, moth, blizzard, Kuzmich, September, clerk.

Task 3. Transcribe the strings of words. Note the cases of the influence of the proclitic on the sound shell of the word: aport - abortion - on board, like - in the genus - in a pud, posture - about sleds - about the remains, tincture - “Oh, wait!” - perestroika, without a bottom - an abyss - immoral, from the soul - a hell of the soul - an outlet.

Task 4. Transcribe words, find consonants and vowels in them, determine the degree of reduction of vowels: water, milk, meeting, lantern, whole, minute, sight, rye, volume, smile, special task, exam, sew, parachute, lively, feminine, lull.

Task 5. Restore the semantic articulation of the text. Transcribe the written text in a special way, taking into account its division into phonetic words, speech measures and phrases.

Стариквсеромкамзолелюбилрассказыватьвнукуразныеисториионрадовалсятомучтодажевконцесвоегопутинашёлхотькакоетопредназначениеблагодарякоторомулегчежитьиощущатьсебянужнымлюдямвзнакомомемуссамогодетстваоткрытомполеоколостаройфермысоднясвоегопоявленияпринадлежавшейихпредкампроходилитевстречизанимающиедругдругаиприносящиенесказанноеудовольствиефермаэтаполуторавековаясокровищницадостопочтенныхуилкинсовславиласьвомногихземляхдобротнымимускуснымибыками.

Task 6. Transcribe the text. What words does the author of the poem seem to pronounce in accordance with the now outdated, but not so long ago, norm of Russian orthoepy? How can this be understood?

But today you sang in the morning, cooked bigos,

You were cheerful, the world was sweet, the union was strong,

But the wrinkle on my cheek is the one that I fell in love with

Turned into a thin scar, the one that I fear.

Task 7. Find in the text phonetic words in which the phenomena of proclise and enclise are observed. Transcribe these words. What is the name of the diacritical mark that indicates the fusion of pronunciations?

As I closed the door behind me, the tall man fell silent and turned to me. Only then did I get a good look at him. He was wearing a formal suit, a pale blue tie, a neatly folded handkerchief with a blue tint peeking out of the pocket of his jacket. His nose looked directly at me, pointing, as it seemed, from above, to everyone who was in front of him, to his place.

Phonetics deals with the sound material of human speech. Phonetics studies the sound composition, sound structure and sound changes in the language and patterns of these changes (from Greek phone - voice).

In the sound composition of each language, phonemes are distinguished - the main units of the sound system and their varieties.

The first to develop the concept of a phoneme was Professor Baudouin de Courtenay of Kazan University. He emphasized that the selection of a phoneme is possible only if the entire system of phonemes of a given language is taken into account. Sound outside the system will not be the system. The sound system of any language consists of a certain number of phonemes. They themselves do not have meanings, but are potentially associated with meaning as elements of a single sign system. In combination with each other and often separately, they provide recognition (identification) and distinction (differentiation) of linguistic signs as meaningful units. So, due to the different composition of phonemes in the Russian words genus and glad, it is possible to recognize and distinguish between these words, English. -but-boot.

Phonemes perform their function of distinguishing words or word forms on the basis of their distinctive features. These features are distinguished from phonemes as a result of their opposition to each other in the system of a particular language. Therefore, in different languages, the distinguishing features may be different. So, for the Russian language, it is very important to contrast consonant phonemes in terms of hardness - softness (compare: was - beat, vases - elms, garden - sit down). There is no such opposition in English and French. In Russian, there is no opposition of vowels in longitude - brevity, but, for example, for in English this contrast is very important.

Currently, they are talking not just about phonetics, but about phonetic sciences, each of which has its own subject and its own point of view on the sound structure of the language.

Phonetics in a broad sense considers:

1) how sounds are pronounced, more precisely, what physiological process sound creation (the so-called articulation of sound), on the one hand, and 2) what are the acoustic properties of the sounds of the language - on the other hand,

3) how all these sound units and sound phenomena are used in the language as a means of communication.

Phonetics in a narrow sense considers these sound means in such aspects as physical (acoustic) and biological (articulatory plus perceptual). Sometimes it is divided into articulatory phonetics, which studies the production of sound, acoustic phonetics, which studies the result of sound production, and auditory (or perceptual) phonetics, which deals with the perception of sound.

Synchronic and historical (diachronic)

descriptive and normative

Theoretical and applied.

What is the point of studying acoustic and physiological properties sound? When learning new languages ​​(or teaching someone a language), you need to take into account the properties of the sounds of a given language. It is also important to know them when developing an alphabet for a non-written language. The importance of phonetics for speech therapy is generally recognized. In all these cases, the applied practical value phonetics.

But what is the significance of phonetics as a linguistic theoretical discipline? The theoretical meaning of studying the sound side of a language is that without taking into account sound changes, it is impossible to give a scientific history of either vocabulary or grammatical structure. It is impossible to understand sound changes without knowing the properties of sounds.

Phonetics - the doctrine of sound composition individual languages and about phonetic changes(see) sounds in the history of these languages.

He studies the processes that occur with sounds in the flow of speech, the sound structure of the language (syllables, sound combinations, patterns of connecting sounds in a speech chain), the sound side of the language.

Phonetics sections:

o General phonetics considers patterns characteristic for the sound structure of all world languages.

o Comparative phonetics compares the sound structure of the language with others (most often related) languages.

o historical phonetics traces language development over a fairly long period of time (diachronic approach, sometimes since the appearance of one particular language - its separation from the parent language).

o descriptive phonetics examines sound system specific language at a certain stage(most often the phonetic structure of the modern language).

o Orthoepy is engaged normalization of the practical side of phonetics and individual cases of pronunciation of individual words

o Articulatory phonetics explores activity of the human speech apparatus which produces sounds. Speech sounds are studied in terms of their creation. The structure and work of the human speech apparatus is studied.

o Comparative phonetics. The relationship of languages ​​does not matter. She compares the sound system of various languages. Common features, common to all languages, some universal things (everywhere there are vowels and consonants).

o acoustic phonetics. The sounds of human speech, like any other sounds, can be studied from an acoustic point of view (pitch, frequency)

o Sometimes isolated perceptual phonetics. Studying sounds in terms of how they perceived.

The subject of phonetics is close connection between oral, internal and writing . Unlike other linguistic disciplines, phonetics explores not only the language function, but also material side your object: the work of the pronunciation, as well as acoustic characteristics of sound phenomena and perception their native speakers.

Phonetics serves to embody words and sentences into material sound form. In phonetics, phonetics (sounds) and phonology (phonemes) are distinguished.

All units of phonetics are divided into segmental and supersegmental.
1) Segment units - these are units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beat), phonetic phrases (syntagms).
phonetic phrase- a segment of speech, which is an intonation-semantic unity, highlighted on both sides by pauses.
Syntagma- a combination of two members, related topics or another relationship with an unequal orientation of members, where one member is defined, and the other is defining.
phonetic word (rhythmic structure, measure) - part of a phrase, united by one word stress.
Syllable- the smallest unit of the speech chain.
Sound- minimum phonetic unit.
2) supersegment units (intonational means) - units that are superimposed on segmental ones: melodic units (tone), dynamic (stress) and temporal (tempo or duration).
stress- selection in speech of a certain unit in a series of homogeneous units using the intensity (energy) of sound.
Tone- rhythmic-melodic pattern of speech, determined by a change in the frequency of the sound signal.
Pace- speed of speech, which is determined by the number of segment units uttered per unit of time.
Duration- the time of the speech segment.

There are three aspects of phonetic studies:
1) anatomical and physiological(articulatory) - explores the sound of speech from the point of view of its creation: What organs of speech are involved in its pronunciation; Active or passive vocal cords; Are the lips pulled forward, etc.
2) acoustic(physical). Treats sound as a vibration in the air and captures it physical characteristics: frequency (height), strength (amplitude), duration.
3) functional aspect (phonological). studies sound functions in language, operates with phonemes.

Phonetics as a level of language.
Phonetic system, like any system (structure), determined not only their physical properties but above all relationship between its constituent elements(for the first time this principle in relation to the linguistic description was formulated by linguistic universals), namely:

way of articulation: the presence or absence of an obstacle in the path of the air stream (it is the method of articulation that separates the class of vowels, or vocal sounds);

degree of participation in sound production vote(tones) - this is how consonants differ, which are the same in the way and place of articulation; in addition, according to the degree of participation in the production of sounds of the vocal source (vocal cords), a special class of consonant sounds is distinguished, which is called sonants;

place of articulation(or articulatory focus of sound), due to which consonant sounds are distinguished, which are the same both in the method of articulation and in the participation of the voice;

formation of articulatory organs special resonating cavities in the articulatory tract, which are used to vary the sound and form the vowel system.

1. Phrase is the largest phonetic unit; phrases are separated in the speech chain by pauses, that is, by stopping the sound that breaks the sound chain; during pauses, the speaker inhales the air necessary to pronounce the next phrase. Under no circumstances should you identify grammatical unit(sentence) and phonetic (phrase), since one phrase can cover several sentences and a sentence can break up into several phrases.

The phrase is combined with intonation; Each spoken phrase has a specific intonation pattern.

Intonation refers to the prosodic elements of language, and this phenomenon is complex. It consists:

a) from raising and lowering the voice; This is the melody of speech, which has its own pattern in each language. Yes, in Russian language lung raising the voice in the attack of a phrase, a flat middle and a sharp decrease in the indentation in a narrative phrase or a sharp increase in the indentation in an interrogative one;

b) from the ratios of strong and weak, long and short syllables, which in itself is a fact of tact, but within the phrase gives it rhythm.

The most loaded part of a phrase in Russian is its end, where the “phrasal stress” is concentrated; the transfer of a sharp decrease (less often a rise) from an indent to the middle of a phrase is usually called logical stress, i.e. displaced phrasal stress(for details, see below, ch. IV, § 54);

c) from the speed or slowness of the flow of speech in time, from accelerations and decelerations, which forms the rate of speech;

d) from the strength or weakness of pronunciation, from the strengthening and weakening of exhalation, which forms the intensity of speech;

e) from the presence or absence of intraphrasal pauses, which can highlight

separate parts of a phrase or divide a phrase into half phrases (Crows sat / on an old birch). Internal pausing is reflected in the rhythm of the phrase;

f) from the general timbre 1 of the utterance, which, depending on the target setting of the utterance, can be “gloomy”, “cheerful”, “playful”, “scared”, etc.

2. The phrase is divided into measures. A measure is a part of a phrase (one or more syllables), united by one stress 1. Measures united by the strongest point - the stressed syllable, are delimited by a minimum of intensity, i.e., in those segments of the sound chain where the strength of the previous stressed syllable is already in the past, and the strengthening to the next stressed syllable still in the future.

3.The beats are divided into syllables. Syllable - this is a part of the measure, consisting of one or more sounds; however, not all sounds can form a syllable, i.e., be syllabic (or syllabic).

4. Syllables are divided into sounds. Thus, from the point of view of this classification, the sound of speech is a part of a syllable pronounced in one articulation, i.e. with the presence of one excursion and one recursion