All about vocabulary in Russian. Active and passive vocabulary

Often we do not even think about how diverse the Russian language is. Study of mother tongue is quite a fun activity. Ever since school, we know that there are entire sections that study our language. For example, what is vocabulary in Russian, every person with a secondary school education should know.

What does Russian vocabulary study

The very definition of "lexicon" means the vocabulary of the language. In turn, the branch of science that studies vocabulary is called lexicology. The basis of vocabulary, as mentioned earlier, is the word.

The word is a special unit of the Russian language, which serves as the name of many objects, phenomena, as well as their signs and properties. This category contains grammar and phonetics. Perhaps, important feature words is reduced to its integrity in speech, and indivisibility in pronunciation.

Each of us uses a certain number of words in our speech. From what they are and how many of them, one can judge the vocabulary of a person. It is also called a lexicon. He can be rich or poor.

Sources of vocabulary replenishment

There are several main sources for replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

These include:

Words that are formed from constituent parts such as root, suffix, prefix.
Borrowed are those words that come to us from other countries, nationalities and other sources.

What does vocabulary mean, we have decided, now we need to figure out what words come from, where they come from in our everyday life and what to do to improve our vocabulary.

Word classification

Words in Russian can be classified according to the following criteria:

Unambiguity in use and ambiguity.
Direct and figurative meaning of the word.
According to the origin of the word.
By area of use.

There are single words. As a rule, these are words that denote a specific subject and have a single lexical designation. In russian language similar examples Little. Basically, it can be any scientific terms, or proper names, as well as words that appeared not so long ago that came from somewhere.

A feature of the Russian language is that previously many polysemantic words had only one interpretation. Now, when they can be interpreted in different ways, the first place in the dictionary is always the designation of the main concept, and then the secondary ones.

The meaning of words in Russian

What does vocabulary mean in terms of the use of a word in context, not every one of us knows. Exist direct meaning word that refers to the phenomenon of objective reality, it is characterized by stability. Figurative meaning words arise when the name of an object is transferred or appears on another, similar to something.

Can be distinguished following groups words:

Homonyms are words that are identical in pronunciation but have different meanings.
Synonyms are words that are similar in meaning. They are used to diversify your speech and make it more interesting and detailed.
Antonyms are words that are opposites in meaning. Like synonyms, they are used for greater detail and expressiveness of what was said.

Origin of words in Russian

All words in Russian are divided by origin into:

Russian words (originally Russian).
Borrowed.

Originally Russian words originated from East Slavic, European and proper Russian words. In turn, borrowed words came to us from Slavic and not Slavic languages.

Depending on how society changes, the culture in it, there are changes in the lexicon of people. Some words that were previously used with enviable constancy can now be forgotten. There are times when more and more often you hear from the lips of some people some long-forgotten words.

Those words that are not used and are out of use are called obsolete. But they are replaced by neologisms. These are words that can be called new. Sometimes they take root, and sometimes they are forgotten, without receiving due attention in terms of their use.

The scope of the use of words of the Russian language

There are in the Russian language both commonly used words and those that are limited in scope. To the sphere limited use vocabulary includes words such as:

Dialectisms are words related to a particular nationality.
Professionalisms are words from certain areas of science and production.
Jargons are words that are specific group of people.

In conclusion, I would like to note that vocabulary is an important section of the Russian language. Understanding and navigating it is very important for modern man. The future opinion about a person depends on at what moments and under what circumstances certain words were used.

Vocabulary of the Russian language

common Indo-European (names of animals, terms of kinship and simple numerals: sheep, bull, wolf, meat; brother, daughter, mother; one, two, three, four, five etc.)

common Slavic, which goes back to the linguistic community of all Slavs in the VI-VII centuries. During this period, most of the words of modern Russian and other Slavic languages appeared, denoting the names of trees, plants, birds, basic household items: boron, branch, wood, bark, forest, sheet,boughs; oak, spruce, maple, Linden, pine, bird cherry, ash; peas, poppy; oats, millet, wheat, barley; forge, flog; hoe, the cloth, shuttle; house, shelter, floor, canopy; goose, hen, starling, nightingale; kvass, kissel, salo, cheese etc.

the East Slavic layer is represented old Russian words that appeared and spread within Slavic population Kievan Rus, which flourished in the 11th-12th centuries. This includes words such as rumble, gray, good; uncle, stepdaughter; lace, churchyard; squirrel, finch; fourty, ninety; suddenly, today and etc.

actually Russian lexical units began to appear from the end of the 15th century. These include, for example, the words grumble, coo, crush, thin out, scold; cover, irradiation, wallpaper; cabbage rolls, kulebyaka; total, bluntly, deception, experience and many others. others

Borrowed vocabulary

In terms of the number of foreign borrowings, the Russian language as a whole occupies a balanced position in the circle of Slavic languages. Their number is not as great as in Polish, but not as insignificant as in Croatian, where linguistic purism is noted. In this regard, the modern Serbian language is close to him. Despite the influx of words of non-Slavic origin into the Russian language over the past 400 years, most borrowings in Russian are borrowings from other Slavic languages, first of all, these are Church Slavonicisms, which make up up to 10% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. another significant group early borrowings make up a group of words of Turkic origin - Turkisms. Later borrowings represent Polonisms, Bohemisms, Gallicisms, Grecisms, Latinisms, Italianisms, Hispanisms, Germanisms, Anglicisms and others.

In modern Russian, there are many lexical borrowings from Church Slavonic (these include, for example, such familiar words as thing, time, air, delight, verb, single, withdraw, reward, cloud, general, response, victory, work, advice, compose, vain, excessive and many others. etc.), some of which coexist with proper Russian doublets, which differ from Church Slavonic ones in meaning or stylistically, cf. (Church Slavonic word is given first): power / volost, drag / drag, head / head, citizen / city dweller, milky / milky, darkness / darkness, clothes / clothes, equal / even, depravity / reversal, give birth / give birth, cathedral / collection, guard / watchman and others. Individual morphemes were also borrowed from Church Slavonic into the literary language (for example, verb prefixes from-, bottom-, before- and co-) and even individual grammatical forms- For example, verbal participles(cf. Church Slavonic in origin participles current or burning with their corresponding original Russian forms fluid and hot, preserved in modern language as adjectives with the meaning of a constant property) or forms of verbs like flutters(with an alternation unusual for proper Russian forms t/w, cf. primordially Russian laughs or babbles).

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language was significantly influenced by those languages with which Russian (and earlier Old Russian and Proto-Slavic dialects) long time contacted. oldest layer borrowings - East German ("Gothic") origin (these are words such as dish, letter, camel, much, hut, prince, cauldron, cross, buy, donkey, plow, glass, bread, barn, hill, artist, church, helmet etc.), as well as a few, but important words, borrowed from ancient Iranian languages ("Scythian vocabulary") - for example, heaven, dog, ax(however, it should be borne in mind that not all of these Germanic and Iranian etymologies are considered absolutely indisputable). Germanic (mostly Scandinavian) origin and some Russian personal names, for example, Gleb, Igor, Oleg, Olga. The next layer in time is made up of Greek words ( hell, letter, clerk, abbot, icon, katavasia, penal servitude, bed, crocodile, doll, magnet, cucumber, ward, sail, pop, shroud, beetroot, bench, notebook, vinegar, lantern etc.) and Turkic origin ( diamond, lasso, head, shoe, biryuk, money, raisin, wild boar, treasury, border, shackles, trap, guard, caftan, carpet, sausage, quiver, horse, hearth, barn, chest, goods, fog, prison, hut, tent, pants, coachman, label and etc.; some of these words, in turn, go back to Arabic or Persian sources). It should be borne in mind that the vast majority of Russian personal baptismal names are also borrowed from Greek (such as Alexander, Alexey, Anatoly, Andrey, Arkady, Vasily, Vlas, Gennady, George, Denis, Dmitry, Evgeny, Kirill, Kuzma, Leonid, Luka, Makar, Nikita, Nikolai, Peter, Stepan, Timofey, Fedor, Philip; Anastasia, Barbara, Galina, Ekaterina, Elena, Zoya, Irina, Xenia, Pelageya, Praskovya, Sophia, Tatyana and etc.; through Greek, such common Christian names of Hebrew origin as Benjamin, Daniel, Ivan, Ilya, Matvey, Mikhail, Naum, Osip, Semyon, Yakov; Anna, Elizabeth, Mary, Martha and etc.). In the XVI-XVII centuries. the main source of borrowings is polish, through which it penetrates into Russian as big number Latin, Romance and Germanic words (for example, algebra, author, pharmacy, Africa, screw, hubbub, arrogance, barracks, keys, jacket, kitchen, paint, painter, music, drill, shell, Paris, please, mail, private, powder, crimson, leggings, company, market, knight, steel, dance, plate, factory, fake, fortel, goal, shop, figure, school, grind, sword, thing, bayonet, card sharper, skirt, fair and many others. etc.), as well as a certain number of proper Polish ( jar, bottle, redneck, monogram, allow, finish off, thorough, bully, inveterate, passionate, inveterate, beg, rabbit, jacket, cop, tradesman, courage, fatherland, stick, lousy, jam, tease, duel, lieutenant, suburb, capital, suma, buffoon, lad, fumbling, mischievous, cheat sheet and etc.). AT new period(since the 18th century) borrowings come mainly from the Dutch ( apricot, admiral, orange, boatswain, trousers, drift, umbrella, south, cable, cabin, berth, coffee, sailor, wig, flight, steering wheel, mouthpiece, hold, fairway, flute, gateway, yacht), German ( paragraph, bandage, exchange, accountant, tie, general, count, huntsman, hall, apartment, cinema, blot, resort, coachman, lieutenant, master, uniform, mouthpiece, officer, parade ground, planer, locksmith, mourning, fireworks, paramedic, time pressure, cement, mine, tire, screen, barrier, train, headquarters, staff, ersatz and many others. others) and French ( lampshade, avant-garde, advance, album, actor, barrier, boulevard, bourgeoisie, bureau, veil, garage, debut, conductor, dossier, shower, blinds, magazine, canvas, caprice, kiosk, nightmare, courage, shop, make-up, machine, menu, Negro, pavilion, parachute, park, password, ground, platform, platform, beach, district, rubber, relief, repair, restaurant, risk, role, piano, season, soup, circulation, sidewalk, trick, style, fairy, fairy, foyer, chance, charm, overcoat, highway, driver and many others. etc.). Currently, the most powerful source of borrowings is English, some borrowings from which date back to the 19th - first half of the 20th century. (early borrowings - avral, iceberg, bar, boycott, boxing, station, clown, club, cowboy, cocktail, elevator, rally, rails, rum, square, sports, start, tank, tennis, shorts, fashionable, finish, folklore, football, hooligan, shorts, newer - business, businessman, briefing, dumping, default, jeans, dispatcher, clearing, harvester, container, computer, content, leasing, marketing, rating, trend, weekend, file, holding and many others. etc.). Some English words were borrowed into Russian twice - for example, the old lunch and modern lunch; latest English loanwords often crowd out earlier borrowings from other European languages- for example, new English. franchising and old French franchise, New English bowling and old German bowling alley in the same sense, new English. broker and old German broker, New English office and old German office, New English tagline and old German slogan, New English lobster and old French lobster, New English hit and old German smash hit, New English price list and old German price-list and etc.

From other European languages, there were significantly fewer borrowings, but in certain areas of the lexicon their role is also quite important. For example, a number of military terms are borrowed from Hungarian ( haiduk, hussar, saber), a large number of musical, as well as a number of financial, culinary and other terms - from Italian (sometimes through French or German mediation): advice note, aria, bravo, cello, libretto, pasta, malaria, opera, pasta, clown, piano, balance, somersault, scherzo, solfeggio, sonata, soprano and etc.

In turn, there are many ancient borrowings from Russian in the Finno-Ugric languages (for example, in Finnish and Karelian, Mordovian, Mari, etc.). A number of Russian words (including those borrowed by origin) have become internationalisms, already borrowed from Russian into many languages of the world ( vodka, dacha, mammoth, matryoshka, perestroika, pogrom, samovar, satellite, steppe, tsar).

Notes

Russian language

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We build all our statements from words-bricks. Despite the fact that everyone uses the same words, each of us has his own special vocabulary - a set of those words that we use in speech. It's no secret that what more words stored in your language treasury, the more vivid and figuratively saturated our speech can be. Words, without which our communication is impossible, and studies vocabulary.

(from other Greek. "relating to the word", "word", "turn of speech") – e it is a set of words of a particular language, part of a language or words that a person or group of people knows. Vocabulary is the central part of the language; its purpose is to name, form and transfer knowledge about the objects of reality.

Russian vocabulary is one of the richest and most mysterious sections of the Russian language. Think about how many words are around us. See how many meanings can appear over time for an initially unambiguous word. Imagine how voluminous what the words of the language express.

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like morphology, etc., is a system - harmonious and strict: it has its own classifications and sections, but at the same time, vocabulary is the only section that is the least static, which is constantly in development. It depends on many reasons - the development of society, the emergence of new realities, the rethinking of "old" names. Let's remember the word gymnasium or tutor : they left the language, but in the 21st century they returned with a new meaning.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is full of riddles. Sometimes the "name" of an object may not quite correspond to its essence: we say bird sitting on a branch(but she stands on it!) or take a pill(but we eat it!) etc. Remember how many words have several names: for example, northern peoples there are more than two dozen names of snow. At the same time, there are realities that have not received their name. (gaps) , For example, what do we call the part of the face between the nose and the lip or part of the leg behind the knee? While these concepts do not have names, we can only describe them in a few words.

Russian vocabulary is divided into several classes: for example, according to the sphere of use - into commonly used and restricted vocabulary(professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms, etc.).

Remember that vocabulary is a very important section, responsible not only for communication in general, but also for its quality. There is no need to repeat that every person should study the vocabulary of their language.

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Term vocabulary(gr. lexikos- verbal, dictionary) serves to designate the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings: to determine the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language ( bookstorevocabulary ), in a separate work ( vocabulary "Words about Igor's Campaign"); you can talk about the vocabulary of the writer ( vocabulary Pushkin) and even one person ( The speaker has a richvocabulary ).

Lexicology(gr. lexis- word + logos- doctrine) is a section of the science of language that studies vocabulary. Lexicology can be descriptive, or synchronous (gr. syn- together + chronos- time), then she explores the vocabulary of the language in its current state, and historical, or diachronic (gr. dia- through + chronos- time), then its subject is the development of the vocabulary of a given language.

The course of the modern Russian language deals with descriptive lexicology. The synchronous study of vocabulary involves the study of it as a system of interrelated and interdependent elements at the present time.

However, the synchronous system of language is not fixed and absolutely stable. There are always elements in it that are fading into the past; there are also just emerging, new ones. The coexistence of such heterogeneous elements in one synchronous section of the language testifies to its constant movement and development. Descriptive lexicology takes into account this dynamic balance of language, which is a unity of stable and moving elements.

The tasks of lexicology include the study of the meanings of words, their stylistic characteristics, the description of the sources of formation lexical system, analysis of the processes of its renewal and archaization. The object of consideration in this section of the course of the modern Russian language is the word as such. It should be noted that the word is in the field of view of other sections of the course. But word formation, for example, focuses on the laws and types of word formation, morphology is the grammatical doctrine of the word, and only lexicology studies words on their own and in a certain connection with each other.

2. The lexical system of the Russian language

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interrelated and interdependent units of the same level. Study of lexical system language reveals an interesting and diverse picture of the life of words, bound friend with each other in various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical and phraseological system of the native language.

Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes, which includes, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, linguistic features words allow you to group them into parts of speech according to lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In the most in general terms systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows.

In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, attribute, action, etc.). Such systemic relations in groups of words united by a common feature are called paradigmatic(gr. paradeigma example, example).

Paradigmatic connections of words underlie the lexical system of any language. As a rule, it is divided into many microsystems. The simplest of them are pairs of words connected by opposite meanings, i.e. antonyms. More complex microsystems are made up of words grouped based on similarity in meaning. They form synonymous series, various thematic groups with a hierarchy of units compared as species and generic. Finally, the largest semantic associations of words merge into extensive lexico-grammatical classes - parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic paradigms in each language are quite stable and are not subject to changes under the influence of the context. However, the semantics of specific words may reflect the features of the context, which also manifests itself system communications in vocabulary.

One of the manifestations of the systemic relations of words is their ability to connect with each other. Compatibility words is determined by their subject-semantic connections, grammatical properties, lexical features. For example, the word glass can be used in combination with words ball, glass; possible combinations glass jar (bottle, dishes), even glass saucepan (frying pan)- from fire-resistant glass. But impossible - "glass book", "glass patty" and so on, since the subject-semantic connections of these words exclude mutual compatibility. You can't link words either. glass and run, glass and far: this is opposed by their grammatical nature (an adjective cannot be combined with a verb, a circumstantial adverb). The lexical feature of the word glass is its ability to develop figurative meanings, which allows you to build phrases hairglass smoke(Es.), glass sight. Words that do not have this ability ( refractory, metal cutting and below), do not allow metaphorical use in speech. The possibilities of their compatibility `already.

Systemic connections, manifested in the patterns of combinations of words with each other, are called syntagmatic(gr. syntagma- something connected). They are revealed when words are combined, i.e. in certain lexical combinations. However, reflecting the connection between the meanings of words, and, consequently, their systemic connections in paradigms, syntagmatic relations are also determined by the lexical system of the language as a whole. The features of the compatibility of individual words largely depend on the context, therefore, syntagmatic connections, to a greater extent than paradigmatic ones, are subject to changes due to the content of speech. Thus, lexical syntagmatics reflects the change in realities (cf., for example, glass pan), expanding our understanding of the world around us ( walk on the moon), figurative energy of language ( glass smoke hair).

The systemic connections of words, the interaction of different meanings of one word and its relationship with other words are very diverse, which indicates the great expressive power of vocabulary. At the same time, we must not forget that the lexical system is an integral part of a larger language system in which certain relationships have developed between the semantic structure of the word and its formal grammatical features, phonetic features, and also the dependence of the meaning of the word on paralinguistic(gr. para- about, near + linguistic, linguistic) and extralinguistic(lat. extra- over-, out- + linguistic) factors: facial expressions, gestures, intonation, functioning conditions, time of fixation in the language, etc.

The general language system and the lexical system, as its integral part, are identified and learned in speech practice, which, in turn, has an impact on changes in the language, contributing to its development and enrichment. The study of systemic relationships in vocabulary is a necessary condition for the scientific description of the vocabulary of the Russian language. The solution of theoretical problems gets a direct exit into practice both in the compilation of various dictionaries, and in the development of literary and linguistic norms of word usage, and in the analysis of methods for the individual author's use of the expressive possibilities of a word in artistic speech.

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interrelated and interdependent units of the same level. Study of lexical system language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of the life of words, connected with each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical-phraseological system of the native language.

Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into various groups based on certain characteristics. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.

Other lexical groups are formed on purely linguistic grounds. For example, the linguistic features of words make it possible to group them into parts of speech according to lexico-semantic and grammatical features.

Lexicology establishes the most diverse relationships within various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language. In the most general terms, the systemic relations in it can be characterized as follows.

In modern Russian there are many lexical borrowings from Church Slavonic (these include, for example, such familiar words as thing, time, air, delight, verb), some of which coexist with proper Russian doublets that differ from Church Slavonic in meaning or stylistically, cf. (Church Slavonic word is given first): power / volost, drag / drag, From Church Slavonic to literary language individual morphemes are also borrowed (for example, verb prefixes from-, bottom-, before- and co-) and even separate grammatical forms - for example, verbal participles or forms of verbs.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language was greatly influenced by those languages with which Russian (and earlier Old Russian and Proto-Slavic dialects) had been in contact for a long time. One of the early layers of borrowings - East German ("Gothic") origin, or words from Latin and ancient Greek that came through this mediation

The vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of origin is divided into two large groups: 1) native Russian vocabulary 2) borrowed vocabulary. Borrowing is a word that has passed into Russian from other foreign languages. Reasons for borrowing: they are external and internal. External: 1) closely political, trade, cultural connections between peoples 2) designation, using a borrowed word, of some special items and concepts. Internal: 1) manifestation of the law of economy speech means 2) filling in the gaps in the language 3) the borrowed word is included in synonymous series borrowing language, while having some nuance of meanings 4) psychological reason- a word is borrowed that is more fashionable, bright for use. Old Slavonicisms are words that entered the Old Russian language from a related Old Church Slavonic which later became Church Slavonic.

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is constantly replenished, enriched, updated. Words disappear, go out of use, others, on the contrary, appear, begin to be actively used by native speakers. vocabulary language can be enriched different ways. For example, in certain periods development of the state, a significant amount of borrowed vocabulary appears in its language, which is observed, for example, in present period In russian language. However, the main source of vocabulary replenishment is not borrowing, but the formation of new ones. lexical items based on the native language by using different ways word formation. Words and phrases created to denote new phenomena of reality, new objects or concepts are called neologisms (from the Greek neos - new and logos - word).
Neologisms are new words of the national language. Significant events public life, scientific and technical discoveries contribute to the generation of whole series of neologisms. So, in the 60s. in connection with the development of astronautics, many new words related to space have appeared: astronaut, cosmodrome, rocket launcher, lunar rover, etc. Of course, at present they can no longer be considered neologisms, since they have long entered the language and are widely used in it.
Examples of neologisms of our time: sponsor, serial, player, likombez (elimination of computer illiteracy), programmer, quarks ( elementary particles), chromodynamics (section of physics).
It happens that neologisms are created special person who feels the need to name a new reality. So, at one time, N. M. Karamzin created the word industry, which became so commonly used that it cannot be recognized as an author's neologism. Writer D. Danin called centauristics new science, the subject of which is the compatibility of the incompatible, the compatibility of the incompatible.
Quite a lot of author's neologisms are created by poets. Their neoplasms are unusual, fresh, they do not become obsolete, even if they were created a very long time ago. These words are not included in the general literary language.