Phonetic means of expression in the Russian language. Phonetic means of speech expressiveness, assonance and alliteration
Orthoepy is a branch of linguistics that studies normative literary pronunciation and stress. Stress is the selection of one of the syllables in the composition of the word by various phonetic means (intensifying the voice, raising the tone in combination with an increase in duration, intensity, volume). Russian accent free, varied, it can fall on any syllable. Russian stress is mobile, it can move in the same word from one syllable to another: side side side side.)
1. Text analysis. “It is difficult to overestimate the role of the literary pronunciation of one of important indicators the general cultural level of modern man. The correct pronunciation of a word is as important as the correct spelling. (K. S. Gorbachevich.) What is the main idea of this statement? Why does the author emphasize correct pronunciation?
The use of certain sounds in a certain order as an artistic method of expressiveness of speech to create an image is called sound recording. SOUND is an artistic technique that consists in the selection of words that imitate sounds in the text. real world. Sound imitation - the transmission of auditory impressions in words reminiscent of the sound of the phenomena of the world around us.
Describing each sound of speech, K. Balmont tried to endow it with a semantic load, to assign certain images to it: "Oh - the sound of delight, triumphant space is O: field, sea, expanse. Everything huge is defined through O, even if it is dark: moan, grief, sleep, midnight. Large as mountains, an island, a lake, a cloud." Speaking about the sound instrumentation of oral phrases, the Russian writer Evgeny Zamyatin wrote: "Every sound human voice, every letter in itself evokes certain ideas in a person, creates sound images. I am far from ascribing a strictly defined semantic or color meaning to each sound, however
Sound [r] - clearly tells me about something loud, bright, red, hot, fast. [l] - about something pale, blue, cold, smooth, light. The sound [n] is about something tender, about snow, sky. The sounds [d] and [t] are about something stuffy, heavy, about fog, about darkness, about musty. The sound [m] is about sweet, soft, about mother, about the sea. With [a] - latitude, distance, ocean, scope are associated. C [o] - high, blue. C [and] - close, low, squeezing.
Alliteration is a phonetic technique that consists in repeating a consonant sound or a combination of consonants within a verse or phrase, less often within a larger segment of a literary text. So, for example, we find alliteration in the form of repeating sounds [l] and [m] in the initial couplet of O.E. Mandelstam's poem "On pale blue enamel ...": On pale blue enamel, Which is conceivable in April ... These repeating sounds give the poet's speech an air of euphony. In addition, sonorous consonants that sound light and fluent “support” the visual image that should be suggested to the reader by the author’s vocabulary, harmonize with it.
Assonance is a phonetic technique consisting in the repetition of a stressed vowel sound or several stressed vowels, concentrated within a verse or phrase, less often within a larger segment of a literary text. Assonance (French assonance - consonance) is used in poetry as a euphonic means (accommodating speech). Here is a bright euphonious fragment of A.S. Pushkin’s speech from his “Tales of dead princess and about the seven heroes ": euphonic For his bride, Prince Elisha Meanwhile, he gallops around the world. No how no! He weeps bitterly, And whoever he asks, His question is wise to everyone...
Assonance is less common than alliteration, but often, when it appears in the text, it accompanies it. So, for example, in the following lines of another Pushkin’s work, “Tales of Tsar Saltan, of his glorious and mighty son Prince Gvidon Saltanovich and the beautiful Swan Princess”, the assonance of the stressed vowel [y] is combined with the alliteration of the consonant [s]. And into his empty bag They thrust another letter ...
Assonances and alliterations are pictorial (onomatopoeic) and expressive, expressing expression, feelings. For example: Mermaid floated on the blue river, Illuminated full moon; And she tried to splash the silvery foam of the wave to the moon. Image flowing water, the smooth movements of a swimming mermaid are transmitted through the sound "L".
Let's turn to the texts: What means of expressiveness of speech are found in the text of the children's poetess A.I. Tokmakova: Hush, hush, hush, hush, The mice are rustling on the roof. Under the mouse gray flag Marching step by step. Older Ina is walking ahead, The mouse Another is singing the anthem: “Hush, hush, hush, hush!” The tables are set for the mouse. The rustle of the tire subsides, Let the mice feast at night Hush, hush, hush, hush!
Let's try to determine the type of sound writing and its connection with the meaning in the works of a small folklore genre - in riddles. Card 1 Read and guess the riddle. Emphasize sounds that convey a certain meaning. Determine the type of sound. Establish a correspondence between sound and meaning. The pike walks along the creek, looking for the pike for the warmth of the nest, where the morning would be thick for the pike. Answer. This is a braid. The riddle combines assonance and alliteration. The repetition of the hissing consonant sound [u] and the vowel sound [u] conveys sounds when mowing.
Card 2 This is a boat. Assonance is used in the riddle. The repetition of the vowel sound [y] helps convey its movement. Card 3 It's the wind. Assonance is used in the riddle. The repetition of the vowel sound [y] helps to imagine the sound of the wind, its howling. Card 4 This is a blizzard. The riddle uses alliteration. The repetition of the sounds [p, h] helps to describe her breathing, the whirling of snow, the gusts of the wind. With the help of sound recording, you can convey the most different sounds nature, understand them, get a variety of auditory impressions.
"Stranger" A. Blok. The appearance of the heroine is accompanied by a sound recording of rare beauty. In the poem, there are assonances (repetition of vowel sounds) and alliteration (repetition of consonant sounds), creating a feeling of airiness of the image: “And every evening, at the hour Asn Appointed ...”; "The girl's st An, the silk of Ami's owls Achenny, Into the fog Anna moves (A) about (A) kne." Assonances on u add sophistication to the image of the Stranger: And I vey (U) t with ancient beliefs Her Stretchy silks, And a hat in the morning With urn feathers, And in rings Narrow river Uka. The phonetics of the poem expresses the plasticity of the image of the Stranger: the hissing ones convey the penetration of the heroine dressed in silk into the hustle and bustle of everyday life.
Phonetic means perform very important features, both in creating the integrity of a poetic work, and in expressing it thematic development. Phonetic means create the sound unity of the text. This is expressed as a percentage of consonants and vowels. In the poem, noisy consonants are the most frequent: explosive 34%, sonorous 26%, slotted 18%.
In the first part, we have a deliberate pile of hard-to-pronounce consonants (for example, “In the evenings over restaurants, the hot air is wild and deaf-pvchrm ndstrnm Greek sigh dk glh). The vocabulary of this part is emphatically “grounded”, the assessments are negative (“the air is wild and deaf”, “drunken shouts”, “lane dust”, “breaking pots”, “oarlocks creak”, “female screeching” and even the moon disk “meaninglessly grimaces". The difference between the second part and the first is obvious already at the level of its sound instrumentation. The poet minimizes hissing, giving preference to sonorous l, p, mn. At the same time, he uses repetitions of vowels.
“…Our language is the most important part of our general behavior in life. And by the way a person speaks, we can immediately and easily judge who we are dealing with ... It is necessary to learn good intelligent speech for a long time and carefully - listening, remembering, noticing, reading and studying. But even though it’s difficult, it’s necessary, it’s necessary.” (D.S. Likhachev)
Expressiveness of speech
§3. Vocabulary and phraseology as the main source of expressive speech
Expressiveness of speech
§one. Expressiveness and its basic conditions
The expressiveness of speech is understood as such features of its structure that make it possible to enhance the impression of what is said (written), to arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, to influence not only his mind, but also feelings, imagination.
The expressiveness of speech depends on many reasons and conditions - proper linguistic and extralinguistic.
One of the main conditions of expressiveness is the independence of thinking of the author of the speech, which implies a deep and comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the subject of the message. Knowledge extracted from any sources must be mastered, processed, deeply comprehended. This gives the speaker (writer) confidence, makes his speech convincing, effective. If the author does not properly think over the content of his statement, does not comprehend the issues that he will present, his thinking cannot be independent, and his speech cannot be expressive.
To a large extent, the expressiveness of speech also depends on the attitude of the author to the content of the statement. The inner conviction of the speaker (writer) in the significance of the statement, interest, indifference to its content gives speech (especially oral) emotional coloring. An indifferent attitude to the content of the statement leads to a dispassionate presentation of the truth, which cannot affect the feelings of the addressee.
In direct communication, the relationship between the speaker and the listener is also essential, the psychological contact between them, which arises primarily on the basis of joint mental activity: the sender and addressee must solve the same problems, discuss the same questions: the first - setting out the topic of his message, the second - following behind the development of his thought. In establishing psychological contact, it is important to relate to the subject of speech of both the speaker and the listener, their interest, indifference to the content of the statement.
In addition to a deep knowledge of the subject of the message, the expressiveness of speech also implies the ability to convey knowledge to the addressee, to arouse his interest and attention. This is achieved by careful and skillful selection. language tools taking into account the conditions and tasks of communication, which in turn requires a good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities and features functional styles.
One of the prerequisites for speech expressiveness is skills that allow you to easily choose the language tools you need in a particular act of communication. Such skills are developed as a result of systematic and conscious training. The means of training speech skills is attentive reading of exemplary texts (fiction, journalistic, scientific), close interest in their language and style, attentive attitude to the speech of people who can speak expressively, as well as self-control (the ability to control and analyze one’s speech from the point of view of its expressiveness). ). The speech expressiveness of an individual also depends on the conscious intention to achieve it, on the author's target setting on it.
The expressive means of language usually include tropes (figurative use of language units) and stylistic figures, calling them figurative and expressive means. However, the expressive possibilities of the language are not limited to this; in speech, any unit of the language of all its levels (even a single sound), as well as non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime) can become a means of expressiveness.
§2. Phonetic means of expression. euphony of speech
As you know, sounding speech is the main form of the existence of a language. The sound organization of speech, the aesthetic role of sounds is dealt with by a special section of stylistics - phonics. Phonics evaluates the features of the sound structure of the language, determines the conditions of euphony characteristic of each national language, explores various methods of enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech, teaches the most perfect, artistically justified and stylistically appropriate sound expression of thought.
The sound expressiveness of speech primarily lies in its euphony, harmony, in the use of rhythm, rhyme, alliteration (repetition of the same or similar consonant sounds), assonance (repetition of vowel sounds) and other means. Phonics is primarily interested in sound organization. poetic speech, in which the significance of phonetic means is especially great. Along with this, the sound expressiveness of fiction and some genres of journalism (primarily on radio and television) is also being studied. In not artistic speech phonics solves the problem of the most expedient sound organization of linguistic material, which contributes to the accurate expression of thought, since correct use phonetic means of the language provides a quick (and without interference) perception of information, eliminates discrepancies, eliminates unwanted associations that interfere with the understanding of the statement. For a fluency of understanding great importance has a euphony of speech, i.e. a combination of sounds that is convenient for pronunciation (articulation) and pleasing to the ear (musicality). One of the ways to achieve sound harmony is considered to be a certain alternation of vowels and consonants. At the same time, most consonant combinations contain sounds [m], [n], [p], [l], which have a high sonority. Consider, for example, one of the poems by A.S. Pushkin:
Chased by the rays of the spring, From the surrounding mountains already snow Fled in muddy streams To the flooded meadows.
With a clear smile, nature greets the morning of the year through a dream:
The skies are shining blue.
Still transparent, the forests seem to turn green like fluff.
A bee for a field tribute Flies from a wax cell ...
The sonic instrumentation of this poem is interesting. Here, first of all, there is a uniform combination of vowels and consonants (and their ratio itself is approximately the same: 60% of consonants and 40% of vowels); approximately uniform combination of deaf and voiced consonants; there are almost no cases of accumulation of consonants (only two words contain, respectively, three and four consonant sounds in a row - [skvos "] and [fstr" and 'h "aj blt]. All these qualities together give the verse a special musicality and melody. They are also inherent in the best prose works.
However, the euphony of speech can often be disturbed. There are several reasons for this, the most common of which is the accumulation of consonant sounds: sheet of defective book: [ stbr], [ykn]; competition of adult builders: [ revzr], [xstr]. More M.V. Lomonosov advised "to run around obscene and nasty consonants, for example: there is a nobler look of all feelings, for six consonants, placed side by side - vst-vz, the tongue is very stammering." To create harmony, the number of sounds included in the consonant combination, their quality and sequence are important. In Russian (this has been proven), the combination of consonant sounds obeys the laws of euphony. However, there are words that include more consonants than the normative: meeting, disheveled, stumble; there are lexemes containing two or three consonants at the end, which makes pronunciation much more difficult: range, meter, ruble, stale, dating etc. Usually when consonants converge in oral speech in such cases, an additional "syllabicity" develops, a syllabic vowel appears: [rubl "], [m" etar], etc. For example:
This Smury came to the theater about two years ago ... ( Y. Trifonov); In Saratov, there was a performance staged by Sergei Leonidovich back in the spring ( Y. Trifonov);
The earth is bursting with heat.
The thermometer is blown. And roaring at me, the worlds are showered with Drops of mercury fire.
(E. Bagritsky)
The second reason that violates the euphony of speech is the accumulation of vowel sounds. Thus, the opinion that the more vowel sounds in a speech, the more harmonious it is, is incorrect. Vowels give rise to euphony only in combination with consonants. The confluence of several vowels in linguistics is called gaping; it significantly distorts the sound structure of Russian speech and makes articulation difficult. For example, the following phrases are difficult to pronounce: Letter from Olya and Igor; Such changes are observed in the aorist; the title of the poem by V. Khlebnikov " A word about El.
The third reason for the violation of euphony is the repetition of the same combinations of sounds or the same words: ... They produce the collapse of relations ( N. Voronov). Here in words standing nearby, the combination is repeated - sheni-.
True, in poetic speech it is very difficult to distinguish between a violation of euphony and paronomasia - an intentional play of words similar in sound. See for example:
So we heard the first song of winter, quietly translucent, transported along the first winter.
(N. Kislik)
Colleague, employee, Drinking buddy, interlocutor How many of these SO! Weightless without each other, Carried by terrible time, Let's fall into these Somas Like a squirrel in a wheel.
(V. Livshits)
The euphony also decreases due to the monotonous rhythm of speech created by the predominance of monosyllabic or, conversely, polysyllabic words. One example is the creation of so-called palindromes (texts that have the same reading both from beginning to end and from end to beginning):
Frost in the knot, I climb with a look.
Nightingales call, a cart of hair.
Wheel. It's a pity. Touchstone.
Sleigh, raft and cart, the call of the crowds and us.
Gord doh, move drog.
And I'm lying. Really?
(V. Khlebnikov)
Unsuccessful phonetic organization of speech, difficult articulation, unusual sounding of the phrase distract the reader's attention, interfere with the perception of the text by ear. Russian poets and writers have always closely followed the sound side of speech, noted the shortcomings in the sound design of a particular thought. For example, A. M. Gorky wrote that young authors often do not pay attention to the "sonic vagaries" of live speech, and gave examples of violations of euphony: actresses with passionate looks; wrote poetry, cleverly choosing rhymes and others. A. M. Gorky also noted that the annoying repetition of the same sounds is undesirable: She suddenly found that our relationship needed - even needed - to be understood differently.. V.V. Mayakovsky in the article "How to make poetry?" gives examples of combinations at the junction of words, when a new meaning arises, not noticed by the authors of poetic texts; in other words, amphiboly appears at the phonetic level: "... in lyric poem Utkin, placed in the "Spotlight", there is a line:
he will not come just as the summer swan will not come to the winter lakes.
It turns out a certain "belly" ".
Amphibole at the sound level can also be noted in A. Voznesensky's poem "Brighton Beach":
What are you guilty of, Willie? What am I, Willy, guilty of? Are you, are we? Are we, are you? - Heaven doesn't speak.
Aesthetic perception of texts is violated when used in speech real participles present and past tense dragging, dragging, grimacing, grimacing, gritting, because they seem to be inconsistent.
Thus, each native speaker should try to avoid the obsessive repetition of identical and similar sounds, the use of dissonant word forms, difficult-to-pronounce combinations of sounds when connecting words, and skillfully use the expressive possibilities of the sounding side of speech.
The expressive possibilities of a word are associated primarily with its semantics, with its use in a figurative sense. There are many varieties of figurative use of words, their common name is paths (Greek tropos - turn; turn, image). The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem to our consciousness to be close in some respect. The most common types of tropes are comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, personification, epithet, paraphrase. Thanks to the figurative metaphorical use of the word, imagery of speech is created. Therefore, tropes are usually referred to as means of verbal figurativeness, or pictorial.
Metaphorization - one of the most common ways to create imagery - covers great amount commonly used, neutral and stylistically marked words, primarily polysemantic ones. The ability of a word to have not one, but several meanings of a usual nature, as well as the possibility of updating its semantics, its unusual, unexpected rethinking, is the basis of lexical figurative means.
The strength and expressiveness of tropes is in their originality, novelty, unusualness: the more unusual, original this or that trope, the more expressive it is. Tropes that have lost their imagery over time (for example, general language metaphors such as sharp eyesight, the clock is ticking, the river arm, the neck of the bottle, warm relationship, iron character or comparisons that have turned into speech clichés, such as reflected as in a mirror; cowardly like a hare; passes through the red thread) do not contribute to the expressiveness of speech.
Vocabulary with emotionally expressive coloring is especially expressive. It affects our feelings, evokes emotions. Let us recall, for example, what vocabulary was used by the excellent connoisseur of native speech I.S. Turgenev in the novel "Fathers and Sons" to characterize the meager, beggarly economy of the peasants: villages with low huts; crooked threshing sheds; shabby men on bad nags etc.
The expressiveness of speech is achieved through a motivated, purposeful collision of words of different functional-style and emotional-expressive coloring. For example, S. Yesenin:
And thoughts go through my head:
What is homeland? Are these dreams? After all, for almost everyone here I am a gloomy pilgrim, God knows what a distant side.
And it's me! I, a citizen of the village, Which will be famous only for that, That here once a woman gave birth to a Russian scandalous piit.
Here are book words thoughts, homeland, pilgrim, piit combined with conversational God knows, is it colloquial woman, official business citizen.
Motivated word collision various areas usage is widely used as one of the most striking means of the comic. Here are examples from newspaper feuilletons: Where did the mentor Tamara, still a very young girl, get such a quivering readiness to immediately be duped by the first charlatan that came across? ( a combination of book poetic vocabulary with vernacular); However, how did the work of the investigative team end, which spent more than two years trying to punish Yambulatov? ( simple. slammed away and book. punish).
In addition to metaphorization and emotionally expressive coloring of the word, polysemantics in their ugly meanings, homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, vocabulary are used as expressive means. limited use, archaisms, neologisms, etc.
Polysemantic words and homonyms are often used for ironic and parodic purposes, to create puns. To do this, in the same context, homonymous words or different meanings of the same word deliberately collide. For example, in a sentence They scolded the play, they say, it went, but the play went anyway ( E. Krotky) the author collides two homoforms:
1) went - short form of adjective vulgar and 2) went - past tense form of the verb go. Or: And they explained for a long time, // What does a sense of duty mean ( A. Barto).
Many jokes and puns are based on individual author's homonyms: bagel - sheep; carelessness ( tech) - the absence of a stove in the apartment, steam heating; chickenpox ( disapproved) - a frivolous girl; decanter - husband of the countess, etc.
To pay attention to this or that detail, to express a certain attitude to the named object or phenomenon, to evaluate it and, therefore, to enhance the expressiveness of speech allows the skillful use of synonyms. For example: Kudrin laughed. Everything that had happened seemed to him wild delirium, absurdity, chaotic nonsense, which is worth giving up and it will crumble, dissipate like a mirage ( B. Lavrenev). Using the technique of stringing synonyms nonsense - absurdity - nonsense, The author achieves great expressiveness of the narrative.
Synonyms can perform the function of comparison and even opposition of the concepts they denote. At the same time, attention is drawn not to what is common, which is characteristic of similar objects or phenomena, but to the differences between them: Nikitin wanted ... not just to think, but to reflect (Yu. Bondarev).
As an expressive means of creating contrast, sharp opposition, antonyms are used in speech. They underlie the creation of antithesis (Greek antithesis - opposition) - a stylistic figure built on a sharp opposition of words with opposite meaning. This stylistic device widely used by poets, writers, publicists to give speech emotionality, extraordinary expressiveness. So, the prologue to A. Blok's poem "Retribution" is entirely built on the opposition of antonymous words beginning - end, hell - paradise, light - darkness, holy - sinful, heat - cold and etc.:
Life is without beginning and end...
Know where the light is, you will understand where the darkness is.
Let everything pass slowly, What is holy in the world, what is sinful in it, Through the heat of the soul, through the coldness of the mind.
Antithesis allows you to achieve aphoristic accuracy in the expression of thought. It is no coincidence that antonymy underlies many proverbs, sayings, figurative expressions, catchphrases. For example: An old friend is better than two new ones; A small deed is better than a big idleness; Learning is light and ignorance is darkness; Bypass us more than all sorrows and lordly anger and lordly love ( A. Griboedov). Antonyms in such cases, creating a contrast, emphasize the idea more clearly, allow you to pay attention to the most important thing, and contribute to the brevity and expressiveness of the statement.
Words-paronyms have considerable expressive possibilities. They serve as a means of creating humor, irony, satire, etc. For example: - He [ great-grandson] studying at a school with a mathematical inclination. - With an inclination where? - With a slope in algebra ( from the dialogue of famous TV heroes Avdotya Nikitichna and Veronika Mavrikievna); When is your wedding procession? - What are you talking about? What card? ( V. Mayakovsky).
A vivid means of expressiveness in artistic and journalistic speech are individual author's neologisms (occasionalisms), which attract the attention of the reader (or listener) with their unexpectedness, unusualness, exclusivity. For example:
Why are you looking away, America? What are your announcers mumbling about? What do they intend to explain to you, super-experienced television nightingales?
(R. Rozhdestvensky);
Tankophobia is gone. Our soldiers are hitting "tigers" with direct fire ( I. Ehrenburg).
Lexical repetitions enhance the expressiveness of speech. They help to highlight an important concept in the text, to delve deeper into the content of the statement, give the speech an emotionally expressive coloring. For example: The hero is the defender, the hero is the winner, the hero is the bearer of all the high qualities in which the popular imagination dresses him ( A.N. Tolstoy); In war, you need to be able to endure grief. Grief feeds the heart like fuel for an engine. Grief fuels hatred. Vile foreigners captured Kyiv. This is the grief of each of us. This is the grief of all the people ( I. Ehrenburg).
Often the same word, used twice, or words with the same root are contrasted in the context and reinforce the subsequent gradation, giving the context a special significance, aphorism: Eternal for times, I am eternal for myself E. Baratynsky); I would be glad to serve - to serve with me is sickening ( A. Griboedov). It is no coincidence that tautological and pleonastic combinations underlie many phraseological units, proverbs and sayings: don't know; saw the views; forever and ever; if yes if only; leave no stone unturned; either way with this; it was and was overgrown; friendship is friendship, and service is service etc.
Alive and inexhaustible source expressiveness of speech are phraseological combinations characterized by figurativeness, expressiveness and emotionality, which allows not only to name an object or phenomenon, but also to express a certain attitude towards it. It is enough to compare, for example, the phraseological units used by A. M. Gorky ask pepper, tear the skin with equivalent words or phrases ( scold, scold, punish; mercilessly, cruelly exploit, oppress someone) to see how much the first is more expressive and figurative than the second: - Only when will we come to the volost? ... - You are a joker! He, the stavoi, will ask pepper; He owns ... he has hundreds of thousands of money, he owns steamships and barges, mills and lands ... he skins a living person ...
Due to their figurativeness and expressiveness, phraseological units can be used unchanged in the usual lexical environment. For example: Chelkash looked around triumphantly: - Of course, they swam out! W-well, you're happy, you stupid bastard! ( M. Gorky). In addition, phrasemes are often used in a transformed form or in an unusual lexical environment, which allows increasing their expressive possibilities. The methods of using and creative processing of phraseological units for each artist of the word are individual and quite diverse. So, for example, Gorky's phrase bend (bend) in three deaths (‘cruelly exploit, tyrannize’) used in an unusual context, semantically changing it: Next to him, an old soldier... walked Advocate, bent over in three deaths, without a hat..., thrusting his hands deep into his pockets. general language phraseological turn measure with eyes the writer deliberately dismembers with the help of explanatory words, as a result of which his figurative core stands out more clearly: He [ prisoner] He measured Yefimushka from head to toe with narrowed eyes that burned with malice. A favorite technique for converting phraseological units into early stories Gorky is the replacement of one of the components: fall out of sight ( vocabulary phraseology - disappear from the eyes), bow your head (droop in spirit), tear your nerves (wag your nerves) and etc.
Compare the methods of using phraseological units by V. Mayakovsky: They won’t leave a stone on a stone, they won’t leave a leaf on a leaf, they will beat ( a phraseological idiom is formed according to the model presented in the same context: stone on stone) I would close America, clean it up a bit, and then open it again ( development of the motive given by the phraseological unit).
Increases the expressive possibilities of phraseological units, their ability to enter into synonymous relations with each other. The reduction of phrasemes into a synonymous series or the simultaneous use of lexical and phraseological synonyms significantly enhances the expressive coloring of speech: We are not a couple ... A goose is not a comrade to a pig, a drunk sober is not related ( A. Chekhov); They scratch their tongues all day, wash the bones of their neighbors ( from colloquial speech).
§4. The expressive power of grammar
Grammatical means of expressiveness are less significant and less noticeable in comparison with lexico-phraseological ones. Grammatical forms, phrases and sentences correlate with words and to some extent depend on them. Therefore, the expressiveness of vocabulary and phraseology comes to the fore, while the expressive possibilities of grammar are relegated to the background.
The main sources of speech expressiveness in the field of morphology are forms of a certain stylistic coloring, synonymy and cases of figurative use. grammatical forms.
A variety of expressive shades can be conveyed, for example, by using one form of the number of nouns instead of another. Yes, forms singular personal nouns in collective meaning vividly convey the generalized multiplicity. This use of singular forms is accompanied by the appearance of additional shades, most often negative ones: Moscow, burnt by fire, given away to a Frenchman (M. Lermontov). Expressiveness is inherent in forms plural, collective names used metaphorically to refer not to a specific person, but to a typified phenomenon: We all look at the Napoleons ( A. Pushkin); Silencers are blissful in the world ( A. Griboedov). Usual or occasional use of plural nouns singularia tantum can serve as a means of expressing disdain: I decided to run on courses, study electricity, all sorts of oxygen! ( V. Veresaev).
Pronouns are characterized by richness and variety of emotional and expressive shades. For example, pronouns some, someone, some, used in the name of a person, bring into speech a touch of disdain ( some doctor, some poet, some Ivanov).
The uncertainty of the meaning of pronouns serves as a means of creating a joke, a comic. Here is an example from V. Pikul's novel "I have the honor": When his wife was Astrakhan herring. I think - why would a lady with our smelly herring drag around Europe? He cut her belly (not a lady, of course, but a herring), so from there, dear mother, diamond after diamond - they rained down like cockroaches.
Special expressive shades are created by contrasting pronouns we are you, ours are yours when emphasizing two camps, two opinions, views, etc.: Millions of you. Us - darkness, and darkness, and darkness. Try it, fight with us! ( A. Block); We stand against the society whose interests you are ordered to defend, as irreconcilable enemies of it and yours, and reconciliation between us is impossible until we win ... You cannot refuse the oppression of prejudices and habits - the oppression that spiritually killed you , - nothing prevents us from being internally free, - the poisons with which you poison us are weaker than those antidotes that you - unwittingly - pour into our consciousness ( M. Gorky).
have great expressive power verb categories and forms with their rich synonymy, expression and emotionality, the ability to portable use. The possibility of using one verb form instead of another makes it possible to widely use in speech synonymous replacements of some forms of tense, aspect, mood or personal forms of the verb with others. The additional semantic shades that appear in this case increase the expression of the expression. So, to indicate the action of the interlocutor, forms of the 3rd person singular can be used, which gives the statement a disparaging connotation ( He's still arguing! 1st person plural ( Well, how do we rest? - in the meaning of ‘rest, rest’) with a hint of sympathy or special interest, infinitive with a particle would with a touch of desirability You should rest a little; You should visit him.)
The past tense of the perfect form, when used in the meaning of the future, expresses a special categorical judgment or the need to convince the interlocutor of the inevitability of action: - Listen, let me go! Drop off somewhere! I completely disappeared M. Gorky).
Many expressive mood forms ( May there always be sunshine!; Long live world peace!). Additional semantic and emotionally expressive shades appear when some forms of mood are used in the meaning of others. For example, the subjunctive mood in the meaning of the imperative has a connotation of a courteous, cautious wish ( Would you go to your brother) the indicative mood in the meaning of the imperative expresses an order that does not allow objections, refusals ( Call tomorrow!); the infinitive in the meaning of the imperative mood expresses categoricalness ( Stop the arms race!; Prohibit testing of atomic weapons!). Particles contribute to strengthening the expression of the verb in the imperative mood yes, let, well, well, - ka and etc.: - Come on, sweet buddy. // Judge in simplicity ( A. Tvardovsky); Shut up!; So, say!
The expressive possibilities of syntax are primarily associated with the use of stylistic figures (turns of speech, syntactic constructions): anaphora, epiphora, antitheses, gradation, inversion, parallelism, ellipsis, silence, non-union, multi-union, etc.
The expressive possibilities of syntactic constructions, as a rule, are closely connected with the elephants that fill them, with their semantics and stylistic coloring. Thus, the stylistic figure of antithesis, as noted above, is often created by using antonyms; the lexical basis of the antithesis is antonymy, and the syntactic basis is the parallelism of the construction. Anaphora and epiphora are based on lexical repetitions:
In silence and essence of the forest I think about life under a pine tree.
That pine tree is clumsy and old, That pine tree is harsh and wise, That pine tree is sad and calm, Quieter than the jets in the big, big river, Like a mother, Gently strokes my cheek with a coniferous palm.
(V. Fedorov)
The stringing of synonymous words can lead to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (sometimes weakens) the meaning of the previous one: She is [ German] was there, in a hostile world, which he did not recognize, despised, hated ( Y. Bondarev).
The expressiveness of speech depends not only on the semantic volume and stylistic coloring of the word, but also on the methods and principles of their combination. See, for example, how and what words V. Vysotsky combines into phrases:
Trusting Death was wrapped around the finger, She lingered, forgetting to wave her scythe.
They no longer caught up with us and the bullets lagged behind.
Will we be able to wash ourselves not with blood, but with dew ?!
Death is trusting; death wrapped around the finger ( those. deceived); bullets did not catch up, but lagged behind; wash with dew and wash with blood.
The search for fresh, well-aimed combinations, expansion, renewal of lexical compatibility are characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic speech: She is a young woman, a Greek, suspected of loving freedom ( from newspapers). phrase suspected of love for freedom gives a clear idea of the situation in which love of freedom is considered a very suspicious quality.
Ever since the time Ancient Greece a special semantic type of phrases is known - an oxymoron (Greek oxy moron - witty-silly), i.e. "a stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically exclude one another" (hot Snow, ugly beauty, truth of lies, ringing silence). Oxymoron allows you to reveal the essence of objects or phenomena, emphasize their complexity and inconsistency. For example:
Sweet despair seized the Pain of delight, In your eyes,
Wide open, Like a farewell, I saw myself young.
(V. Fedorov)
An oxymoron is widely used in fiction and journalism as a bright, catchy title, the meaning of which is usually revealed by the content of the whole text. So, in the newspaper "Soviet Sport" a report from the World Team Chess Championship is entitled "Original Template". Grandmaster Polugaevsky's attempt to make wider use of the typical positions that appeared on the board analyzed in detail in manuals on chess theory, the knowledge of which makes it easier for an athlete to find a way out, is called an original template.
According to the apt definition of A.S. Pushkin, "language is inexhaustible in the combination of words", therefore, its expressive possibilities are also inexhaustible. Updating links between words leads to updating verbal meanings. In some cases, this is manifested in the creation of new, unexpected metaphors, in others, in an almost imperceptible shift in verbal meanings. Such a shift can be created not by close, but by distant connections of words, separate parts of the text, or the entire text as a whole. This is how, for example, a poem by A.S. Pushkin "I loved you", which is an example of expressiveness of speech, although it mainly uses words that do not have bright expressive coloring and semantic connotations, and only one paraphrase ( Love is still, perhaps, / In my soul, it has not completely died out). The poet achieves extraordinary expressiveness due to the ways of combining words within the entire poem, organizing it speech structure in general and individual words as elements of this structure.
The syntax of the Russian language, in addition, has a lot of emotionally and expressively colored constructions. So, infinitive sentences with a coloring of colloquialism are characterized by a variety of modal-expressive meanings: You will not see such battles ( M. Lermontov); Do not hide, // Do not hide the amazement // Neither the horns nor the masters ( V. Fedorov).
The emotional-evaluative attitude to the content of the statement can be expressed using exclamatory sentences: How beautiful life seems to me when I meet restless, caring, enthusiastic, searching, generous-hearted people in it! ( V. Chivilikhin); sentences with inversion: Fate's verdict has come true! ( M. Lermontov), segmented and packaged structures: Winter is so long, so endless; Tal, where we will live, a real forest, not like our grove ... With mushrooms, with berries ( V. Panova) and others.
Enlivens the narrative, allows you to convey the emotional and expressive features of the author's speech, show it more vividly internal state, relation to the subject of the message direct and improperly direct speech. It is more emotional, expressive and convincing than indirect. For example, let's compare an excerpt from the story of A.P. Chekhov "Dear Lessons" in the first and second editions:
They give liveliness to the statement, emphasize the dynamism of the presentation of a definitely personal proposal; nominative ones are distinguished by great semantic capacity and expressiveness; a variety of emotions express vocative and other sentences: All the people of the earth // Let the alarm sound: // Let's protect the world! // Let's stand as one, - // Let's say: we won't let // Re-ignite the war ( A. Zharov); Eh, roads! // Dust and fog, // Cold, anxiety // Yes, steppe weeds ( L. Oshanin); - Verochka, tell Aksinya to open the gate for us! ( Pause) Vera! Don't be lazy, get up, dear! ( A. Chekhov).
The expressive possibilities of syntactic (as well as other) means of the language are updated due to various stylistic methods of using them in speech. Interrogative sentences, for example, are a means of expression if they not only contain an incentive to receive information, but also express a variety of emotionally expressive shades ( Is it morning?; So you won't come?; Again this nasty rain?); awaken the addressee's interest in the message, make them think about the question posed, emphasize its significance: Will you sail far on the wave of the crisis?; Is the postman's bag heavy?; Does it give us warmth?; Will the CIS strengthen its position? ( these are some of the article headings). Attracting the attention of the addressee and enhancing the impact of speech on his feelings contribute to rhetorical questions widely used in public speaking: Don't we have creativity that overflows? Don't we have a smart, rich, flexible, luxurious language, richer and more flexible than any of the European languages?
Why should we boringly creak with feathers when our ideas, thoughts, images should rattle like a golden trumpet of a new world"? ( A.N. Tolstoy).
In practice oratory a special technique for using interrogative sentences has been developed - a question-answer move (the speaker puts questions and answers them himself): How did these ordinary girls become extraordinary soldiers? They were ready for a feat, but they were not ready for the army. And the army, in turn, was not ready for them, because most of the girls went voluntarily ( S. Aleksievich).
The question-answer move dialogizes monologue speech, makes the addressee the interlocutor of the speaker, activates his attention. Dialogization enlivens the narrative, gives it expressiveness.
Thus, the expressiveness of speech can be created by the most common, stylistically unmarked language units due to their skillful, most appropriate use in the context in accordance with the content of the statement, its functional and stylistic coloring, general expressive orientation and purpose.
As a means of speech expression in certain situation deliberately used deviations from the norms literary language: the use of units of different stylistic coloring in one context, the collision of semantically incompatible units, non-normative formations of grammatical forms, non-normative construction of sentences, etc. Such use is based on a conscious choice of language means based on a deep knowledge of the language.
It is possible to achieve speech expressiveness only with the correct correlation of the main aspects of speech - logical, psychological (emotional) and linguistic, which is determined by the content of the statement and the author's goal setting.
§5. Paralinguistic means of expression
Along with linguistic, paralinguistic (non-linguistic) means contribute to the expressiveness of oral speech: gestures, facial expressions, pantomime. They are usually associated with a specific statement and serve as an addition to the linguistic means of expression.
Accompanying speech, paralinguistic means enhance the shades of the emotional coloring of words, complement the intonation, emphasize the necessary semantic parts of the statement, illustrate expressed in words thought. Their main purpose is the clarification of thought, its revival, and the strengthening of the emotional sounding of speech. Emotional speech in any area of communication, as a rule, is accompanied by appropriate gestures, body movements and facial expressions that convey certain feelings.
Paralinguistic means can be distinguished general and individual. The former are specific to all native speakers of the Russian language, for example, agreement may be accompanied by a movement of the head from top to bottom, disagreement or denial - by movement of the head from side to side, persistence, exactingness - by movement of a clenched fist from top to bottom, etc. Individual paralinguistic means are different for different representatives even of the same nationality: each speaker finds his own gesture, his body movements, each individual facial expression. Successfully found expressive gesture corresponding to the meaning of the statement or single word, increases the effectiveness of speech.
Gestures are an integral part public speaking where they are used as a means of influencing listeners. It is no coincidence that special chapters have been devoted to gestures in oratory speech in various rhetorics since ancient times.
Paralinguistic means also play an important role in ordinary communication, expressing a variety of emotions of the speaker, enhancing the meaning of words, expressions and statements as a whole.
Oratory theorists note that gestures, body movements, facial expressions are only expressive, effective when they are diverse (different words require different emphasis), moderate (the more sparing the gestures, the more convincing they are), involuntary; when they match spiritual impulses speaker, the content of the utterance. Excessive expressiveness of the face, frequent repetition of the same gestures, their monotony, mechanical body movements (swaying of the body, waving the hand, tapping the foot, etc.), as well as far-fetchedness, artificiality of gestures, their inconsistency with the meaning of what was said irritate listeners, distract them from the content of speech. Paralinguistic means should not replace words, as they are always poorer than words. not without reason folk wisdom says: "If you haven't explained it with words, you won't be able to spread it with your fingers either." The skillful use of linguistic and paralinguistic means of expression contributes to the individualization of speech, its brightness, originality, which, in turn, arouses interest in the personality of the author, increases attention to the content of his statement. The ability to use the expressive possibilities of a language requires not only knowledge, but also a developed linguistic and stylistic sense, as well as the skills to use language units in speech.
§6. Functional styles in their relation to the expressiveness of speech
The choice of means of speech expressiveness, as well as the choice of language means in general, is determined by the sphere of communication, the situation and the goal. In each of the functional styles, expressiveness is achieved with the help of different language means, the selection and organization of which, their functional activity are determined by specific features one style or another. Thus, intonation is a striking means of expression in a colloquial style, since this style is realized mainly in oral form. An important role is played here by paralinguistic means. Tropes, stylistic figures, language units with emotionally expressive coloring are widely used as expressive means in literary, artistic and journalistic styles, which contributes to the implementation of one of the main functions of these styles to the maximum extent. For scientific and official business speech the use of such units is not typical, since they do not contribute to the accuracy of presentation.
The expressiveness of scientific speech is achieved due to the most logically suitable arrangement of words, phrases, sentences and whole parts of the statement, thanks to the clarity, rigor, clarity of syntactic constructions, accuracy and consistency of presentation. Figurative and expressive means can be used in the popular science genre, in works of the humanities. A real popularizer, in the fair opinion of D.I. Pisarev, "must certainly be an artist of the word." AT scientific style The most commonly used method of comparison is one of the logical forms thinking. In oral scientific presentation, metaphors can be used as a means of expressiveness. Usually, metaphors in the scientific style are one of the means of naming objects or phenomena in cases where a special term for their designation has not yet been fixed in science: metal fragility, atom excitation, computer language, black hole etc. As literary words turn into terms, their metaphorical nature is erased and gradually disappears. Demetaphorization is a systemic feature of the scientific style.
In the official business style, means of expression are uncommon, since they are contraindicated in such features of this style as accuracy that does not allow for double interpretations, formality and impassivity of presentation. Although in mixed genres, in particular, in genres influenced by journalistic style (in diplomatic documents, communiques, appeals, holiday orders, etc.), the use of means of expression is allowed. But in general, the official business style does not contribute to maintaining speech expressiveness. Moreover, it is the main source of speech clichés and clericalisms that weaken it.
Expressive means are most widely used in literary, artistic and journalistic styles. In fiction, expressive means perform an aesthetic function; speech expressiveness here is one of the main methods of influencing the reader. In a work of art, any language unit can become stylistically significant, turn into a means of artistic representation and expression. Under the writer's pen, the word is each time, as it were, born anew; reflecting the peculiarities of the author's individual style, it should always be fresh and unique. The artist of the word creatively transforms the units of the language, expanding the scope of the usual ways of selecting and connecting words, the methods of using syntactic constructions and intonations, and thus enriches speech with expressive means. Exemplary literary texts, the study of the features of the use of language units in them help to master the expressive possibilities of the language.
The journalistic style with its desire for expressiveness of the statement, the revival of the narrative with fresh verbal turns also contributes to the strengthening of speech expressiveness. Publicists, like writers, are constantly looking for figurative means, using language units that allow not only to name an object, its action, property, etc., but also to express a certain attitude towards this object or phenomenon, to attract the attention of the addressee; resort to such methods of using language units that maximize the implementation of the impact function. For journalism (especially for such genres as essay, feuilleton), as well as for artistic speech, individual methods of using language means are characteristic. True, the desire for expressiveness in journalism (especially in newspapers) often turns into its opposite - it is one of the reasons for the generation of clichés, since unusual word, expression, construction, successful in terms of expressiveness criteria, are picked up by numerous correspondents and as a result of frequent use (sometimes inappropriate) very quickly lose their novelty, figurativeness, turn into speech standards, for example, the current use of combinations like white gold, housewarming, health workshop, people in white coats etc. Stamps, templates, abuse of professional vocabulary on the pages of newspapers weaken the mobilizing power of the word, its social impact.
You marvel at the treasures of our language: every sound is a gift; everything is grainy, large, like pearls themselves ...
N. V. Gogol
The euphony in the Russian language is mainly determined by the ratio of vowels and consonants in the text (on average, in Russian speech, vowels make up 42.35%, consonants - 59.65%), as well as the predominance of "beautiful sounds" - vowels, sonorous, voiced consonants, which in relation to the “non-musical” noisy deaf people, they make up 74.5% in Russian speech.
To create an exemplary speech in terms of sound, the sounds in the speech stream must be selected so that the speech is easy to pronounce and at the same time distinct.
An extremely important and essential stylistic device that enhances the expressiveness of artistic and partially journalistic speech is sound recording(sound, verbal, instrumentation) - the use of such words, the sound of which figuratively conveys the phenomenon being drawn and thereby contributes to the disclosure of the semantic and artistic content image, enhances its expressiveness.
There are two main types of sound instrumentation, consisting in the selection of words of close sound:
- alliteration - repetition of consonants (for example: City rake, row, grabastal. (M);
- assonance - repetition of vowels (for example: We are bored listening to the autumn blizzard. (N).
Alliteration and assonance enhance the imagery and phonetic expressiveness of speech.
An example semantic use The following lines of V. Mayakovsky can serve as alliteration: Where is it, bronze ringing or granite edge? , where the repetition of sounds [ sv] closely connects the words of bronze ringing, and the repetition of sounds [ gr] - the phrase granite edge. The repetition of these sounds focuses attention on the main idea of the stanza - we are talking about a monument carved from granite and cast from bronze.
The technique of combining assonance with alliteration is very expressive, for example, by V. Mayakovsky in the poem “A Cloud in Pants”: So, again, it’s dark and dejectedly, I’ll take my heart, dipping it in tears, revenge, like a dog that carries a paw moved by a train into a kennel. (Alliteration on p and b is combined with the repetition of vowels y, a).
Topic 3. Vocabulary and phraseology
Topic 3.1. The word, its lexical meaning
Word - the basic unit of the language, which serves to name and communicate about objects, processes, properties and relationships.
The totality of all the words of a language constitutes its vocabulary.
Lexicology - a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language.
All words significant parts speeches have lexical and grammatical meanings. And the words of the service parts of speech usually have only a grammatical meaning, they help the words of the significant parts of speech.
The lexical meaning of a word is the content, its correlation with the object or phenomenon of reality.
The grammatical meaning is general meaning words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), the meaning of a particular tense, person, number, gender, etc.
Lexical and grammatical meanings are closely related. Change lexical meaning word leads to a change in grammatical meaning. For example: a voiceless consonant (relative adjective) and a voiceless voice (qualitative adjective, has a degree of comparison, short form); guest yard (adjective) - the living room was full of people (noun).
The dictionary of the Russian literary language, which has evolved over many centuries, is very rich both in the number of words, and in the variety of shades of their meanings, and in the subtleties of stylistic coloring. The entire Russian people, its great writers, critics, and scientists participated in the creation of a vocabulary of the literary language.
Russian is one of the richest languages in the world. (No wonder they say about him "great, mighty"!) The active dictionary of our contemporary includes an average of 7-13 thousand words. The "Big Academic Dictionary" (1950-1965) contains over 120,000 words.
But the richness of a language is judged not only by the number of words. The vocabulary of the Russian language is enriched polysemantic words, homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, paronyms, phraseological units, as well as layers of words representing the history of the development of our language - archaisms, historicisms, neologisms.
Polysemantic words
The presence in many words of the Russian language of not one, but several meanings is the richness of speech and allows you to use this feature as a means of representation. Here are some examples of polysemantic words: sheet (maple) - sheet (cardboard); deaf (old man) - deaf (wall); handle (child) - handle (door); cut (with a knife) - cut (students in the exam); goes (person) - goes (film) - goes (in the meaning of "agree").
Different meanings can have words denoting abstract concepts in different combinations. For example, the word absolute can mean: 1) "irrelevant, taken by itself" ( absolute truth); 2) "full, unconditional" ( absolute peace); 3) "unlimited" ( absolute monarchy).
Stylistic use polysemy is based on the possibility of using words not only in a direct, but also in a figurative sense: tanks ironed enemy trenches(cf.: iron the sheets).
Some words can be used with different meanings in various styles speech. For example: word re-elect in book speech means "elect a second time, again", and colloquially - with the meaning "replace someone".
The ambiguity of vocabulary is an inexhaustible source of renewal, rethinking of the word. Writers find in ambiguity a source of vivid emotionality, liveliness of speech. Determine how many meanings the poet found for the word road.
Dear name freeway,
And trail running beside
And way that runs across the plain,
And caravan route in a desert,
And climber step cooler
To the top, hidden in the clouds,
And ship trail over the waves
And the blue heights above us ...
And soon replenished with new
The meaning of the usual word.
Imagine: the rocket is ready
To jump to another planet.
Saying goodbye to her crew
Standing at the stars on the threshold
We simply and casually say:
"See you! Lucky road!"
(V. Osten)
Homonyms
Homonyms(from Greek. homos- "same" and omyna- "name") - these are words that are pronounced the same way, but denote different, unrelated concepts: key 1 ("source") - key 2 ("to unlock the lock") – key 3 ("to the cipher"); braid 1 ("tool") - braid 2 ("hair") - braid 3 ("view of a shoal or peninsula").
There are different types of homonyms. Homonyms are words that sound the same but are spelled differently: true d– true t, lu to– lu G .
Homonyms include words that sound different but are spelled the same: muk a- m at ka, p a rit - steam and th, deputy about k - h a mok.
Sometimes ambiguity arises on the basis of homonymy:
To be at the bottom of science. (Day science or bottom Sciences?)
Everything will be ready by evening. (Evening hours or evening performance?)
Homonyms give special stylistic expressiveness to proverbs and sayings: Whatever there is, but wants there is; On a peaceful field and on the field scolding be in command without scolding.
There are full and partial homonyms. Full lexical homonyms are words of the same part of speech and coincide in all basic grammatical forms.
Partial (or incomplete) homonymy is characterized by the fact that words of different meanings do not coincide in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms.
Signs of homonymy also have:
Homoforms - match only separate form words: flying(from treat) -flying(from fly); my(possessive pronoun) - my(imperative mood from the verb wash);
Homophones - so-called phonetic homonyms (words that sound the same, but different in spelling and meaning): Gray wolf in dense forest met a redhead fox(S. Marshak).
Homographs - graphic homonyms (words are spelled the same, but pronounced differently, mainly depending on the stress; sometimes due to the fact that dots are not always used over yo): sing - sing; flight - flight; atlas - atlas.
Antonyms
Antonyms(from Greek. anti- "against" and onyma- "name") - these are words of different sounding that express opposite, but correlative concepts with each other: light - darkness, heat - cold, speak - be silent.
Antonyms are of different roots: love - hate, south - north and one-liners: coming - going, true - not true.
Antonyms are used as expressive means to create contrast. Many proverbs and sayings contain antonyms: satiatedhungry does not understand; Thin world better than good quarreling.
The phenomenon of antonymy is also used as a special stylistic device - the connection of the incompatible: beginning of the end, optimistic tragedy, hot snow, bad good man. This is a favorite technique of publicists when creating or titles of articles, essays: Expensive cheapness; Cold - hot season; Big troubles for small businesses.
The specificity of Russian linguistic thinking lies in the fact that the expressive prevails over the rational in it, which is why there are so many antonymic formations in the Russian language: Not really; of course not; the most ordinary; unusually banal; terribly good; creepy funny; incredibly simple and etc.
In Russian, there is a special group of words containing opposite (antonymic) meaning components, for example: He listened to lesson . flowerbeds broken our students. More often the antonymy of interpretation is manifested in different contexts. For example: He viewed all films with the participation of this actor("saw") and He viewed this error at work("didn't see"); She is bypassed all guests("Paid attention to everyone") and Fate bypassed her("deprived of attention").
Synonyms
Synonyms(from Greek. synonymos- "of the same name") - these are words that are close in meaning and belong to the same part of speech. Synonyms may differ in the following features:
a) shades of meanings: labor - work, defect - defect - flaw;
b) emotional coloring: a little - the least;
c) stylistic function: to sleep - to sleep - to rest.
Synonyms that differ in shades of meaning are called semantic : elderly - old - decrepit; crimson - scarlet - red. Semantic synonyms contribute various shades to describe the same concept or phenomenon. For example, profession synonymous specialty, but not in all. A profession is an occupation as such, and a specialty is a specific concept denoting any specific area of science or production in which a person is employed, for example: profession- teacher, speciality- teacher-philosopher or teacher-physicist; profession- doctor, speciality- a cardiologist, etc.).
Synonyms that differ in different attitudes to the designated object or phenomenon are called emotionally expressive: full - thick - bold.
The stylistic differences of synonyms are determined by the scope of their use, correspondence to one or another style. Stylistic synonyms - these are exactly the same words in meaning, for example: deficit(formal business style) and a lack of(colloquial) (see 3.1.2.3.).
Synonymous words can also differ in the degree of modernity ( very - green, Sagittarius - soldier).
A special kind of synonymy is created by replacing a one-word name with a descriptive expression, which makes it possible to characterize an object from different angles: Moscow - Belokamennaya - Third Rome.
Paronyms
Paronyms(from Greek. para- "about" and onyma- "name") - these are words, in most cases the same root, close in sound, but having various meanings: addressee– "sender" – destination– "recipient"; emigrant- "leaving the country" - immigrant- "entering".
Words are paronyms methodical – methodical – methodological, the meaning of each of these words is determined by the primitive word in the process of word formation ( methodicalness - methodology - methodology). Yes, we are talking methodical shelling- "strictly consistent, according to plan", methodical allowance- "made according to the method", methodological analysis- "a set of research methods."
Words are paronyms diplomatic and diplomatic.diplomatic maybe something related to diplomacy ( diplomatic bag); diplomatic- something correct, corresponding to etiquette ( diplomatic behavior of the parties).
typical speech error is a confusion of paronyms introduce and provide. Information about the child's illness seems back to school, new teacher seems class, oh here's an opportunity to commit study tour before about is set. The meaning of these paronyms should be determined in this way: introduce: 1) give, hand over, inform about something for review, information; 2) show, demonstrate something; before about put: 1) give the opportunity to possess, dispose, use something; 2) give the opportunity to do something, instruct someone to do something.
Mixing paronyms often leads to a distortion of meaning: Return your luggage stage legs(instead of: foot); He clicked ankle gates(instead of: heck).
The confusion of paronyms also indicates an insufficient speech culture of the speaker: He dressed sweater(instead of: allotment); This is economical test validation method(instead of: economical= "beneficial").
The Russian language is unusually rich and beautiful. What is the inspiration of M.V. Lomonosov about the Russian language. Yes, indeed, the great scientist is right: the Russian language is beautiful, powerful, beautiful.
What is the richness, beauty, strength, expressiveness of the language? There are special means of expressive speech. They are very varied. Any section of the language - phonetics, vocabulary, grammar - has them. For example, the Russian language stands out among other languages with an amazing wealth of derivational morphemes, primarily suffixes. Some give the word a disparaging color (book, officer), others a diminutive color (son, granny), others display an assessment (old man, old man, old man). Morphemes create richest opportunities for word formation various parts speech, with the help of derivational morphemes, the meanings of single-root words are concretized. Here is how N.G. wrote about this. Chernyshevsky, jokingly proving the superiority of the Russian language over French.
The Russian phonetic system is flexible and expressive. sounding speech is the main form of existence of the language. One of the main visual means of phonetics is a stylistic device, which consists in the selection of words of close sounding. (Read page 14 (Lushnikova)).
The vowels [o] and [a] and the consonants [p], [p], [t] appear here. This makes the verse musically striking. Depending on the quality of the repeated sounds, alliteration and assonance are distinguished.
Alliteration called the repetition of consonants. For example: (the roar of a house drove through the blue sky (S. Marshak)). Conclusion: [p] in combination with [g] creates the impression of a thunderclap.
Example: I am a free wind, I always blow
I wave the waves, I caress the willows. (Balmont)
The repetition of what sounds creates the image of the wind? - [l], [l], [c], [c].
Assonance called vowel repetition.
It's time, it's time to blow the horns (Pushkin).
Assonance stems only from stressed vowels.
I quickly fly along cast-iron rails,
I think my own thought (Nekrasov), - the sound [y] appears.
Another trick The visual means is sound writing - the use of words that, by their sound, resemble the auditory impressions of the depicted phenomenon.
For example, (Here the rain dripped insinuatingly (Tvardovsky)) - the repetition of the sound of kr resembles the tapping of drops.
Graphic arts
Derived from Greek word"grapho" - I write.
Graphics - a set of writing tools used to fix speech. The main means of graphics are letters. The most important quality any language - codification. Codification - means in linguistics bringing into certain system linguistic phenomena and facts. On the basis of codification, linguists form a set of phonetic, lexical, spelling, and stylistic rules. The codification of the Russian language is reflected in the works of the great representatives of Russian literature: V.V. Vinogradova, M.V. Lomonosov, S.I. Ozhegova, A.S. Pushkin, A.A. Shakhmatova and others. The alphabet plays a decisive role in the codification of the Russian language.
An alphabet is a list of letters arranged in a specific order. The modern Russian alphabet includes 33 letters, and b and b do not represent sounds. There are 3 groups of letters in the Russian alphabet:
1. Letters that do not denote sounds - ъ, ь;
2. Letters denoting two sounds - e, e, u, i;
3. The rest belong to the third group.
1) Letters denoting one sound are called monophthong, for example, oak-[p], Ob - [p], and two sounds (diphthongs) - the letters e, e, u, i denote diphthongs.
At the beginning of the word pit - ma.
2) After ъ and ь signs moved out, view - view.
3) After the vowel button accordion ba n.
4) In addition, the same letter can denote different sounds, the letter m [m] [m /] - soap, mil; letter b [b] [b /] - I will, beat.
5) Voiced consonants at the end of a word and before deaf consonants sound like paired deaf consonants, this phenomenon is called stunning. For example, order [c], booth [t] (weak position).
6) Deaf consonants before voiced ones sound like voiced consonants paired with them - threshing - young [d / ] ba, request - pro [s / ] ba (this phenomenon is called voicing).
Strong positions for consonants are the position before vowels and before m, n, r, l, i, v.
7) One sound can be indicated by a combination of letters happiness - [w / ] astier, gap - [w / ] spruce, carter - in [w / ] ik.
List of sources:
1. Golovin B.N. Basics of speech culture: Tutorial for universities. - M., 1988.
2. Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of the modern Russian literary language, - M., 1989.
We live in a world of sounds. Some sounds call positive emotions, others - alert, excite, cause a feeling of anxiety or calm and evoke sleep. Sounds evoke images. With the help of a combination of sounds, it is possible to have an emotional impact on a person, which we especially perceive when reading artistic literary works and works of Russian folk art.
AT works of art, and mainly in poetry, various techniques for enhancing phonetic expressiveness of speech.
Poetic speech organized in a special way acquires a bright emotionally expressive coloring. This is one of the reasons why the content of poetry does not allow "retelling in prose."
sound recording- a method of enhancing the figurativeness of the text by repeating stressed and unstressed syllables, vowels and consonants.
The most common form of sound writing is poetic repetitions, which form a special construction of the text. This gives the text a kind of symmetry.
For example:
I dreamed of catching the departing shadows,
the fading shadows of the fading day,
I climbed the tower, and the steps trembled,
And the steps trembled under my foot.
And the higher I went, the more clearly drawn,
Tem more clearly drawn outlines in the distance
And some sounds were drawn in the distance,
Around me were heard from Heaven to Earth.
(Balmont)
The basic principle of enhancing the phonetic expressiveness of speech is the selection of words of a certain sound coloring, in a kind of roll call of sounds. The sound convergence of words enhances their figurative significance, which is possible only in a literary text, where each word plays an important aesthetic role.
The main way to enhance the phonetic expressiveness of artistic speech is sound instrumentation - a stylistic device consisting in the selection of words of close sounding.
For example:
P yetr is feasting. And mountains, and I am sen,
And thank you for the lo n gaze of him.
And his royal feast is wonderful.
Vowels are repeated here [o], [a] and consonants [p], [p], [t]. This makes the verse musical and vivid; the richness of sound repetitions seems to reflect the breadth of the glorified victorious triumph. The sound of speech emphasizes the main, dominant words in the text Peter is feasting.
Usually a verse is instrumented (as in our example) by repeating several sounds at once. And the more they are involved in such a “roll call”, the more clearly their repetition is heard, the more aesthetic pleasure the sound of the text brings.
Such is the sound instrumentation of Pushkin's lines: Views: under the distant vault the free moon walks; Cultivated yans in the eastern haze, in the northern, sad snow, you did not leave a trace in (about the legs); She liked novels early on; Whose noble hand will consume the old man's laurels!; And I will give a thoughtful row; Bed covered with carpet; Inheritance into an angry choir starts an obscene dispute etc.
Instead of a term "sonic instrumentation" sometimes used by others: say "consonant instrumentation" and "vowel harmony". Verse theorists describe various types of sound instrumentation. We will name only the most important of them.
Depending on the quality of repeated sounds, there are alliteration and assonance.
Alliteration called the repetition of the same or similar consonants.
Alliteration- the oldest stylistic device for enhancing the expressiveness of a verse by repeating consonant sounds. This approach is found in folk poetry and in the literature of all peoples of the world. They are rich in the poems of Homer, Hesiod, Horace, Virgil and many later poets of Europe - Dante, Petrarch, Ronsard, Shakespeare. The poet's sense of proportion and artistic tact determine the choice, nature and appropriateness of alliteration in verse; there are no rules for using it and cannot be.
In Russian folk verse, alliteration occupies a prominent place. Sound alliteration scattered in the text "Words about Igor's regiment»:
..Tube pipes are killed in Novegrad, stand still in Putivl ...
Sound combinations [tr] and [gr] create the feeling of a gathering army, in these sound combinations the sounds of military marches, the roar of military weapons are heard, while the sound combination [st] gives a sense of stability, but at the same time a hidden threat. All together - conveys the tension before the battle, on the one hand, already exciting, on the other hand - still calm mood.
Magnificent masters alliteration were A.S. Pushkin, F. I. Tyutchev, A. P. Sumarokov, G. R. Derzhavin and K. N. Batyushkov, N. M. Yazykov, N. A. Nekrasov.
For example:
The Neva blew and roared
To the ashes m bubbling tea and klubyas.
(A.S. Pushkin)
In lga, In lga, in spring and high water
You are not so flooding the fields ...
(N. Nekrasov)
In the stanza from Balmont's poem, the sound is repeated [l]:
The swan swam away into the floor,
In the distance, under the moon it is white.
The waves are flattening to the oar,
They cling to the moisture of the l or her ...
In Pushkin's lines, alliterations are noticeable on [n], [d], [s], [in]:
Night is coming; moons and bypass um
Watch the far vault of heaven,
And from the tins to her in the darkness of the woods
Melody
With the greatest certainty, our hearing catches the repetition of consonants standing in the pre-stressed position and in the absolute beginning of the word. The repetition of not only the same, but also consonants similar in some way is taken into account. So, alliteration is possible on d - t or h - s etc.
For example:
March!
Thu time
behind
the nucleus was broken.
To the old days
Thu wind ohm
from wore
Only
tangled hair(Mayakovsky).
Alliteration on the [ R ] in the first part of this passage, the beaten rhythm, the jerky sound of these lines leave no doubt about the purpose of sound writing, with which the poet seeks to convey the music of the march, the dynamics of the struggle, overcoming difficulties ...
In other cases, the figurative symbolism of sound writing is more abstract.
So, only imagination will help us to feel in alliterations on f - h the chilling chill of metal in an excerpt from N. Zabolotsky's poem " Cranes»:
And the leader in a metal shirt
Slowly sinking to the bottom
And dawn over him the image of an oval
A golden stain.
Sound symbolism is still ambiguously assessed by researchers. However, modern science does not deny that the sounds of speech, uttered even separately, outside of words, are capable of evoking non-sound representations in us. At the same time, the meanings of speech sounds are perceived by native speakers intuitively and therefore are of a rather general, vague nature.
According to experts, phonetic significance creates a kind of “vague halo” of associations around words. This indefinite aspect of knowledge is almost not realized by you and is only clarified in some words, for example: burdock, grunt, mumbling, balalaika - harp, lily. The sound of such words significantly affects their perception.
In artistic speech, and above all in poetry, there is a tradition of dividing sounds into beautiful and ugly, rough and tender, loud and quiet. The use of words in which certain sounds predominate can become a means of achieving a certain stylistic effect in poetic speech.
The organic connection of sound writing with content, the unity of word and image gives the sound instrumentation a vivid depiction, but its perception does not exclude subjectivity. Here is an example from Aseev's poem " swim»:
Lie on your side
tense your shoulder
I float forward
more,-
gradually
mastered the wave
for fun
and clear water.
And follow me
leaving no trace
Curls
funnel water.
It seems to us that the alliterations on w - p transmit sliding on the waves; persistent repetition [in ] in the last lines evokes the idea of closed line, a circle that is associated with funnels on the water.
The establishment of such a "sound-sense similarity" can be based on rather complex associations.
For example, in the lines of B. Pasternak
Chopin recorded
On the black sawing of the music stand -
you can see the fantastic outlines of a dream in the whimsical pattern of sound repetitions and in the combination of sounds unusual for Russian phonics in the word " music stand»
In Marshak's poem " Vocabulary The following line is illustrative: In its column x flickering sparks of feeling. Here is a double repeated combination ca as if depicting flicker».
Regardless of the figurative understanding of sound writing, its use in poetic speech always enhances the emotionality and brightness of the verse, creating the beauty of its sound.
Alliteration - the most common type of sound repetition.
This is explained by the dominant position of consonants in the system of sounds of the Russian language. Consonants play the main semantic role in the language. Indeed, each sound carries certain information. However, six vowels in this respect are significantly inferior to thirty-seven consonants.
Let's compare the "record" of the same words, made using only vowels and only consonants. You can hardly guess by the combinations ee, ayuo, ui, eao any words, but it is worth conveying the same words as consonants, and we can easily “read” the names of Russian poets: "Drzhvn, Btshkv, Pshkn, Nkrsv". Such "weightiness" of consonants contributes to the establishment of various subject-semantic associations, therefore the expressive and pictorial possibilities of alliterations are very significant.
Another, also common, type of sound repetition is assonance.
Assonance - reception of strengthening the figurativeness of the text by repeating vowel sounds.
For example:
I am a free wind, I always wind,
Into the waves of the waves, I caress the willows,
I sigh in the branches, sighing, I can’t,
le le yu grass, le le yu fields.
Vowels are repeated here "about" and "e".
At the core assonance usually only stressed sounds appear, since vowels often change in an unstressed position. Therefore, sometimes assonance is defined as the repetition of stressed or weakly reduced unstressed vowels.
So, in the lines from " Poltava» Pushkin's assonances on a and on about create only accented vowels:
Quiet Ukrainian night.
About the transparent sky.
The stars are shining.
You can overcome your slumber
doesn't want air.
And although many unstressed syllables repeat variants of these phonemes, conveyed by the letters o, a, their sound does not affect the assonance.
In cases where unstressed vowels do not undergo changes, they can increase assonance.
For example, in another stanza from " Poltava» the sound of speech determines the assonance on at; since the quality of this sound does not change, and in the unstressed position, y emphasizes the phonetic similarity of the highlighted words:
But in the temptations of a long punishment,
Having endured the su deb at the gift,
Strengthened Russia.
So heavy mlat
Shattering glass,
Ku et boo la t.
In the last two lines, the assonance to at connects with assonance a.
In the same text, different sound repetitions are often used in parallel.
Chalk oh, chalk oh all over the earth
In about all pre de ly.
Candle cha burned and on with roofing paper,
The candle was burning(Parsnip).
Here is the assonance e, and alliterations on m, l, s, v; repeated combinations of consonants: ml, sun - sv. All this creates a special musicality of poetic lines.
Everyone at least once in their life heard or said a rhyme with which you can calm crying children: “ Quiet, mice, the cat is on the roof. And the kittens are even higher».
Why do each of us remember and pronounce some phrases (poems, tongue twisters, quotes) all our lives? How do conspiracies, sentences, grandmother-whisperers, etc. work? What is the secret of popular slogans and slogans (political, advertising)? We believe that sound recording is of great importance in all this.
Dissonance - a complex type of sound writing, built on the use of consonant, but not rhyming words; Thanks to this technique, the poem acquires sound integrity.
For example:
It was:
socialism -
awesome word!
With a flag
with a song
stood on the left
and herself
on the head
glory descended.
Passed through the fire
through cannon muzzles.
Instead of mountains of delight
mountain of the valley.
It became:
communism -
the most common thing.
(V. Mayakovsky)
Cool
bourgeois
furious temper.
torn apart by thiers,
howling and groaning,
shadows of great-grandfathers -
Parisian Communards -
and now
yell
the Parisian wall.
(V. Mayakovsky)
I will climb at dawn to the silver cedar
Admire squadron maneuvers from there.
Sun, morning and sea! How cheerful I am,
Like air is thoughtless, like a mummy is wise.
Who is glorified by eagles - ah, he is not up to otters.
(I. Severyanin)
One of the types alliteration counts onomatopoeia .
Onomatopoeia - creating, with the help of sounds and words, a more specific idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is said in this text.
Onomatopoeia – simplest form instrumentation lies in the fact that the poet, by a certain selection of sounds, hints, as it were, at the sound side of the depicted.
For example:
German motors growl at the top:
- We are the Fuhrer and obedient slaves,
We are turning the city of oda into a city of oby,
We are death... You will no longer be scorched.
("Pulkovo Meridian" V. Inber)
Sound repetition [R ] creates the illusion of the sound of a German aircraft engine, the terrible sound of bombing. And although such onomatopoeia is considered elementary view alliteration, but it is impossible not to admit that in the above passage the growl of fascist aircraft over besieged Leningrad is perfectly conveyed.
So, in Mayakovsky's phrase: " They beat hooves, they sang as if: mushroom-hornbeam-coffin-rough..
." - a fairly clear imitation of the sound of hooves is given.
With a familiar noise, the noise of their tops in...
(A. Pushkin)
It's about pines; selection of sounds [w] and the convergence of two sliding aspirated [X] reproduced their noise.
Barely audible, silently cleverly rustling at reeds and ...
(K.Balmont)
The valley trembled, the blow resounded...
(A. Maikov)
It's about an explosion; four [e], three [R], two assonances (" IMPACT HAS HAPPENED”) resemble both the sound of an explosion and the peal of this sound.
Your stronghold smoke m and thunder ...
(A. Pushkin)
It's about a cannon salute; twice [tv], twice [dy] correlate with the sounds of gunfire.
Here is an example of a much more subtle onomatopoeia:
And shine, and noise, and talk orbal ov,
And at o'clock as pir ears are cold
The hiss of foamy glasses
And punch and the flame is naked.
(A. Pushkin)
Lip sounds dominate here ([b], [c], [m], [n]), hissing ( [h], [w]) and sonorants ( [p], [l]), making up an array of 28 sounds and 44 consonants of this passage, i.e. 64%.
Another technique that is used less often than others - onomatopoeia .
These are the words that imitate eigenvalue. These words are " snore», « crunch", and derivative words" snore», « crunch" etc.
For example:
And the crunch of sand, and the snoring of a horse
(A. Blok)
Frost-drenched puddles
crunchy and brittle like crunch al
(I. Severyanin)
A more complex method of sound recording - punning rhyme .
pun rhymes - these are rhymes built on a play on words and sound similarities.
They are often used for comic effect. An example of such a rhyme is different authors such as, for example, A. S. Pushkin, D. D. Minaev, V. V. Mayakovsky and others.
In a punning rhyme, polysemantic words are used, as well as homonyms - when only sound identity is established between words, and there are no semantic associations.
For example:
You puppies! Follow me!
You will be on the kalach,
Look, don't talk
Otherwise, I'll beat you.
(A. S. Pushkin)
He was careless for twenty years,
Not giving birth to a single line.
(D. D. Minaev)
The area of rhymes is my element,
And I write poetry easily,
Without hesitation, without delay
I run to line from line,
Even to the Finnish brown rocks
I'm dealing with a pun.
(D. D. Minaev)
Another method of sound recording anaphora and epiphora. This is the name of the subsection of sound writing, which distinguishes it by its location in the verse.
Epiphora- repetition of the end of the verse.
Anaphora, or monotony, is a stylistic device consisting in the repetition of related sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic constructions at the beginning of adjacent verses or stanzas.
sound recording- the use of various phonetic techniques to enhance the sound expressiveness of speech.
sound recording allows you to significantly (at times) enhance the impact of speech and text, choosing words with the “correct sounds”.
For example:
For three days it was heard how on the road a boring, long
There was a knock and a joint and: east, east, east. ..
(P. Antokolsky reproduces the sound of carriage wheels.)
Or:
Near me, a locomotive was moving along the tracks.
On the right, a steam locomotive passed along the rail.
sound recording often found in Russian literature, especially in poetry. K.D. uses it very well. Balmont, who gave a figurative description of the sounds of speech (the sound is " small sorcerer gnome”, magic) and, of course, V.V. Mayakovsky.
Basic functions of sound recording
The artistic purpose of sound recording may be to simply create harmony, the musical sound of speech ( U Ch e r but go sea I h inar and there is a young ...- Lermontov M. Yu.). Such use of sound writing, if it does not damage the logical side of speech, is quite aesthetically justified. The harmonious repetition of consonances and individual consonants gives speech a special beauty.
However, word artists are usually not satisfied with the beauty of the sound of speech and try to involve sound writing in solving more complex stylistic problems. Sound recording can perform a serious semantic function in poetic speech: emphasize logically important words, artistic images, motifs, themes. V.V. Mayakovsky, talking about the features of artistic creativity. In the article " How to make poetry? he wrote: I resort to alliteration for framing, for even greater emphasis on a word that is important to me.". The sound similarity of words often emphasizes the semantic proximity, homogeneity of objects. Sound repetitions highlight homogeneous members of the sentence.
Sound can play a compositional role : communicate a similar sound to the semantic segments of the phrase and phonetically distinguish each new poetic image.
For example:
You were torn by the movement of a frightened bird,
You went, words, but my dream is light ...
And in the air, did the spirit go, and the eyelashes fell asleep,
Anxious silks whispered.
(A. Blok)
Here the repetition of sounds c - y - p in the first line combines words associated with the image of a bird; a different sound coloring gets a comparison like a dream; "Roll-call" of consonants and vowels distinguishes subsequent speech segments separated by pauses: after the phrase "the spirits sighed"as if a sigh is heard (this illusion is created by a combination of sounds d - y - x), figurative expression "drooped eyelashes" receives a special expression due to the harmony of consonances re - re, s - s - ts; finally, in the next line, the expressive alliteration for hissing reflects the noise of the silk dresses of a mysterious stranger who flashed by ...
Thus, the development of the theme is consistently reflected in alliterations and assonances .
As an expressive means, sound repetitions are used in the headlines of newspaper and magazine articles, works of art (“ Dew at dawn», « Fountains of Fedorovka"). This use of sound writing can be called attention-grabbing.
If we draw an analogy with cooking, then the sound recording allows you not to boringly prepare a dish, but to freely experiment in the process, adding seasonings and spices.
You should not overdo your speech (oral, written) with alliteration and assonance. It is much more effective with their help to emphasize its main essence, to isolate the core of meaning, scratching the interlocutor to the very heart.
Practicing in sound writing, you can not only develop attention, memory and expand vocabulary, but also (most importantly) to feel how easily your phrases change their sound from POWERFUL and MAJESTIC to QUIET and PENETRATING, you just have to choose the right words.
The process of commanding sentences is pleasantly striking. Addictive. Allows you to get positive emotions when writing even the most boring texts.
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