The dependence of an individual's behavior in a certain life situation on various factors. Factors that determine individual behavior

Individual- this is a separate individual, which combines a unique complex of innate qualities and acquired properties. From the standpoint of sociology, an individual is a characteristic of a person as a separate representative of the biological species of people. An individual is a single entity Homo representatives sapiens. That is, this is a separate human being, which combines the social and biological and is determined by a unique set of genetically programmed qualities and an individual socially acquired complex of traits, characteristics, and properties.

The concept of an individual

An individual is a carrier of a biological component in a person. People as individuals are a complex of natural genetically dependent qualities, the formation of which is realized during the period of ontogenesis, the result of which is the biological maturity of people. It follows that the concept of an individual expresses the species belonging of a person. Thus, each person is born as an individual. However, after birth, the child acquires a new social parameter - he becomes a personality.

In psychology, the first concept with which the study of personality begins is the individual. Literally, this concept can be understood as an indivisible particle of a single whole. Man as an individual is studied not only from the point of view of a single representative of the human race, but also as a member of a particular social group. Such a characteristic of a person is the simplest and most abstract, saying only that he is separated from others. This remoteness is not its essential characteristic, since all living beings in the Universe are fenced off from each other and in this understanding “individuals”.

So, the individual is a single representative of the human race, a specific bearer of all social characteristics and psychophysical features of humanity. General characteristics individual are as follows:

- in the integrity of the psychophysical organization of the body;

- in stability relative to the surrounding reality;

- in activity.

In another way, this concept can be defined by the phrase “a specific person”. Man as an individual exists from his birth until his death. An individual is the initial (initial) state of a person in his ontogenetic development and phylogenetic formation.

The individual as a product of phylogenetic formation and ontogenetic development under specific external circumstances, however, is by no means a simple copy of such circumstances. It is precisely the product of the formation of life, interaction with the surrounding conditions, and not the conditions taken by themselves.

In psychology, such a concept as "individual" is used in a rather broad sense, which leads to a distinction between the characteristics of a person as an individual and his traits as a person. It is precisely their clear distinction, therefore, that lies at the basis of the delimitation of such concepts as the individual and the person, and is a necessary prerequisite for psychological analysis personality.

social individual

Unlike young animals, the individual is practically devoid of innate adaptive instincts. Therefore, in order to survive and further development he needs to communicate with his own kind. After all, only in society can a child realize his innate potential, become a person. Regardless of the society in which the individual is born, he cannot do without the guardianship of adults and learning on their part. For full development, a child needs a long time so that he can absorb all the elements, details that he will need in an independent life as an adult member of society. Therefore, from the very first days of life, a child needs to be able to communicate with adults.

The individual and society are inseparable. Without society, an individual will never become a person; without individuals, society simply will not exist. AT initial period In life, interaction with society consists in primary facial reactions, body language, with the help of which the baby informs adults about his needs and shows his satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The responses of adult members of the social group also become clear to him from facial expressions, various gestures and intonations.

As the child grows up and learns to speak, the language of gestures and facial expressions gradually fades into the background, but never completely loses its significance throughout the adult life of the individual, transforming into essential tool non-verbal communications, which expresses feelings sometimes no less, and sometimes more than the usual words. This is due to the fact that gestures, facial expressions and postures are less controlled by consciousness than speech, and therefore they are, in some cases, even more informative, telling the society what the individual wanted to hide.

So, we can say with confidence that social qualities (for example, communication) should be formed only in the process of interaction with society in general and communication with other people in particular. Any communication, verbal or non-verbal, is a necessary component for a person to become socialized. The social qualities of an individual are his abilities for social activity and the process of socialization. The earlier the process of socialization begins, the easier it will be.

There are various forms of learning through which the socialization of the individual occurs, but they should always be used in combination. One of the methods that adults consciously use to accustom a child to socially correct and approved behavior is reinforcement learning. Consolidation is implemented through the directed use of the method of rewards and punishments in order to demonstrate to the child what kind of behavior will be desired and approved, and which is disapproving. In this way, the child is taught to observe the elementary requirements of hygiene, etiquette, etc.

Some elements of an individual's everyday behavior can become quite habitual, which leads to the formation of strong associative links - the so-called conditioned reflexes. One of the channels of socialization is the formation of conditioned reflexes. Such a reflex, for example, may be washing hands before eating. The following method socialization is learning through observation.

The individual learns how to behave in society by observing the behavior of adults and trying to imitate them. Many children's games are based on imitating the behavior of adults. Role social interaction of individuals is also learning. An adherent of this concept, J. Mead, believes that the mastery of social norms and rules of behavior occurs in the course of interactions with other people and with the help of various games, especially role-playing ones (for example, playing mother-daughter). Those. learning occurs through interaction. Participating in role playing, the child brings to life the results of his own observations and his initial experience social interaction(visiting a doctor, etc.).

The socialization of the individual occurs through the influence of various agents of socialization. The most important and first such agent in the process social development the individual is the family. After all, it is the first and closest "social environment" of the individual. The functions of the family in relation to the child include taking care of his health, protection. The family also satisfies all the essential needs of the individual. It is the family that initially introduces the individual to the rules of behavior in society, teaches communication with other people. In the family, he first gets acquainted with the stereotypes of sex roles and goes through gender identification. It is the family that develops the primary values of the individual. However, at the same time, the family is an institution that can bring the greatest harm to the process of socialization of the individual. For example, low social status parents, their alcoholism, conflicts in the family, social exclusion or incompleteness of the family, various deviations in the behavior of adults - all this can lead to irreparable consequences, leave an indelible imprint on the worldview of the child, his character and social behavior.

The school is the next agent of socialization after the family. It is an emotionally neutral environment, which fundamentally differs from the family. At school, the kid is treated as one of many and in accordance with his real characteristics. In schools, children learn practically what success or failure is. They learn to overcome difficulties or get used to giving up in front of them. It is the school that forms the individual's self-esteem, which, most often, remains with him for the rest of his adult life.

Another important agent of socialization is the environment of peers. In adolescence, the influence of parents and teachers on children weakens, along with this, the influence of peers grows. All failures in studies, lack of attention from parents compensates for the respect of peers. It is in the environment of their peers that the child learns to decide conflict issues, communication on an equal footing. And in school and family, all communication is built on a hierarchy. Relationships in a peer group allow an individual to better understand himself, his strengths and weaknesses.

The needs of the individual are also better understood through group interaction. The social environment of peers makes its own adjustments to the value ideas instilled in the family. Also, interaction with peers allows the child to identify with others and, at the same time, stand out among them.

Since groups of different affiliation interact in the social environment: family, school, peers, the individual faces some contradictions. So, for example, the individual's family appreciates mutual assistance, and the spirit of competition dominates in the school. Therefore, the individual has to feel the influence of different people. He tries to fit into different environments. As the individual matures and develops intellectually, he learns to see such contradictions and analyze them. As a result, the child creates his own set of values. The formed values of the individual make it possible to more accurately determine own personality, designate a life plan and become an initiative member of society. The process of formation of such values can be a source of significant social changes.

Also, among the agents of socialization, it is necessary to allocate funds mass media. In the process of its development, the individual and society continuously interact, which leads to the successful socialization of the individual.

Individual Behavior

Behavior is a special form of activity of the human body, which masters the environment. In this aspect, behavior was considered by I. Pavlov. It was he who coined the term. With the help of this term, it became possible to display the sphere of the relationship of an individual interacting individual with the environment in which he exists and interacts.

The behavior of an individual is the reaction of an individual to any changes in external or internal conditions. It is conscious and unconscious. Human behavior develops and is realized in society. It is associated with speech regulation. The behavior of an individual always reflects the process of his integration into society (socialization).

Every behavior has its reasons. It is determined by the events that precede it and cause a certain form of manifestation. Behavior is always purposeful.

An individual's goals are based on his unmet needs. Those. any behavior is characterized by a goal that it seeks to achieve. Goals perform motivating, controlling and organizational functions and are the most important management mechanism. To achieve them, a number of specific actions are taken. Behavior is also always motivated. Whatever the behavior, defiant or detached, there is necessarily a motive in it, which determines precisely the momentary form of its manifestation.

During technical progress In modern science, another term has appeared - virtual behavior. This type of behavior combines theatricality and naturalness. Theatricality is due to the illusion of natural behavior.

The behavior of an individual has the following characteristics:

- level of activity (initiativity and vigor);

- emotional expressiveness (and the intensity of the manifested affects);

- pace or dynamism;

- stability, which consists in the constancy of manifestations in different situations and at different times;

- awareness based on understanding one's behavior;

- arbitrariness (self-control);

- flexibility, i.e. change in behavioral responses in response to environmental transformations.

individual personality individuality

An individual is a living being who belongs to human kind. The individual is a social being that is included in social interactions participating in social development and performing a specific social role. The term individuality is intended to emphasize the unique image of a person. This is what makes a person different from others. However, with all the versatility of the concept of individuality, it is still, in more, denotes the spiritual qualities of a person.

Individual and personality are not identical concepts, in turn, personality and individuality form integrity, but not identity. The concepts of "individuality" and "personality" contain different dimensions of the spiritual nature of man. The personality is more often described as strong, independent, thereby emphasizing its activity essence in the eyes of others. And individuality, as - bright, creative.

The term "personality" is distinguished from the terms "individual" and "individuality". This is due to the fact that personality develops under the influence of social relationships, culture, environment. Its formation is also due to biological factors. Personality as a socio-psychological phenomenon presupposes a specific hierarchical structure.

Personality is the object and product of social relationships, feels social influences, and refracts them, transforming. It acts as a set of internal conditions through which the external influences society. Such internal conditions are a combination of hereditary biological qualities and socially determined factors. Therefore, a person is a product and object of social interaction, and an active subject of activity, communications, self-knowledge and consciousness. Personality formation is dependent on activity, on the degree of its activity. Therefore, it manifests itself in activity.

Role biological factors in the formation of the personality is quite large, but the influence of social factors cannot be neglected. There are certain personality traits that are particularly influenced by social factors. After all, a person cannot be born, a person can only become.

Individual and group

A group is a relatively isolated collection of individuals who are in fairly stable interaction, and also carry out joint actions over a long period of time. A group is also a collection of individuals who share certain social characteristics. Joint interaction in a group is based on a certain common interest or is associated with the achievement of a specific common purpose. It is characterized by group potential, which allows it to interact with the environment and adapt to the transformations that occur in the environment.

The characteristic features of the group are the identification of each of its members themselves, as well as their actions with the team as a whole. Therefore, in external circumstances, everyone speaks on behalf of the group. Another feature is the interaction within the group, which has the character of direct contacts, observation of each other's actions, etc. In any group, along with a formal division of roles, an informal division of roles will necessarily develop, which is usually recognized by the group.

There are two types of groups: informal and formal. Regardless of the type of group, it will have a significant impact on all members.

The interaction of the individual and the group will always be of a dual nature. On the one hand, the individual by his actions helps to solve group problems. On the other hand, the group has a huge impact on the individual, helping him to satisfy his specific needs, for example, the need for security, respect, etc.

Psychologists have noticed that in teams with a positive climate and active intra-group life, individuals have good health and moral values, they are better protected from external influences, work more actively and effectively than individuals who are in a separate state, or in groups with a negative climate, which are stricken with intractable conflict situations and instability. The group serves to protect, support, teach and solve problems, and the required norms of behavior in the group.

Development of the individual

Development is personal, biological and mental. biological development called the formation of anatomical and physiological structures. Psychic - regular transformations of the processes of the psyche. mental development expressed in qualitative and quantitative transformations. Personal - education of the individual in the processes of socialization and education.

The development of the individual leads to modifications of personality traits, to the emergence of new qualities, which psychologists call neoplasms. Personality transformations from one age to another proceed in the following directions: mental, physiological and social development. Physiological development consists in the formation of skeletal muscle mass and other body systems. Mental development consists in the formation of cognitive processes, such as thinking, perception. social development consists in the formation of morality, moral values, the assimilation social roles and etc.

Development takes place in the integrity of the social and biological in man. Also through the transition of quantitative transformations into qualitative transformations of the mental, physical and spiritual qualities of the individual. Development is characterized by unevenness - each organ and organ system develops at its own pace. It occurs more intensely in childhood and puberty, and slows down in adulthood.

Development is driven by internal and external factors. The influence of the environment and family education are external factors of development. Inclinations and drives, a set of feelings, anxieties of the individual, arising under the influence of external conditions - these are internal factors. The development and formation of an individual is considered the result of the interaction of external and internal factors.

Behavior - interaction inherent in individuals with the environment, mediated by their external (motor) and internal (mental) activity. Behavior means external manifestations mental activity.

In general, it is useful to dwell a little on the study of the relationship between the concepts of "behavior" and "activity". It would seem that there is a well-known opposition of social activity to social behavior, however, in the literature, these concepts are often identified: activity is explained through behavior, and behavior through activity. To understand this, it is useful to start from the concept of “social activity”.

Social activity is dual in nature. On the one hand, it is objectified in various social processes, such as, for example, professional activity, and acts as a homogeneous social activity. On the other hand, social activity is subjective. It is always individual, personified. Society realizes its activity only through the activity of individuals and social groups consisting of the same individuals.

The activity of individuals within the framework of social and organizational forms human interaction favors what kind of behavior. Behavior is way inclusion of the individual in activity, it is conditioned by the concrete historical development of the individual.

Activity is always what the individual does. Behavior is always kick, how, in what way, this "something" the individual does. Goethe said that behavior is a mirror in which everyone shows himself.

Both social activity and social behavior are two forms of existence and development social activity. They historically arise simultaneously and function systematically, holistically. Impossible to do anything , even inaction has its form.

Behavior is a function of the interaction of the individual and the situation of the environment in this moment time, and personality traits are considered as possibilities that a specific action is realized in a particular environmental situation. The peculiarity of an individual's behavior depends on the nature of his relationship with society, on norms, value orientations, and role prescriptions.

Traditionally, behavior is described as a set of actions that are determined by established skills, habits and a specific situation, and actions that require a struggle of motives and a decision.

Behaviors include:

All external manifestations of physiological processes associated with the state, activity and communication of people: facial expressions, intonation, etc.;

- individual movements and gestures;

- actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning;

Deeds: even larger acts, as a rule, having social significance and associated with norms of behavior, relationships, self-esteem, etc.

Thus, the analysis of the category "behavior" presupposes a complete analysis of the categories "personality" and "situation".

Behavior largely depends on the level of subjective control - basic personal characteristics, by which one can judge the extent to which a person considers himself an active subject of his activity, and to what extent - a passive object of the activity of other people and external circumstances. Numerous experimental studies indicate that there is a relationship between the level of subjective control and various forms behavior and personality traits.

In addition, human behavior is largely influenced by example (exemshification, or example-oriented behavior). Personal characteristics of the carrier of the example can influence, which have a motivational effect on the perceiver, or his behavioral characteristics, which, in addition to the possibility of motivational influence, contain a certain “guide to action”.

The whole variety of patterns of behavior of individuals in society can be differentiated into two large groups:

Adaptive, socially desirable, constructive, i.e. creative, adequate behavior;

Decadaptive, socially taboo, destructive, i.e. destructive, inappropriate behavior.

In the Western interpretation, the most common strategies are considered forms of total orientation of a person - productive and unproductive, manifested, for example, in the tendencies of the “life instinct”, according to Z. Freud, as well as “possession” and “being”, according to E. Fromm.

Somewhat more broadly approached the problem of types of behavior H. Thome, who singled out general "techniques of being" and situationally specific techniques.

General "techniques of being":

- actions aimed at changing the situation;

- adaptation to the institutional aspects of the situation, to social norms and social institutions, to the rules of business relations;

- adaptation to the uniqueness and needs of other people;

- taking care of establishing and maintaining social contacts;

- acceptance of the situation.

Situation-Specific Techniques:

- use of chance;

- seeking social support;

- identification with others;

- adjusting your expectations

- self-affirmation;

- aggression;

- delay in meeting your needs.

The society, as an environment external to the individual, has developed a number of criteria that ensure the socially desirable, adaptive, adequate behavior of the individual. These criteria include:

- behavior in accordance with the law. Law-abiding and respect for the rule of law - features civilized human relationships;

- moral integrity. For all our inclination towards a subjective interpretation of morality in society, there are generally accepted approaches to explaining its basic concepts, such as honesty, justice, conscientiousness;

Accounting for the specific situation in which the person acts orhappened by coincidence. Often a person winsagainst the background of other, even brighter natures, as he successfully performed inspecific situation, i.e. looked advantageous, obeyed, zapom rushed;

The goal set by the individual. The more significantfor a person, his own goal, the greater the lifting force it possesses;

Self-critical assessment of the possibilities of using a particularbehavior patterns;

Accounting for psychological characteristics - one's own and others individuals in society.

In the optimal model of behavior, a reasonable combination of the idea and the methods of its implementation is achieved. The more organic this relationship, the more attractive person. In our time, there are very few such examples, which once again confirms the existence of a gap between the chosen model of behavior and personal possibilities for its implementation.

Behavior strategies in individually significant situations are special behavioral syndromes characterized by the actualization of the adaptive mechanisms of mental self-regulation. Strategies depend on the degree of significance of the situation for a given individual, in other words, they are primarily personality-specific.

A person masters those behavior patterns that bring him success. We should not forget that when choosing a model of behavior, we depend not on ourselves, but on many external circumstances. The lower the standard of living of a society, the more its citizens are concerned about domestic needs. In societies with a high standard of living, people are predisposed to solving spiritually important problems. However, both in the first and in the second cases, the spiritual activity of people is important: a spiritually weakened person is more dependent on external conditions than others.

The typology of the behavior of individuals in relation to situations of collision or intersection of their interests is widely known. Its author is an American social psychologist K. Thomas. He singled out such types of behavior.

Rivalry, struggle, competition - confrontation of conflicting interestsowls from a position of strength. Goal: victory for one side and defeat for the other.

adaptation, adaptation, unilateral assignment - unwillingness to protect one's interests (due to their insignificance for the individual) in a situation of an objecttivno or subjectively significant for the opposite side.

Compromise - protecting and securing one's own interests with more or less adequate bilateral concessions.

Avoidance - withdrawal from participation in the conflict due to the complete indifference of the individual to his own interests and to the interests of the partner.

Cooperation - ensuring mutually beneficial interests based on joint activities and partnerships.

This typology reflects the understanding of the strategy of behavior in the coordinate system: the subject takes into account his own interests - the subject takes into account the interests of the partner. Another typology reflects understanding of the nature of the strategy introductions to the coordinate system: personal involvement - flexibility:

Conservation ("don't rock the boat");

- smoothing (“emphasize the positive”);

- dominance ("father knows best");

- setting rules;

- coexistence ("you will go one way, and I - another");

- trade ("you - to me, I - to you");

- submission (“go with the flow”);

- supportive freedom ("I support your right to be wrong");

Collaboration (“one head is good, but two is better”).

Some social psychologists identify four strategies behavior of individuals in socio-psychological situations in which there is no common feature. Each of the types of situations is uncomfortable for the individual, but in different ways. It is conditionally possible to give such a classification.

Unbearable negative experiences. If for a person at some stage and in some circumstances it is extremely important to experience a sense of satisfaction, and negative experiences become a burden to him, then any difficulty is perceived by him as a tragedy. He gets heartache, a sense of disaster.Then the mechanisms psychological protection, the essence of which is a distortion of reality. A person, as it were, does not see and does not hear what is happening in reality - the meaning of what is happening is blocked for consciousness. Consciousness resorts to a number of tricks: substitution content, forgetting the essential, suggesting that this is nonsense, interpreting phenomena and events in a completely different gloss,attributing a leading role to completely different people and circumstances, etc. Rationalization (a convenient explanation), projection (it's not me - it's him) and exclusion from consciousness, forgetting unpleasant circumstances - these are typical options for psychological protection, including mechanisms for distorting reality. (More about the mechanisms of psychological defense - in the topic "Psychology of social tension".)

The impossibility of influencing external circumstances. This strategy is used when a person, experiencing some kind of strongneed, cannot satisfy it, because in his arsenalthere is no (or he does not find) suitable means of influencing external circumstances. The conditions here are as follows: the obstacle is external, it is necessary to find a way to overcome it. A person cannot get out of the situation (such are the circumstances).A tragic picture for such a case: first, a person chooses a style of behavior that can, in principle, lead to success, and this behavior is quite well organized. But the result is not achieved, the second attempt also ends in failure, variations begin - again to no avail. A person repeatedly repeats hopeless behavior, or he modifies it so that it is easier to act, but in fact this behavior cannot, in principle, give the desired result. At first, a person is aware of this, and then he is no longer aware of it and continues senseless (in terms of his intentions) behavior, wasting energy, time and increasing internal tension. In parallel, there is a disorganization of the behavior itself: it is less ordered. Finally a man like would“Sticks” on purpose and method: let me die, but I will do it only in this way. Then, if circumstances have changed, there is an opportunity to get out of the situation by changing the goal and activity, he can no longer do this.

Difficulties in choosing the best option. A person in a situation of clash of motives is not able to make a choice. The value system does not work. He hesitates, time passes, the situation disappears, chances are missed, relationships with other people may be disturbed, but he marks time, unable to decide.Most difficult case arises when the whole system of values, by which a person was guided, turns out to be untenable - it led to a collapse in life. Then there are two very contradictory ways. One is to find among the fragments of the destroyed system a new core of the meaning of life: for what, for whom to continue to live. And, based on this, start living in a new way. Another path is connected with truly human freedom, when the main value for which a person lived cannot be assessed by reason. Man recognizes this value as corresponding to a higher reality than that which is accessible to earthly reason. This day for a person is larger than life The man is walking for everything, so as not to cheat on her, and is ready to pay for it with his life (sometimes not only his).

The contradiction between theoretical and practical ways mastery of reality. The point is this. Distinguish between theoretical and practical understanding. Theoretical consciousness builds constructions in the language of concepts and ideal forms, which can be completelydivorced from reality. It does not recognize time, situational and trifles. It is very free. It has an eternal human spirit. But it also plans an order for earthly real practical action: it decides the question of feasibility, hd does not implement.Practical awareness coarsens, “fits” to the place and time, to the available resources, translates into practical language plans for theoretical understanding. Practical awareness is opposed: theoretical awareness, on the one hand, and reality, on the other. Will- this is the mechanism that ensures their agreement and compliance. The most important thing is the stability of the entire system. The fact is that the hierarchy of motives, adopted before the implementation of plans, may change in the process of their implementation. What seemed very desirable before the action, under the influence of difficulties, can lose its attractiveness. Images, situations will begin to change, and the system of motives is destroyed.

The problem of behavior as a special form of activity of an organism mastering the environment was discovered in Russia by IP Pavlov. He introduced the term "behavior", with the help of which it became possible to reflect the sphere of relations of an individual integral interacting organism with the environment in the depths of which it exists and with which it actively interacts. The behavior of individuals in an organization is determined by the rules and restrictions that operate in it to achieve its goals.

It is rather conditional to give a formula of behavior:

where P - behavior, a function of the natural properties of the individual, due to the external environment as a result of socialization; / - features of the individual, his natural properties and characteristics; E - the environment surrounding the individual, those organizations where the process of his socialization takes place.

Behavior has its own characteristics: causality, purposefulness, motivation. Behavior has causes, i.e. any behavior is determined by the events that preceded it and caused it specific form manifestations. Behavior is purposeful - any behavior is determined by the goal, for the achievement of which the individual commits a certain kind actions. Behavior is motivated - in any behavior there is a motive that determines this particular form of its manifestation. In addition, the characteristics of behavior that can be observed are measurable: individual components of behavior can be measured, for example, how quickly we speak, perform a certain type of work, presence or absence at the workplace.

Personnel Competence

The behavior of employees is decisive in the activities of the organization and is an integral part of such a generalizing performance indicator as staff competence. The concept of "competence" is used in modern management to denote the characteristics of personnel necessary for the successful implementation of the chosen strategy of the organization. Competence is a combination of the following factors: knowledge (results of personality education), skills (results of work experience and training), skills behavior and communication (ability to behave in an organization, communicate with people and work in a group) of personnel. Competence acquires practical meaning only in relation to action, relates to a specific situation, combines and connects its constituent elements in a dynamic way to adapt to the requirements of the position.

Maintaining competence at the required level determines the need to manage it. Competency management is a process of developing and maintaining competencies at the level necessary for the organization to implement its main tasks in accordance with the development strategy. If no control actions are introduced, the competence from the stage of effective use will go into the stage of extinction and the specialist may become uncompetitive, and the organization will begin to incur losses (Fig. 25.5). In this regard, it is necessary:

o continuous development of competence (training, maintenance of labor skills, communication skills);
o expansion (change) of the type of activity, transition to the new kind activities and the acquisition of additional competencies.

Rice. 255.

Personnel behavior management- a system of measures for the formation of competency models for employees of the organization, which allows the organization to achieve its goals within the specified time frame and at acceptable costs.

The implementation of the goals of the organization's activities involves the development certain system impact on employees, i.e. managing their behavior.

Another factor that largely determines the behavior of an individual in society is the concept of "perception".

Perceptions and Attitudes

Perception is the process by which an individual gives meaning to the elements and phenomena of the external environment. Perception occurs on the basis of sensation. Perception includes the following steps (Figure 25.6):

1) reflection or registration in the mind of a person of objects or phenomena (information);
2) interpretation - the formation of a picture of reality in the mind of the individual, which may differ significantly from reality;
3) the establishment of feedback, the formation of the actual behavior or attitude of the individual.

Perception is used by the individual to select, store and interpret information into a meaningful and logically constructed picture of the world. The same information is received

Rice. 25.6.

each individual differently depending on the characteristics of perception, and its interpretation will determine the further behavior of the individual. What matters is not what happens, but how it is perceived (see Figure 25.6).

The problem of behavior as a special form of activity of an organism that masters the environment was discovered in Russia and. P. Pavlov.
and. P. Pavlov introduced the term "behavior", with the help of which it became possible to reflect the sphere of relations of an individual integral interacting organism with the environment in the depths of which it exists and with which it actively interacts. The behavior of individuals in an organization is determined by the rules and restrictions that operate in it to achieve its goals.
It is rather conditional to give a formula of behavior:
P \u003d f (I, E),
where P - behavior, a function of the natural properties of the individual, due to the external environment as a result of socialization; I - features of the individual, his natural properties and characteristics; E - the environment surrounding the individual, those organizations where the process of his socialization takes place
Behavior has its own characteristics: causality, purposefulness, motivation Behavior has reasons, that is, any behavior is determined by the events that preceded it and caused a specific form of manifestation. Behavior is purposeful - any behavior is determined by the goal, for the achievement of which the individual performs a certain type of action. Behavior is motivated - in any behavior there is a motive that determines this particular form of its manifestation. In addition, the characteristics of behavior that can be observed are measurable - individual components of behavior can be measured, for example, how quickly we speak, do a certain type of work, presence or absence at the workplace
COMPETENCE OF STAFF
The behavior of employees is decisive in the activities of the organization and is an integral part of such a general indicator of activity as the competence of personnel. The concept of "competence" is used in modern management to refer to the characteristics of personnel necessary for the successful implementation of the chosen strategy of the organization. Competence is a combination of the following factors: knowledge (results of personality education), skills (results of work experience and training), behavioral and communication skills (ability to behave in an organization, communicate with people and work in a group) of personnel Competence acquires practical meaning only in relation to to action, relates to a specific situation, combines and connects its constituent elements in a dynamic way to adapt to the requirements of the position.

To determine the content of competence, it is necessary: to conduct a detailed analysis of all types of activities carried out in this position, and to identify the various components of the required knowledge and skills; build a hierarchy of competence, taking into account the development of all its components; identify components of competence common to various areas of activity
Maintaining competence at the required level determines the need to manage it. Competency management is a process of developing and maintaining competencies at the level necessary for the organization to achieve its main objectives in accordance with the development strategy. If no control actions are introduced, the competence will move from the stage of effective use to the stage of extinction, and the specialist may become uncompetitive, and the organization will begin to incur losses (Fig. 8.6). In this regard, it is necessary: continuous development of competence (training, maintenance of labor skills, communication skills); expansion (change) of the type of activity, transition to a new type of activity and acquisition of additional competencies.
Personnel behavior management is a system of measures for the formation of competency models for employees of an organization, which allows the organization to achieve its goals within the specified time frame and at acceptable costs.
The implementation of the goals of the organization's activities involves the development of a certain system of influence on employees, that is, the management of their behavior. Another factor that largely determines the behavior of an individual in society is the concept of "Perception".

Rice. 8.6. Life cycle employee competencies

PERCEPTION AND ATTITUDE
Perception is the process by which an individual gives meaning to the elements and phenomena of the external environment. Perception is based on sensation. Perception includes the following steps (Figure 8.7):
reflection or registration in the mind of a person of objects or phenomena (information); interpretation - the formation of a picture of reality in the mind of the individual, which may differ significantly from reality. establishing feedback, the formation of the actual behavior or attitude of the personality

Rice. 8.7. Stages of perception of the individual

Perception is used by the individual to select, store and interpret information into a meaningful and logically constructed picture of the world. The same information is perceived by each individual differently depending on the characteristics of perception, and its interpretation will determine the further behavior of the individual. What matters is not what happens, but how it is perceived (see Figure 8.7).
Another factor that determines behavior is the internal self-image of the individual, her "I-image", her self-perception. The essence of this concept is the realization by each person of his individuality, originality, his "I", how the individual sees himself in the past, present and future.
The self-concept was proposed by the American psychologist C. R. Rogers (1902-1987). It is formed in the process of interaction of the individual with the environment and is an integral mechanism for self-regulation of behavior. The self-concept defines a relatively stable, more or less conscious, experienced as a unique system of the individual's ideas about himself, on the basis of which the individual builds his relationships with other people (Fig. 8.8).
The stability of the "I-image" is a prerequisite for the consistency and stability of human behavior. The individual strives to establish and constantly maintain a certain set of properties that characterize, as he thinks, his essence. In accordance with a set of these ideas, an individual builds his relationships with others, makes self-esteem and gives an assessment to other people. In some cases, people can ignore objective information if it does not correspond to their ideas, and agree with erroneous or even false data if they correspond to the prevailing " I-image"
AT human mind laid down psychological mechanisms protection of one's image, one's real "I", they are necessary to maintain the psychological balance and psychological "comfort" of the individual. At the same time, these same

mechanisms can make it difficult to perceive, for example, critical remarks, as they violate the unity of the created internal image, self-image.
The component of the "I-image"

Rice. 8.8. Components of the self-concept

On the basis of perception, the individual forms his attitudes. Attitude - a constant tendency to feel or behave in a certain way in relation to some object, person, situation. Employees do not always come to the organization with those settings that correspond to its goals and objectives: they are late, they do not perform assigned tasks efficiently enough, they are engaged in work time personal affairs, etc. There is a need to develop ways to influence employees to change their attitudes. There are a number of ways to influence the attitudes of employees: providing new information, the impact of fear (medium level), alignment of attitudes and behavior (elimination of dissonance), involvement in cooperation, the influence of colleagues, compensation, etc. The effectiveness of these methods varies and depends on the importance of the interests of the employees on which it is based

More on the topic § 8.1.2. INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR FACTORS DETERMINING INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION:

Chapter 2

5.1. Human behavior as an individual

S. L. Rubinshtein gives the following definition: “Behavior is understood in a certain way organized activity that connects the organism with the environment.

Keeping in mind that a person is a biosocial being, one should also distinguish between the types of his behavior: those that he received by “inheritance”, being a “higher animal” (individual behavior), and those that are the result of his social evolution (human behavior). as a subject and person).

Human behavior as an individual is reflex activity and instincts. Its limit is the mind, the ingenuity of higher animals, acting by trial and error, capable of acquiring and transmitting experience, teaching offspring. Human behavior as a subject and personality - self-awareness and meaningful behavior. A person as a subject and personality is able to limit individual behavior by inhibiting the unrestrainedness of his impulses, by restraining emotions. Of the many goals, motives dictated by the forces of emotions and instincts, the human mind chooses the most rational, more reliably leading to the goal. These are rational, highly intellectual behavior, scientific thinking, building states, creating cultures, civilizations, “conquering” nature (remember, in particular, man’s spacewalk) and inventions, for example, atomic and nuclear weapons.

Thus, the behavior of a person as an individual is an adaptation to the existing conditions of existence. He can choose from the environment what is useful for him. True human behavior, that is, as a subject and a person, in principle changes the relationship with nature, creating the possibility of transforming reality and the subject himself.

Reflex- This is the body's reaction to irritation from the external or internal environment.

Unconditioned reflexes - innate reactions of the body, they were formed in the process of evolution, are inherited and arise under the action of appropriate adequate stimuli. The fund of innate reflexes of each animal species has been formed by evolution in such a way that it would be easier for a living creature that was born and has no previous experience to adapt to environmental conditions and survive.

An unconditioned reflex is an innate species-specific reaction of the body that reflexively occurs in response to a specific effect of a stimulus, to the effect of a biologically significant stimulus (pain, food, tactile irritation), adequate for this type of activity. Unconditioned reflexes are associated with vital biological needs and are carried out within a stable reflex path. They provide the body with the maintenance of vital activity in relatively constant conditions of existence. These include food (chewing, sucking, swallowing, separation of saliva, gastric juice, etc.), defensive (pulling the hand away from a hot object, coughing, sneezing, blinking when an air stream enters the eye, etc.), sexual reflexes (reflexes, associated with the implementation of sexual intercourse, feeding and caring for offspring), thermoregulatory, respiratory, cardiac, vascular reflexes that maintain the constancy of the internal environment of the body (homeostasis), etc.

Conditioned reflexes provide a more perfect adaptation of the body to changing environmental conditions. During individual development a person learns which behavioral responses give the best results, and in accordance with this change their behavior. In other words, conditioned reflexes are not innate and are formed as a result of training; they constitute a certain fund of "knowledge", of a person's individual experience.

Conditioned reflexes are developed on the basis of unconditioned ones. The conditioned reflex is therefore called by I. P. Pavlov “conditioned” because certain conditions are needed for its formation. First of all, you need a conditioned stimulus, or signal. A conditioned stimulus can be any stimulus from the external environment or certain changes internal state organism.

In the laboratory, Pavlov used as conditioned stimuli the flashing of a light bulb, a bell, the gurgling of water, skin irritation, taste, olfactory stimuli, the clanging of dishes, the sight of a burning candle, etc. feeding begins the secretion of gastric juice. Time has become the conditioned stimulus here.

Conditioned reflexes for a while are developed in a person subject to the regime of work, eating at the same time, and a constant time for going to bed. In order to develop a conditioned reflex, the conditioned stimulus must be reinforced with an unconditioned stimulus, that is, one that causes an unconditioned reflex. According to Pavlov's ideas, the formation of a conditioned reflex is associated with the establishment of a temporary connection between two groups of cortical cells: between those who perceive the conditioned and those who perceive the unconditioned stimulation. Under the action of a conditioned stimulus in the corresponding perceiving zone hemispheres(visual, auditory, etc.) there is excitement. When the conditioned stimulus is reinforced with an unconditioned stimulus, a second, stronger focus of excitation appears in the corresponding zone of the cerebral hemispheres, which, apparently, takes on the character of a dominant focus. Due to the attraction of excitation from the focus of lesser strength to the focus of greater strength, the nerve pathway is cut, the summation of excitation occurs. A temporary neural connection is formed between the two foci of excitation. This connection becomes stronger, the more often both parts of the cortex are simultaneously excited. After several combinations, the connection is so strong that under the action of only one conditioned stimulus, excitation also occurs in the second focus. Thus, due to the establishment of a temporal connection, a conditioned stimulus initially indifferent to the organism becomes a signal of a certain innate activity.

Conditioned reflexes contribute to finding food by smell, timely escape from danger, orientation in time and space. Conditioned reflex separation of saliva, gastric, pancreatic juice in appearance, smell, meal time creates Better conditions to digest food before it enters the body. An increase in gas exchange and an increase in pulmonary ventilation before the start of work, only at the sight of the environment in which the work is performed, contribute to greater endurance and better performance of the body during muscular activity.

When environmental conditions change, previously developed conditioned reflexes fade away, new ones are formed. Under the action of a conditioned signal, the cerebral cortex provides the body with a preliminary preparation for responding to those environmental stimuli that will have their effect in the future, therefore, the activity of the cerebral cortex is a signal.

Unlike unconditioned reflexes, which can be carried out at the level spinal cord and the brain stem, conditioned reflexes are predominantly a function of the cerebral cortex, implemented with the participation of subcortical structures.

instincts. Man descended from prehistoric ancestors whose life was governed by instincts, but some scientists believe that as the human mind and the ability to think developed, his instincts atrophied and civilized man remained only in the form of traces of his prehistoric life.

However, a person is not born without knowing anything about him. He is born with programs for how to behave in this world, carefully selected, skillfully formulated instincts. And although the human intellect developed in the course of evolution, however, it could not replace all instincts. The intellect rather controls and modifies the functions of the instincts.

Instinct is a form of mental activity, a type of behavior. AT broad sense instinct is opposed to consciousness. In a more specific sense, instinct is a behavior fixed in biological heredity, characteristic of a given species. Many researchers, for example McDougall, understood by instinct a certain hereditary predisposition to the perception of certain objects of the external and internal world, to the ability to pay attention to them, “to experience special sensory excitement when perceiving such an object and to produce corresponding acts or, at least, to experience an impulse towards them.” An instinct is triggered when the body encounters a certain signal stimulus.

By W. James, instinct is “the ability to act expediently, but without conscious foresight of the goal and without prior training to carry out this action". The only difference from the animal is that thanks to the presence of memory, reflection, a person is able to realize each of the impulses separately, after having once realized them, recognized their results and can foresee them. As a result, the end results of instinctive actions may change.

The academic definition of instinct reads: instinct (from lat. instinctus - prompting) - not acquired, characteristic of a given species, the tendency or predisposition to respond in a certain way, arising under certain stimulus conditions and under certain states of the individual. Moreover, we are talking about a tendency or predisposition, the norm of reaction, but not about some strictly fixed action. In other words, the included instinct does not generate an act, but a desire to do it. And this desire, however, can and in many cases - must be fended off by an effort of will.

Directly or indirectly, instincts are the root cause of human activity. Instinctive impulses determine the goals of any activity and constitute that driving force that keeps the mind active. Instincts govern us through emotions without bothering to motivate. The instinct that prompts a woman to decorate herself, in particular with cosmetics, does not tell her why this should be done - she wants to, and that's it. The logical meaning in this is unequivocal - to attract the attention of men, but most women will categorically deny this, saying that they put on makeup "for themselves." But normal men “for themselves” do not wear makeup! There is no such behavioral program in their instincts. Moreover, the lower the level of a woman's culture, the brighter and rougher the "plaster" - instinctive motives in this case are not restrained and are not corrected by reason.

There are several basic instincts that are equally inherent in both animals and humans. They can be divided into two large groups.

Instincts contributing to the self-preservation of an individual, which are a continuation of primary emotions: the instinct of flight (fear); repulsion (disgust); curiosity (surprise); pugnacity (anger); self-humiliation or self-confidence (negative or positive feeling).

social instincts, aimed at preserving the genus (species), - parental, sexual (reproducing instinct), jealousy arising from any attempt, threat to interfere with the activity of the sexual impulse, herd instinct.

The instinct of self-preservation and the instinct of procreation are basic, they ensure the physical survival of the individual and the species. Specific human instincts- the exploratory instinct and the instinct of freedom - serve the primary specialization of man, and the instinct of domination and the preservation of dignity - the self-affirmation and self-preservation of a person in society. The instinct of altruism socializes the adaptive essence of other instincts.

Social instinct is a program fixed in the genetic code for adaptation, self-preservation and procreation, attitude towards oneself and others.

There is another classification of instincts, characteristic of both man and animals. There are five basic instincts here.

Exist- eat, drink, breathe, have shelter, seek comfort (in animals - eat, drink, have their own hole, their place in the pack).

Grow- grow physically / spiritually, start a family, raise children (in animals - grow physically, master the appropriate behavior, continue the race).

be approved- to win their "place under the sun" (for animals - to take their place in the hierarchy of the pack, for sexual males, the desire to form, take the place of the leader).

defend yourself- prevent others from invading your life, family (in animals - the difference between their own and someone else's flock).

To interact(in animals - association in a flock in the struggle for existence).

Usually in a person one or more instincts dominate, while the rest are less pronounced. From the dominance of one or another instinct follows the primary difference of people.

There are seven types of people according to the dominance of one or another instinct.

egophilic type. Self-preservation dominates. With early childhood there is a tendency to increased caution, to an aggravated abiotic connection with the mother (the child does not let go of his mother a single step), a tendency to suspiciousness, intolerance to pain, anxiety about the unknown, self-centeredness. The creed is “safety and health above all else”. The evolutionary expediency of having this type of people lies in the fact that, while preserving themselves, they are also the guardians of the gene pool of the genus. But the egophilic type can be one of the reasons for the "difficult character", which is characterized by excessive egoism, suspicion, suspiciousness, hysteria, cowardice.

Genophilic type. The instinct of procreation dominates. Already in childhood, interests are fixed on the family, such a child is calm only when the whole family is assembled, everyone is healthy and everyone has good mood. Their credo is “the interests of the family are above all”, “my home is my fortress”. For the sake of children and families, they are ready to sacrifice themselves.

Altruistic type. The instinct of altruism dominates. Since childhood, kindness, caring for loved ones, the ability to give others the last, even what you yourself need, is manifested.

Selfless people who have devoted their lives to public interests, protecting the weak, helping the sick, the disabled, are altruistic people. Credo - "kindness will save the world", "kindness above all." The evolutionary significance for the interests of the species of this type of people is obvious.

Research type. The instinct of exploration dominates. Since childhood, there has been increased curiosity, the desire to get to the bottom of everything, endless questions. Such children are not content with superficial answers, they read a lot, do experiments. In the end, no matter what they are fond of, they grow creative personalities. Great travelers, inventors, scientists are people of this type. Credo - "creativity and progress above all else."

dominant type. Dominance instinct prevails. From childhood, the ability to organize a game, set a goal and focus the will to achieve it, understand people and lead them along, efficiency is manifested. Later, specificity manifests itself as a priority of status needs (careerism), an increased need for control over others, a tendency to take into account the needs of the entire team while neglecting the interests of one particular person. Credo - "business and order are above all", "it will be good for everyone - it will be good for everyone." Leaders, executives, politicians, organizers, but also "difficult characters" of petty fools, tyrants grow up on the basis of this type.

Libertophile type. The instinct of freedom dominates. Already in the cradle, this type of child protests when swaddled; the propensity to protest against any restriction of freedom grows with him. The predominant qualities are the desire for independence, stubbornness, tolerance for pain, deprivation, a predisposition to risk, intolerance to routine, bureaucracy. The instincts of self-preservation and procreation are suppressed, which is manifested in a tendency to leave the family. Credo - "freedom above all." Such people naturally limit tendencies of the dominant type. They are the guardians of freedom, interests and individuality of everyone, and with this - the guardians of life.

Dignitophilic type. The instinct to preserve dignity dominates. Already from childhood, such a child is able to catch irony, ridicule and is absolutely intolerant of any form of humiliation. This is the case when you can negotiate with a child only by convincing him, and only with kindness. Such a person is ready to give up his life, freedom, career, professional interests, and family in the name of preserving honor and dignity. Credo - "There were no cowards and scoundrels in our family!", "Honor is above all!". The evolutionary expediency of this type lies in the fact that they are the guardians of the honor and dignity of the individual, and with this - a life worthy of a person.

Biology, which deals with the description of the life of animal populations, has established that they have cooperation, differentiation, communication, as well as practical intelligence, which were previously attributed only to humans. On the contrary, historians and culturologists note the important role of biological factors even in modern society. History is ruled not only by reason, but also by the “basic instinct”, and therefore, for understanding historical events one has to take into account the passions and affects, desires and inclinations that determine people's behavior.

Let's imagine the most significant instincts (except for the instinct of self-preservation).

Many features of human behavior that seem unique or mysterious do not look so if you know a whole bunch of similar and related patterns of behavior in other species. A person, as a rule, does not feel the innate motivation of his behavior (it seems to him that he himself decided so, he wants it that way, that's the way it should be), but he usually explains it confusingly and incorrectly. But there are innate programs that motivate people's social behavior.

Aggressiveness, dominance and hierarchy - the beginning of all beginnings. The child shows the first signs of aggressiveness long before he learns to speak. Children, especially boys, begin to establish hierarchical relations among themselves in the first years of life; later they begin to play hierarchical games, and at the age of 7-15 they form a rigid pyramidal structure of subordination among themselves. If this process is not managed, the struggle for power in groups of teenagers takes on cruel forms, often criminal ones. The tendency to play these games, unfortunately, does not go away with age. Moreover, some people play them until old age, it becomes the meaning of their life. Moreover, they play seriously and include individuals, society, the state, and the whole world in the game.

Man, like all animals, has many innate behavioral programs (we are born with some knowledge about the world around us and the rules of behavior in it), and in right moment they work. These programs were created in ancient times and in a completely different environment, little like the one in which we now live. Therefore, the behavior they implement is not always adequate to the situation, rational and even desirable (not everything that is natural is good). Due to the initial programming, people are not absolutely free in their behavior, they carry out one scenario easily, another with difficulty, and some scenarios may be completely impossible. For most situations, we have a sufficient set of alternative programs on the basis of which several behaviors can be built (we all know how to steal from the very beginning, and we know that it is bad, whether we will be thieves or honest depends on us, and not on our nature ). Our brain is arranged in such a way that its part responsible for consciousness not only cannot get acquainted with the content of innate programs, but does not even know about their existence. Therefore, when the program begins to be implemented, consciousness serves it without noticing it. It seeks and finds some of its own explanations of behavior and its motives, which are not necessarily correct.

Consider some of the instincts inherent in man.

Aggressiveness man corresponds to the aggressiveness of animals, and sadism has its roots in the instinct of aggression. As in the animal kingdom, aggressiveness is more inherent in men.

Psychologists used to think that aggression was caused by external causes, and if they are removed, it will not appear. This is not true. In the absence of irritants, aggressiveness, the need to commit an aggressive act increases all the time, as if accumulating. And the threshold for launching aggression is lowered, and more and more petty reasons are enough for it to break out. In the end, she breaks out for no reason.

The same accumulated aggression blows up small closed groups of people from within. Several friendly, mutually respecting people who firmly know that it is impossible to conflict under such conditions leave for the winter or on an expedition. Time passes, and if there is no external object for the manifestation of aggressiveness, people in the group begin to hate each other, and the long-held aggression eventually finds the most trifling reason for a big scandal.

AT ordinary life our aggressiveness is discharged daily through a lot of minor conflicts with many people. We can learn how to somehow control our aggressiveness, but we cannot completely eliminate it, because this is one of the strongest human instincts. And it is important to remember that by protecting an aggressive personality from irritants, we do not reduce its aggressiveness, but only accumulate it. It will still break through, and immediately in a large portion.

How is this danger overcome in the animal world? The useful, necessary instinct generally remains unchanged; but for special occasions where its manifestation would be harmful, a specially created braking mechanism is introduced. And here again the cultural-historical development of peoples takes place in a similar way; precisely because essential requirements Moses and other tablets are not prescriptions, but prohibitions. At the origins of human culture, according to K. Lorenz, also stood the formation of rituals through traditions, as in higher animals the formation of mechanisms of inhibition and rituals stood at the birth of social life.

Since in genetic and cultural terms each individual is a unique, inimitable formation, this serves as the basis for constant self-affirmation and rivalry. A person constantly compares his achievements and failures in various fields of activity with the results of others. It is quite understandable that rivalry has been an essential factor in behavior and interpersonal relationships since the dawn of human history.

Lust for power, which has a variety of forms, the struggle for power led to the emergence of forms of human behavior that have no analogue in nature - to war, because only a person is capable of physically destroying his own kind. In the animal world, the problems of hierarchy in communities are usually solved through ritual fights and demonstration of behavior - after all, one of the laws of biological evolution is the principle: "Do not kill those who carry the same information as you."

Hierarchical construction human groupings is inevitable, because we have no other innate programs in this area. A group of people left to themselves always gathers in a hierarchical pyramid. This is the law of nature and cannot be resisted. At the top of the pyramid is the dominant, below is the subdominant, and so on, up to the lowest rank. In addition to aggressiveness, the ability to easily withstand other people's pressure and quickly recover from defeat, all other qualities can be any dominant. He can be both physically strong and weak; both quick-witted and stupid; and take care of the group he leads, and be indifferent to it. Even in cases where a group is organized formally, in order to create order in it, a leader is always appointed, that is, the principle of subordination is taken as a basis.

Teenage hierarchies arise everywhere and everywhere where there are several teenagers, no matter how the educators fought with it. They are very tough: try not to follow the order or disobey the leader. First in the bowels of the hierarchy the boys in game form train their programs; later the ties become so rigid that they are not very hard to break. Even later, some hierarchical structures turn into gangs, while others find a more civilized application.

A normal army is a system deliberately built on a hierarchical principle. But since its content is young people, “non-statutory” hierarchies inevitably arise in it. In a healthy army, they can be kept at a relatively mild level. But in a decayed army, they become very cruel, and senselessly cruel. Hierarchs are intoxicated by unlimited power and the ability to use it in the most ugly form, the purpose of which is to trample and humiliate those who are at the bottom of the pyramid.

Hierarchies of gangs, robbers, pirates, mafia, etc. from time immemorial were formed as a hierarchical structure, the style of behavior of which - from cruel to noble - depended on the personal qualities of the leader.

In essence, the model of the male hierarchy is reproduced today not only in the spontaneously formed groups of teenagers and gangs of bandits, but also in the rationally built structures of the army, the church hierarchy, monastic orders etc. In institutions, subordination is set in some legal way. But the structure of the group does not end there. In parallel, there are also informal structures.

People have come up with many complex and intricate theories that explain some of the features of human behavior, and the casket just opens up: behavior is motivated by an innate program, very simple and rational, tested by natural selection in many species. And whether we use it for the evil of others and ourselves, or for the benefit - depends on our morality and our mind.

Are phenomena such as altruism and selfishness, purely human? R. Dawkins offers an interpretive model of a living individual as a kind of machine programmed for the survival of its genes. Accordingly, where there is the possibility of preserving and transmitting individual genes, selfish forms of behavior prevail, in the same circumstances where the attempt of each individual to preserve individual genes endangers the physical existence of the entire group, altruistic behavioral reactions work. An example is the case of self-sacrifice of adult male chimpanzees, described in the specialized literature, who attacked a tiger in order to enable the rest of the group to escape (does it suggest any analogies with human behavior in special situations?).

So, a person is born with a large number of innate behavior programs. A sufficient coincidence of external conditions and signal signs gives rise to one or another emotion that prompts a person to implement the corresponding instinctive program. At the same time, the true motivation of actions is not realized - for a rational explanation, instinctively motivated behavior the most random arguments are involved, which are in the nature of fitting to the answer.

The mind of the individual cannot somehow change his own instinctive programs; moreover, he does not even know about their existence! He can only disobey them in some cases, but next time the instinct will want to do the same. lowest level the subconscious is an instinct, it executes the programs available to it directly and without options. Programs of the middle level of the subconscious (traditions, habits) can already be somehow modified over time. The mind also makes extensive use of well-functioning behavioral programs, but for the mind they are “information for thought”; the mind does not so much execute its programs as it improvises on their theme.

The nervous structures realizing instincts arose in the deepest antiquity; reasoning, analyzing something, and even just extrapolating is an impossible task for them. They work when a schematic and static template embedded in the instinct coincides with some external signal signs that may accidentally resemble those actually required. However, having free and direct access to the motivational centers of the brain, instincts can cause a feeling of being right in anything.

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