extralinguistic communication. Verbal and non-verbal means of communication

Speech breathing is different from normal, so you need to use pauses and separately train speech to maintain even breathing.

Speech, if you do not take into account the whisper, is formed in the exhalation phase. For the continuous pronunciation of whole semantic segments, which facilitates the perception of coherent speech, an elongated exhalation is necessary. Inhalation during speech breathing, on the contrary, should be as short as possible in order to reduce the pauses caused by it between segments of speech.

In order to ensure a long exhalation, a larger supply of air is needed than with normal breathing. The volume of exhaled air reaches 1-1.5 liters during speech breathing instead of 0.5 liters during normal breathing. An increase in the volume of air used in speech is achieved by taking a deeper breath, as well as by expending part of the reserve air. The need for a quick and deep breath determines such a feature of speech breathing as inhalation, including through the mouth, and not only through the nose, as in normal breathing, since the narrowness of the nasal passages prevents a quick and deep breath through the nose.

Another feature of speech breathing is that exhalation during speech is carried out when active participation muscles, especially the abdominals. This is necessary in order, firstly, to ensure a deeper exhalation and, secondly, to form sufficient pressure of the air jet, without which sonorous speech is impossible.

Speech breathing: pauses.

A fast pace of speech is good, provided that all words are clearly pronounced. But people who speak very fast often don't pause to support normal breathing. A pause is also needed in order to breathe in the air, as if to "recharge" before continuing the speech, and to enable your brain to prepare what will be said, and the listener to realize what has already been said. Pauses give rest to both the brain and the body. Pauses give more meaning to information.

Pausing in speech is considered a sign of good manners. They give the impression that the interlocutor is given the opportunity to insert a remark, if, of course, he so desires. In addition, pauses make it possible to monitor the interlocutor's reaction to what was said. Many of us speak quickly due to nervousness, and shallow breathing helps to reinforce the high rate of speech. Sometimes people try to speak faster so that attention moves to others. Often we are afraid that we are talking boring, that the subject of the statement is not worthy of attention, so we try to express our thoughts quickly. But this makes speech even more boring and useless. Some of us, not trusting ourselves, hesitate to just pause and try to fill in the gaps between words with all sorts of "mmm", "uh", "you understand", and speech takes on a tone of indecision.

If the pauses are too long, the statements sound arrogant, as if we are forcing the interlocutor to be near while we think aloud.

People see that you pause to think, and this gives you additional authority.

If you find it helpful to learn how to pause while speaking, try paying attention to the regularity of your breathing as you speak. You should not frantically swallow the air, no matter how quickly you want to speak out. Remember that pauses also relieve general tension in the body. Also, keep an eye on how people you are interested in use and fill in the gaps.

It is rare for a speaker to think about what a pause is, why it is needed, what kind of pauses there are. It is believed that the pause does not play a special role in speech, that no one notices it, that it is needed solely for inhaling air into the lungs.

Why, then, if our interlocutor suddenly pauses during a conversation, we experience a feeling of excitement: what happened to him? Or was he offended by something, or doubted the correctness of the words? And we look forward to the continuation of the conversation. Indeed, a pause (lat. pause, from the Greek pause- stop, stop) - a temporary stop of sound, during which speech organs do not articulate and which breaks the flow of speech. A pause is silence. But silence can also be expressive and meaningful. The science that studies pauses is called pausology. The first US pausologist, Professor O "Connor, believes that pauses can say about a person no less than words, that they take 40-50 percent of the time in a conversation.

Among the pauses, first of all, the so-called empty pauses that are opposed to pauses meaningful. For example, a student did not prepare for a seminar, but was called to answer. He stands and suffers. He will say a few words and ... pause, waiting for clues. There are other situations as well. There are people who are very limited, their intellect is poorly developed, they read almost nothing, they know little. When they enter into a conversation - .vor, then their speech is "dotted" with pauses that mean nothing, do not carry any information. Such pauses do not create comfort during communication, they drag out the conversation, and even annoy some interlocutors.

Pauses should not be mixed with an empty pause generated by the absence of thought. hesitations, i.e. pauses contemplation, contemplation. Most often, hesitation pauses are found in the speech of people discussing political, social, scientific problems, when the speakers have not yet formed a final opinion on the problem under discussion, they are looking for a solution to the issue, thinking it out loud. Pauses help speakers to formulate their thoughts into sentences, to find the best, most accurate and clear form of presentation. Pauses of reflection occur anywhere in the utterance and reflect fluctuations in the choice of possible speech means. They can be replaced by word combinations: perhaps more accurately; it is better to put it this way; it would be more correct ...; that's not how it should be said. After these reservations, a new formulation of the thought is given. Hesitation pauses are appropriate and necessary.

Important role in oral speech play intonation-syntactic pauses, which reflect the syntactic nature of the sentences. They correspond to punctuation marks in writing and vary in duration. The shortest pause is in place of the comma, and the longest pause is required by the period. An intonational-syntactic pause is separated in sounding speech homogeneous members proposals, plug-in constructions, appeals; a pause fills in the place in the sentence where the omission of a word is implied.

There is a proverb “You can’t keep up with your tongue barefoot.” People who speak quickly often misplace pauses or do not pause at all, which makes it difficult to understand speech. In order for the speech to be clear and understandable, it is necessary to put things in order in the sentence before pronouncing the text aloud, to correctly combine the words into groups, that is, in speech beats. Then it will be clear which word refers to which, how they are combined, from which segments, speech measures a phrase is formed.

Pauses separating one speech beat from another, are called intonation-logical. Changing the place of an intonation-logical pause in the same sentence can significantly change its meaning. This is how the moral of I.A.'s fable will change. Krylova, if you pause where it is (//):

And the chest II just opened. With this pronunciation, it is emphasized that the lock has a simple device. Hence the moral: a person sometimes complicates the situation, the situation, the relationship.

If you say: And the casket just opened, then that would mean it wasn't locked at all. Moral: there is nothing to break into an open door.

A pause can make text awkward. For example, if in a sentence From joy in the goiter C breath stole pause after combination in the goiter After all, it is not joy that is in the goiter, but the breath in it has stolen. A pause is required after a word joy: From joy // in the goiter the breath stole.

Of particular interest to speakers and researchers of sounding speech are the pauses that accompany emotional speech. They convey the feelings that gripped the speaker: excitement, resentment, love, delight, happiness, etc. Such breaks are called emotional. They are indicated on the letter with ellipsis.

There are two more types of pauses. Imagine a picture: they are going entry exams, applicants write a dictation. The teacher reads the text slowly, repeats parts of the sentence and pauses while repeating. Or recruits marching on the parade ground. The command is given: “On ... le ... in! Step ... march!

Than in this case pauses caused? Situation. What is their function? It is necessary that the applicants have time to write the text of the dictation, so that the recruits have time to prepare to execute the command. Since pauses are caused by a particular situation, they are called situational.

And finally pauses physiological. They appear when there is not enough air in the lungs, especially when short of breath, or when the central nervous system, and as a result, it is forgotten right word It's hard to express any idea.

In conclusion, we quote the words of K.S. Stanislavsky: "The pause is the most important element of our speech and one of its main trump cards."

That is why it is important to know what types of pauses are, what their function is, how they should be used in speech.

Paralinguistic and extralinguistic systems of signs are also "additions" to verbal communication. The paralinguistic system is a vocalization system, i.e. voice quality, its range, tonality. Extralinguistic system - the inclusion of pauses in speech, other inclusions, such as coughing, crying, laughter, and finally, the tempo of speech itself. All these additions increase the semantic

visually significant information, but not through additional speech inclusions, but by “near-speech” techniques.

The organization of space and time of the communicative process is also a special sign system, carries a semantic load as a component of a communicative situation. The advantage of some spatial forms of organization of communication both for two partners in the communicative process and in mass audiences has been experimentally proven.

Proxemics, as a special area dealing with the norms of the spatial and temporal organization of communication, currently has a large amount of experimental material. The founder of proxemics E. Hall, who calls proxemics "spatial psychology", studied the first forms of spatial organization of communication in animals. In the case of human communication, a special method for assessing the intimacy of communication is proposed based on the study of the organization of its space. So, Hall fixed the norms of approaching a person to a communication partner, characteristic of American culture: intimate distance (0-45cm); personal distance (45-120 cm), social distance(120-400 cm); public distance (400-750 cm). Each of them is peculiar to specific situations of communication. These studies are of great applied value, especially when analyzing the success of various discussion groups .

The next specific sign system used in the communication process is the “eye contact” that takes place in visual communication. Research in this area is closely related to general psychological research in the field of visual perception- eye movements. In socio-psychological research, the frequency of exchange of glances, their duration, the change in the statics and dynamics of the gaze, its avoidance, etc. are studied. "Eye contact" at first glance seems to be such a sign system, the meaning of which is very limited, for example, within the limits of purely intimate communication. Indeed, in the initial studies of this problem, "eye contact" was tied to the study of intimate communication. M. Argyle developed a certain "formula of intimacy", having found out the dependence of the degree of intimacy, including on such a parameter as the distance of communication, which allows eye contact to a different extent. However, later the range of such studies became much wider: signs represented by eye movements are included in a wider range of communication situations. Like all non-verbal means, eye contact has the value of supplementing verbal communication, that is, it indicates readiness to support communication or stop it, encourages the partner to continue the dialogue, and finally, helps to reveal one’s “I” more fully, or, on the contrary, hide his .

Thus, the analysis of all systems non-verbal communication shows that they undoubtedly play a large auxiliary (and sometimes independent) role in the communicative process. Possessing the ability not only to strengthen or weaken the verbal impact, all systems of non-verbal communication help to identify such an essential parameter of the communicative process as the intentions of its participants. Together with the verbal communication system, these systems provide the exchange of information that people need to organize. joint activities.

2. Communication as interaction (interactive side of communication)

2.1 Place of interactionin the structure of communication

The interactive side of communication is a conditional term denoting the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities.

If the communicative process is born on the basis of some joint activity, then the exchange of knowledge and ideas about this activity inevitably implies that the mutual understanding achieved is realized in new joint attempts to further develop the activity, to organize it. The participation of many people at the same time in this activity means that everyone should make their own special contribution to it, which allows us to interpret the interaction as the organization of joint activities.

In the course of it, it is extremely important for the participants not only to exchange information, but also to organize an "exchange of actions", to plan general activities. With this planning, it is possible to regulate the actions of one individual by “plans that have matured in the head of another”, which makes the activity truly joint, when it is no longer a separate individual, but a group that will act as its carrier. Thus, the question of what “other” side of communication is revealed by the concept of “interaction” can now be answered: the side that captures not only the exchange of information, but also the organization joint action, allowing partners to implement some common activity for them. Such a solution to the problem excludes the separation of interaction from communication, but also excludes their identification: communication is organized in the course of joint activity, “about” it, and it is in this process that people need to exchange both information and activity itself, that is, to develop forms and norms of joint action .

Each situation dictates its own style of behavior and actions: in each of them, a person “feeds” himself differently, and if this self-feeding is not adequate, interaction is difficult. If a style is formed on the basis of actions in a particular situation, and then mechanically transferred to another situation, then, naturally, success cannot be guaranteed. There are three main styles of action: ritual, manipulative and humanistic. It is especially easy to show the need to correlate the style with the situation using the example of the use of ritual style. Ritual style is usually given by some culture. For example, the style of greetings, the questions asked at the meeting, the nature of the expected answers. So, in American culture, it is customary to answer the question: “How are you?” to answer “Great!”, no matter how things really are. It is common for our culture to answer “essentially”, moreover, not to be embarrassed by the negative characteristics of our own being (“Oh, there is no life, prices are rising, transport is not working”, etc.). A person accustomed to a different ritual, having received such an answer, will be puzzled how to interact further. As for the use of a manipulative or humanistic style of interaction, this is a separate a big problem, especially in practical social psychology.

It is important to make a general conclusion that the division of a single act of interaction into such components as the positions of the participants, the situation and the style of actions also contributes to a more thorough psychological analysis this side of communication, making a certain attempt to connect it with the content of the activity.

Through the analysis of prosodic and extralinguistic characteristics, the image of a person, the features of his speech, the manner of speaking, laughing and even crying, i.e. everything that contributes to the manifestation of mental individuality.

Prosody is common name such rhythmic and intonational aspects of speech as pitch, loudness of voice tone, voice timbre, stress force.

The extralinguistic system is the inclusion of pauses in speech, as well as various kinds of psychological manifestations human: crying, coughing, laughing, sighing, etc.

These means regulate the flow of speech, save language tools communication, they complement, replace and anticipate speech utterances, express emotional states.

In business interaction, “rhetorical tricks”, i.e., emotional stimuli, are very often used. It is important for business people to evoke not just emotions in the interlocutor, but precisely those that are necessary to achieve certain goals and intentions.

Virtually unbeatable in business communication is the energy of speech: its expression and tonal variation. F. M. Dostoevsky in the novel "Demons" describes speech capabilities one of the heroes - P. Verkhovensky: “He speaks quickly, hastily, but at the same time self-confidently and does not go into his pocket for a word ... His reprimand is surprisingly clear, his words are poured like equal, strong grains, always ready for your services. At first you like it, but then it becomes disgusting, namely from this too clear reprimand, from this bead of eternally ready words.

It is the unity of behavior and pronunciation of words that influences the interlocutor and creates trust.

AT business communication when using verbal and non-verbal means, the one who owns the subtle tools of excitation of emotions and feelings achieves maximum success.

The famous artist I. Ilyinsky wrote in the book “On Myself”: “... Intonations human voice are especially colorful, varied, deep and penetrating when they are pronounced in a natural rather than forcing voice, and when they are pronounced in this way, they penetrate especially deeply into the soul of the listener, carrying the necessary thought.

Intonation is understood as all phenomena, sound means of language, which are associated with the voice and do not require our attention to be concentrated on the content of what was said. These are intonation, speech melody, the presence and duration of pauses, voice volume, speech rhythm, etc.

“Free” the voice of V. Vysotsky from his inherent intonations, and it will no longer be his voice. With his hoarseness and extraordinary intensity of emotions, he turned words that were simple in meaning into emotional anguish, forcing people to look at many things in life with different eyes and, calling for reflection on how and in the name of what to live.

Intonation can instantly cross out words of condolence or congratulations. There are the following voice characteristics:

Speech speed. A lively, lively manner of speaking, a fast pace of speech indicates the impulsiveness of the interlocutor, his self-confidence; a calm, slow manner indicates equanimity, prudence, thoroughness; noticeable fluctuations in the speed of speech reveal a lack of balance, uncertainty, and slight excitability of a person. In the countries of Indo-European languages, they speak at a speed of 200 to 500 words per minute. Based on this:

less than 200 words per minute - relatively slow speech;

about 350 words per minute is relatively normal speech;

about 500 words - relatively fast speech. Verbal communication specialists believe that, for example, for the French or Italians, the “normal speed” is usually higher than for the Germans. That is why it is so difficult to translate Italian and French films into German: synchronization becomes extremely difficult; when translating from English, the problem is exactly the opposite.

Volume. A large volume of voice is inherent, as a rule, in the true strength of motives ( vitality), or complacency, low volume indicates restraint, modesty, tact or lack of vitality, human weakness, strong changes in volume indicate emotionality and excitement of the interlocutors. As communicative practice shows, strengthening emotional speech in other cases, the absence of logical arguments contributes. They say that when Churchill was preparing for speeches, then, working with the text, he made notes like “Arguments are weak, strengthen your voice ...”

Articulation. The clear and distinct pronunciation of words indicates inner discipline, a need for clarity, and a lack of liveliness; obscure, vague pronunciation indicates compliance, uncertainty, softness, lethargy of will.

Voice height. Falsetto is often inherent in a person whose thinking and speech come more from the intellect; chest voice - thinking and voice are accompanied by increased emotionality; a high penetrating voice is a sign of fear and excitement; a low tone of voice is relaxation, peace and dignity.

The voices are imprinted by their own character. Thus, the low male voice, influenced by cinematic clichés, became a sign of masculinity, and many young people in America lost their voices, trying to imitate them.

Mode, or course of speech. Rhythmic speaking - a wealth of feelings, balance, as a rule, a good mood; strictly cyclic, correct speaking - a strong awareness of what is being experienced, willpower, discipline, pedantry, coldness of feelings; rounded manner of speaking - deep, full emotional life; angular-jerky manner - sober, expedient thinking. In addition, the perception of information can be influenced by the timbre of the voice. For example, a pleasant tone of voice promotes trust. Here is a quote from an ancient source about Cleopatra: “She had a wonderful voice, and thanks to her charm, she knew how to talk to everyone. It was a great pleasure to sit and listen to her, so she could overthrow anyone: both a cold-blooded person and an elderly one.

It is necessary to be able not only to listen, but also to hear the intonational structure of speech, to evaluate the strength and tone of the voice, the speed of speech, which practically allow us to express our feelings, thoughts, volitional aspirations not only along with the word, but also in addition to it, and sometimes contrary.

As mentioned above, extralinguistic means include pauses and other inclusions, such as sighing, crying, laughing, etc.

During the interaction of people, pauses sometimes occur, the reasons for which are very diverse:

to give additional force to subsequent words;

due to the fact that the interlocutor thought;

to buy time for reflection;

as a reaction to body signals of the interlocutor, indicating a desire to say something;

because the speaker is distracted, etc. If one of the partners is distracted

(for example, someone peeked in, opening the door ajar), then there is a pause, followed by either a thoughtful question, or something like “however ...”, “by the way ...”. Thus, a pause in its meaning, in principle, does not represent anything. However, as practice shows, it often carries a lot more information than can sometimes be contained in words.

Laughter is considered an anti-stress factor. Thanks to him, the situation is discharged, stress is relieved, it is a healing agent.

People laugh for a variety of reasons:

something funny or comical caught my eye;

they are waiting for someone's prepared trick;

want to demonstrate some kind of attitude towards a partner, then laughter can be caustic, malevolent, ironic, cynical, ruthless or hostile.

There is a happy laugh that demonstrates joy, pleasure, approval, especially when a person hears what he wants. Finally, laughter can be artificial, that is, forced, tortured, laughter is a mask, a game - to achieve some intentions.

During a conversation, a person can also pronounce a variety of sounds that do not have verbal content, but they “speak”. These sounds may be different meaning, depending on the situation. People who make such sounds are usually not aware of this, so we can record their repetition in the same people. So, for example, there are people who find everything that happens tragic, hopeless, so they, without realizing it, constantly sigh and moan.

Such human manifestations during communication, such as coughing or coughing, do not always indicate specific pathogens (for example, smoke), sometimes it is a desire to “cough something”. The often manifested shortness of breath is interpreted in a similar way: when a person is tormented by “something” from the inside, he wants to symbolically burp this “something”.

So, para- and extralinguistic features of speech allow you to get the most various information that complements body language and draw conclusions about personality traits person, his character, internal states and feelings.

Takesic means of communication include dynamic touches in the form of a handshake, patting, kissing. Dynamic touch has been proven to be a biologically necessary form of stimulation and not just a sentimental detail of human communication. The use of dynamic touch in communication is determined by many factors. Among them, partner status, age, gender, and the degree of their acquaintance have special power.

Handshake, for example, is divided into 3 types: dominant (hand on top, palm turned down), submissive (hand below, palm turned up) and equal. The usual form is a firm shake, and then some “shaking” of the hands. If the shaking of someone else's hand is too strong or, conversely, very sluggish, it can make an unpleasant impression. A double handshake indicates deep respect. Handshakes are appropriate in many cases: at meetings, congratulations, as an expression of agreement, friendship. If someone refuses to shake hands in response to the invitation of the interlocutor, he may come across as rude and ill-mannered.

Such a tactical element as a pat on the shoulder or hugging a partner's shoulder emphasizes friendly relations. However, for many people, this form of manifestation of feelings is simply unacceptable and unpleasant.

Some people like any kind of touching them. Others do not like this and are unhappy with the obsession on the part of the interlocutor.

Takes means of communication, to a greater extent than other non-verbal means, perform in communication the functions of an indicator of status-role relations, a symbol of the degree of closeness of the communicants. Inadequate use of tactical means by a person can lead to conflicts in communication.

Any communication process is spatially and temporally organized. So, for example, placing partners facing each other contributes to the emergence of contact, symbolizes attention to the speaker, while a shout in the back can also have certain value a certain order. The advantage of some spatial forms of organization of communication both for two people and in mass audiences has been experimentally proven.

In the same way, some norms developed in various subcultures regarding the temporal characteristics of communication act as a kind of supplement to semantically meaningful information. For example, arriving on time for the start of business negotiations symbolizes courtesy towards the interlocutor; on the contrary, being late is interpreted as a manifestation of disrespect. In some special areas, various "tolerances" of lateness with their corresponding values ​​have been developed in detail.

By the way, in different cultures There are different standards for the distance at which communication is allowed. Therefore, the Hispanic, who is accustomed to more close quarters in communication, tries to approach him closer during a conversation with a European. He starts backing off. And each of them is offended: the Latin American believes that the European does not want to talk to him normally, and the European sees the American as an aggressor invading his territory.

One of the first to study the spatial structure was the American anthropologist E. Hall, who introduced the term "proxemics", the literal translation of which means "proximity". Proxemic characteristics include the orientation of partners at the time of communication and the distance between them.

E. Hall described the norms of approaching a person to a person - the distances characteristic of North American culture. These norms are defined by four distances:

intimate distance (from 0 to 45 cm) - communication of the closest people: children, parents, spouses, lovers, relatives, close friends;

personal, personal (from 45 to 120 cm) - communication with familiar people: communication at a party, an official reception, a friendly evening;

social (from 120 to 400 cm) - preferably when communicating with strangers and in official communication;

public (from 400 to 750 cm) - when speaking to various audiences.

Violation optimal distance communication is perceived negatively.

Orientation and angle of communication are proxemic components of the non-verbal system. Orientation, expressed in the rotation of the body and the toe of the foot in the direction of the partner or away from him, signals the direction of his thoughts.

It has been observed that during negotiations, when one of the participants decides to end the discussion or simply leave the meeting, he involuntarily turns his whole body or directs his legs towards the exit.

The angle at which people position their bodies also provides very valuable non-verbal information. For example, the bodies of two communicating men are turned towards the imaginary apex of the triangle. This is a kind of non-verbal invitation to a third person to join their conversation by standing at this point.

The effectiveness of business communication depends on what place the participants in communication occupy at the table. There are four positions of the parties at the table.

Corner location. This position is most characteristic of a friendly casual conversation, although it is also possible for a business conversation, for example, a doctor - a patient. This arrangement does not interfere with visual contact, and also provides the opportunity to make many gestures and notice the gestures of the interlocutor. The corner of the table serves as a partial barrier, in case of aggressive behavior of the interlocutor, you can move further, in a situation of mutual understanding - get closer, territorial division while it is absent.

Cooperative behavior is necessary for direct business interaction. When one task or problem is being solved together, people need to sit side by side in order to better understand each other's actions and intentions, to see the materials being analyzed, to discuss and develop common solutions.

Competitive-defensive position The position of partners against each other creates an atmosphere of rivalry, in which each of the participants in the interaction strictly leads his own line, defends his position, tries to beat the “rival”. The table between them becomes a kind of barrier. It is extremely difficult to reach consensus in such a seating arrangement, even a compromise is difficult, but confrontation, conflict may well complete communication. However, such a landing may indicate subordination. The conversation in such a situation should be short and specific. In real practice, this is how they sit down at the negotiating table.

independent position. AT certain situations business communication, it is advisable to take such a position, that is, diagonally across the entire table. This position is typical for people who do not want to interact. It indicates a lack of interest or a desire to go unnoticed, for example: at a business meeting, seminar, etc.

Finally, integral part non-verbal means of communication is the image of a person, the way he looks in the eyes of others. One of the most important elements of the image is the manner of dressing.

An old proverb says: “They meet by clothes ...”. Studies show that in 85 cases out of 100, after the first meeting, people form an image of a person for themselves according to their personality. appearance. The first minute of the meeting is decisive in creating a social and psychological partner, it determines the nature of further interactions. It is difficult to change the first impression afterwards. Therefore, even the most intelligent, kind, sociable and benevolent person, a unique specialist, in the end, even a genius needs to be attentive to his appearance if he wants to establish good relations with others. Many examples of non-verbal communication are recorded in the memoirs of the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck: “I never felt the need to wear orders, except in St. Petersburg and Paris; in these capitals it is simply necessary to show yourself in the street with nothing more than a ribbon in your buttonhole if you want to be treated politely by the police and the public. One street boy called after me: "Look, it's a Frenchman." Subsequently, I repeatedly presented a reason to recall this review. My long goatee - the only thing that I didn’t shave off - a soft hat and tailcoat made the boy feel something exotic.

At all times, clothing expressed belonging to a particular social group, caste, confession or profession. The dress code in many cases was regulated by the decrees of the monarchs, for the violation of these decrees the perpetrators were brought to trial.

For example, in 1615.g. in the Czech Republic, the Sejm declared the brocade cloak, which had gone out of fashion by that time, official clothing, without which it was forbidden to appear in the Paris Castle.

And in Russian Empire in 1742 a decree was issued forbidding persons who did not have a rank to wear velvet clothes.

AT recent times clothing requirements are far from being as categorical as they used to be. However, even now, in developed democracies, entrepreneurs attach a lot of great importance appearance of their employees and business partners.

many situations modern life require a strictly defined uniform. First of all, these are protocol events. Protocol does not allow a woman to appear at the reception of the monarch in a miniskirt.

Citizens and women who come to an audience with the ambassador of another country or minister in torn jeans, shorts and miniskirts may simply not be allowed by the secretary of a high-ranking official. Even in a decent restaurant, men in shorts, without a jacket and tie are not allowed. Interestingly, in the English Parliament, for example, in the summer - you can not appear in a red suit. This is considered bad manners. But in winter you can.

So, the image that a person has created can be strengthened or weakened by the style of clothing and appearance.

Everything is important here - what style, color, material for the suit is chosen; how jewelry, perfumery, make-up, hairstyle are combined; formality or carelessness in dress, etc. Experts are convinced that if a person has made right choice in every detail, his chances of success and respect in the team can exceed all expectations. If the choice turned out to be unsuccessful, many unnecessary and unpleasant questions may arise that will be remembered for many years. It should be noted that the non-verbal behavior of the individual is multifunctional, it:

creates the image of a communication partner;

expresses the relationship of communication partners, forms these relationships;

is an indicator of the actual mental states of the individual;

acts as a clarification, change in the understanding of the verbal message, enhances the emotional richness of what was said;

maintains an optimal level of psychological closeness between communicating;

acts as an indicator of status-role relations.

So, to conclude this section, we can quote the words of Goethe: "There is nothing inside, nothing comes from there, since everything that is inside is outside."

Communication is carried out different means. Allocate verbal and non-verbal means of communication.

Verbal communication(sign) is carried out with the help of words. To verbal means communication refers to human speech. Communication experts have calculated that modern man pronounces approximately 30,000 words a day, or more than 3,000 words per hour.

There are various speech texts. Any text (written or oral) implements a system of language.

So, language is a system of signs and ways of connecting them, which serves as an instrument for expressing thoughts, feelings and wills of people and is the most important means of human communication. The language is used in a wide variety of functions:
- Communicative. Language acts as the main means of communication. Due to the presence of such a function in the language, people have the opportunity to fully communicate with their own kind.
- Cognitive. Language as an expression of the activity of consciousness. We receive most of the information about the world through language.
- Accumulative. Language as a means of accumulation and storage of knowledge. The person tries to keep the acquired experience and knowledge in order to use them in the future. AT Everyday life we are rescued by abstracts, diaries, notebooks. And the "notebooks" of all mankind are different kind monuments of writing and fiction which would not have been possible without the existence of a written language.
- Constructive. Language as a means of forming thoughts. With the help of language, thought “materializes”, acquires sound form. Expressed verbally, the thought becomes distinct, clear to the speaker himself.
- Emotional. Language as one of the means of expressing feelings and emotions. This function is realized in speech only when it is directly expressed emotional attitude person to what he is talking about. Intonation plays a big role in this.
- Contact setting. Language as a means of establishing contact between people. Sometimes communication seems to be aimless, its information content is zero, only the ground is being prepared for further fruitful, trusting communication.
- Ethnic. Language as a means of uniting people.

Under speech activity refers to a situation where a person uses language to communicate with other people. There are several types of speech activity:
- speaking - the use of language in order to communicate something;
- - perception of the content of sounding speech;
- writing - fixing the content of speech on paper;
- reading - the perception of information recorded on paper.

From the point of view of the form of existence of the language, communication is divided into oral and written, and from the point of view of the number of participants - into interpersonal and mass.

Any national is heterogeneous, it exists in different forms. From the point of view of social and cultural status, literary and non-literary forms of the language are distinguished.

The literary form of the language, otherwise - the literary language, is understood by the speakers as exemplary. Main feature literary language- the presence of stable norms.

Literary language has two forms: oral and written. First - sounding speech, and the second - graphically designed. oral form primordial. Non-literary forms of the language include territorial and social dialects, vernacular.

For behavior, it is non-verbal means of communication that are of particular importance. In non-verbal communication, the means of transmitting information are non-verbal signs (postures, gestures, facial expressions, intonations, attitudes, spatial arrangement, etc.).

To the main non-verbal means of communication relate:
Kinetics - contemplates outward manifestation human feelings and emotions in the process of communication. It includes:
- gesture;
- facial expressions;
- pantomime.

Gesture. Gestures are various movements of the hands and head. Sign language is the oldest way to achieve mutual understanding. In various historical eras and different peoples had their own generally accepted ways of gesticulation. Currently, attempts are even being made to create gesture dictionaries. Quite a lot is known about the information that gestures carry. First of all, the amount of gesture is important. Different peoples developed and entered into natural forms expressions of feelings different cultural norms of strength and frequency of gestures. M. Argyle's research, which studied the frequency and strength of gestures in different cultures, showed that within one hour the Finns gesticulated 1 time, the French - 20, the Italians - 80, the Mexicans - 180.

The intensity of gestures can grow along with an increase in the emotional arousal of a person, and also if you want to achieve a more complete understanding between partners, especially if it is difficult.

The specific meaning of individual gestures is different in different cultures. However, in all cultures there are similar gestures, among which are:
Communicative (gestures of greeting, farewell, attracting attention, prohibitions, affirmative, negative, interrogative, etc.)
Modal, i.e. expressing assessment and attitude (gestures of approval, satisfaction, trust and distrust, etc.).
Descriptive gestures that make sense only in the context of a verbal utterance.

Mimic. Facial expressions are the movements of the muscles of the face, main indicator feelings. Studies have shown that with a motionless or invisible face of the interlocutor, up to 10-15% of information is lost. There are over 20,000 descriptions of facial expressions in the literature. Main characteristic facial expressions is its integrity and dynamism. This means that in the facial expression of the face of the six main emotional states(anger, joy, fear, sadness, surprise, disgust) all facial muscle movements are coordinated. The main informative load in the mimic plan is carried by eyebrows and lips.

Visual contact is also exclusively important element communication. Looking at the speaker means not only interest, but also helps to focus on what we are being told. Communicating people usually look into each other's eyes for no more than 10 seconds. If we are looked at a little, we have reason to believe that we or what we say are treated badly, and if there is too much, it may be perceived as a challenge or a good attitude towards us. In addition, it has been observed that when a person lies or tries to hide information, his eyes meet the eyes of a partner for less than 1/3 of the conversation time.

In part, the longitude of a person's gaze depends on what nation he belongs to. Inhabitants southern Europe have high frequency look, which may seem offensive to others, and the Japanese, when talking, look more at the neck than at the face.

According to its specificity, a look can be:
- Business - when the gaze is fixed on the forehead of the interlocutor, this implies the creation of a serious atmosphere of business partnership
- Social - the gaze is concentrated in the triangle between the eyes and the mouth, this contributes to the creation of an atmosphere of easy secular communication.
- Intimate - the gaze is directed not into the eyes of the interlocutor, but below the face - to the level of the chest. Such a look indicates a great interest in each other in communication.
- A sideways glance is used to convey interest or hostility. If it is accompanied by slightly raised eyebrows or a smile, it indicates interest. If it is accompanied by a frowning forehead or lowered corners of the mouth, this indicates a critical or suspicious attitude towards the interlocutor.

Pantomime is a gait, posture, posture, general motor skills of the whole body.

Gait is the way a person moves. Its components are: rhythm, step dynamics, amplitude of body transfer during movement, body weight. By the gait of a person, one can judge the well-being of a person, his character, age. In psychological studies, people recognized emotions such as anger, suffering, pride, happiness by walking. It turned out that a "heavy" gait is typical for people who are angry, "light" - for joyful ones. A proud person has the longest stride, and if a person suffers, his gait is lethargic, oppressed, such a person rarely looks up or in the direction he is walking.

In addition, it can be argued that people who walk quickly, waving their arms, are confident in themselves, have a clear goal and are ready to realize it. Those who always keep their hands in their pockets are likely to be very critical and secretive, as a rule, they like to put other people down. A person who keeps his hands on his hips seeks to achieve his goals in the shortest possible way in the minimum amount of time.

Posture is the position of the body. Human body able to take about 1000 stable different positions. The pose shows how this person perceives his status in relation to the status of other persons present. Persons with higher status adopt a more relaxed posture. Otherwise, conflict situations may arise.

One of the first to point out the role of a person's posture as a means in non-verbal communication was the psychologist A. Sheflen. AT further research, conducted by V. Schubts, it was revealed that the main semantic content of the posture is the individual's placement of his body in relation to the interlocutor. This placement indicates either closeness or a disposition for communication.

A pose in which a person crosses his arms and legs is called a closed position. Arms crossed on the chest are a modified version of the barrier that a person puts up between himself and his interlocutor. A closed posture is perceived as a posture of distrust, disagreement, opposition, criticism. Moreover, about a third of the information perceived from such a posture is not absorbed by the interlocutor. Most in a simple way getting out of this position is an offer to hold or look at something.

An open position is one in which the arms and legs are not crossed, the body is directed towards the interlocutor, and the palms and feet are turned towards the communication partner. This is a posture of trust, consent, goodwill, psychological comfort.

If a person is interested in communication, he will focus on the interlocutor and lean towards him, and if he is not very interested, on the contrary, orient himself to the side and lean back. A person who wants to make himself known will keep himself upright, in a tense state, with his shoulders turned; a person who does not need to emphasize his status and position will be relaxed, calm, in a free, relaxed position.

The best way to achieve mutual understanding with the interlocutor is to copy his posture and gestures.

Takeshika - the role of touch in the process non-verbal communication. Handshakes, kisses, stroking, pushing, etc. stand out here. Dynamic touch has been proven to be a biologically necessary form of stimulation. A person's use of dynamic touch in communication is determined by many factors: the status of partners, their age, gender, degree of acquaintance.

Inadequate use of tactical means by a person can lead to conflicts in communication. For example, a pat on the shoulder is possible only under the condition of close relations, equality social status in society.

Shaking hands is a multi-talking gesture known since ancient times. primitive people at a meeting, they extended their hands to each other with open palms forward to show their unarmedness. This gesture has changed over time, and its variants have appeared, such as waving the hand in the air, placing the palm on the chest, and many others, including the handshake. Often a handshake can be very informative, especially its intensity and duration.

Handshakes are divided into 3 types:
- dominant (hand on top, palm turned down);
- submissive (hand below, palm turned up);
- equal.

The dominant handshake is the most aggressive form of it. With a dominant (powerful) handshake, a person tells the other that he wants to dominate the communication process.

A submissive handshake is necessary in situations where a person wants to give the initiative to another, to let him feel like the master of the situation.

A gesture called "glove" is often used: a person wraps both hands around the other's hand. The initiator of this gesture emphasizes that he is honest and can be trusted. However, the “glove” gesture should be applied to well-known people, because at the first meeting, it can have the opposite effect.

A firm handshake up to the crunch of fingers is hallmark aggressive, tough person.

A sign of aggressiveness is also shaking with an unbent, straight hand. Its main purpose is to keep a distance and prevent a person from entering his intimate zone. The same goal is pursued by shaking the fingertips, but such a handshake indicates that a person is not confident in himself.

Proxemics - defines the areas of the most effective communication. E. Hall identifies four main areas of communication:
- Intimate zone(15-45 cm) - a person allows only people close to him to enter it. In this zone, a quiet confidential conversation is conducted, tactile contacts are made. Violation of this zone by outsiders causes physiological changes in the body: an increase in heart rate, an increase in blood pressure, a rush of blood to the head, an adrenaline rush, etc. The invasion of a “stranger” into this zone is regarded as a threat.
- Personal (personal) zone (45 - 120 cm) - a zone of everyday communication with friends and colleagues. Only visual eye contact is allowed.
- Social zone (120 - 400 cm) - a zone for official meetings and negotiations, meetings, administrative conversations.
- Public area (more than 400 cm) - a zone of communication with large groups people during lectures, rallies, public speaking etc..

In communication, it is also important to pay attention to vocal characteristics related to non-verbal communication. Prosody is the general name for such rhythmic and intonational aspects of speech as pitch, volume of voice, its timbre.

Extralinguistics is the inclusion of pauses and various non-morphological human phenomena in speech: crying, coughing, laughter, sighing, etc.

The flow of speech is regulated by prosodic and extralinguistic means, linguistic means of communication are saved, they supplement, replace and anticipate speech statements, express emotional states.

It is necessary to be able not only to listen, but also to hear the intonation structure of speech, to evaluate the strength and tone of the voice, the speed of speech, which practically allow us to express our feelings and thoughts.

Although nature has endowed people with a unique voice, they give color to it themselves. Those who tend to sharply change the pitch of their voices tend to be more cheerful. More sociable, more confident, more competent and much more pleasant than people who speak in a monotone.

Experienced by the speaker is reflected primarily in the tone of voice. In it, feelings find their expression regardless of the spoken words. Thus, anger and sadness are usually easily recognized.

A lot of information is given by the strength and height of the voice. Some feelings, such as enthusiasm, joy, and distrust, are usually conveyed high voice, anger and fear - also in a rather high voice, but in a wider range of tonality, strength and pitch of sounds. Feelings such as grief, sadness, fatigue are usually conveyed in a soft and muffled voice with a decrease in intonation towards the end of each phrase.

The speed of speech also reflects feelings. A person speaks quickly if he is excited, worried, talks about his personal difficulties or wants to convince us of something, to persuade. Slow speech most often indicates depression, grief, arrogance, or fatigue.

By making minor mistakes in speech, for example, repeating words, choosing them uncertainly or incorrectly, breaking off phrases in mid-sentence, people involuntarily express their feelings and reveal intentions. Uncertainty in the choice of words manifests itself when the speaker is not sure of himself or is going to surprise us. Usually speech deficiencies are more pronounced with excitement or when a person tries to deceive his interlocutor.

Since the characteristics of the voice depend on the work of various organs of the body, their state is also reflected in it. Emotions change the rhythm of breathing. Fear, for example, paralyzes the larynx, vocal cords tense, the voice "sits down". With a good mood, the voice becomes deeper and richer in shades. It has a calming effect on others and inspires more confidence.

There is also Feedback: With the help of breathing, you can influence emotions. To do this, it is recommended to sigh noisily, opening your mouth wide. If you breathe full chest and inhale a large number of air, the mood improves, and the voice involuntarily decreases.

It is important that in the process of communication a person trusts signs of non-verbal communication more than verbal ones. According to experts, facial expressions carry up to 70% of information. When expressing our emotional reactions, we are usually more truthful than in the process of verbal communication.