The art of eloquence - what is it? Aristotle's rhetoric affects not only the area of ​​oratory, it is devoted to the art of persuasive speech and dwells on ways to influence a person through speech. See what is "Oratory

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When was the art of eloquence born? subject of rhetoric.

Also in early era development of public life in Greece oratory occupied an important place.

With the development of statehood, especially after Greco-Persian Wars when in the 5th c. BC. as a result of the political struggle, the influence of the democratic party increased, and the activity of the masses of the people in the inner life of the Greek advanced policies was revived. In this regard, the art of oratory - eloquence - also developed.

The practical application of oratory was first received in Sicily. The father of rhetoric and teacher of the sophist-orator Gorgias, Aristotle calls Empedocles of Agrigentum.

In Sicily, the main types of oratory have already been outlined, which became widespread in Athens in the 5th century. BC. This is first of all political eloquence, glorified by the names of Themistocles and mainly Pericles. There are testimonies of ancient poets who speak of Pericles as an Olympian, whose eloquence was like thunder and lightning. It was no less common judicial eloquence.

The third type of oratory is epideictic, solemn eloquence in which Gorgias was especially skilled. Epideictic eloquence was used in funeral speeches, as was practiced, for example, at the annual memorial celebrations in honor of fallen soldiers during the Greco-Persian War.

These three types of oratory did not develop independently of each other.

The science of oratory was created - rhetoric. The creators of rhetoric are considered sophists, who had one goal - to convince. It was called "making the worst argument seem like the best".

According to civic obligations, each person had to personally appear in court and defend his case. Inexperienced litigants often resorted to the help of speakers, who made up a defense speech for them that would suit the person speaking in court. It goes without saying that the task of a logographer - a writer of speeches for others - was not an easy one, he was to a certain extent a dramatic writer.

In all the variety of types and types of works of literature, rhetoric studies a certain aspect of verbal creativity - argumentation.

But the subject of rhetoric is not limited to any specific categories of verbal works - only oratory, sermons, journalism, mass information, although rhetoric studies mainly works of this kind. Argumentation is contained in scientific, and in philosophical, and even in works of art. Rhetoric studies any works of the word that contain argumentation. The peculiarity of rhetoric is that the study of the works of the word for it is not a goal, but a means.

The subject of rhetoric is the work of a word that has not yet been created, but which is yet to be created.

Thus, we can talk about the following meanings of “rhetoric, eloquence, literature”:

1) rhetoric is a science, rules; eloquence - art, ability;

2) despite the fact that logic is concerned with thoughts, grammar - with words, rhetoric - serves beauty and harmony, an elegant presentation of thoughts and words, seeks to convince, prove, teach the mind, occupy the imagination, touch the heart

3) eloquence as an art is necessary for "all sciences"

Introduction

Rhetoric is currently a philological science that studies the ways of constructing artistically expressive, directed and in a certain way influencing speech. The forms of existence of rhetorical structures are super-phrasal units: a text, a complex syntactic whole, a dialogic unity that organizes phrases into a common semantic, communicative and structural whole. In the Middle Ages, rhetoric became one of the subjects studied at universities and schools in many countries, including Russia. The appearance in Russia in the 17th - 19th centuries is significant. a large number of textbooks on rhetoric (eloquence, sweet speech, eloquence, theory of literature, etc.). The bibliography of educational books on rhetoric contains about 150 titles. At the same time, the first of them - Metropolitan Macarius, is dated 1617 - 1619. , the last one - 1923 by D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky. The first rhetoric textbook in Russian was “A Brief Guide to Rhetoric for the Benefit of Lovers of Sweet Speech” (1743) by M. V. Lomonosov. Until that time, rhetoric was written and published in Russia in Latin and Church Slavonic. This work says that "rhetoric is the science of any proposed matter to speak and write eloquently ...". This definition of rhetoric reflects the view that had developed by that time of rhetoric as a science that teaches skillful - not only oral, but also written communication. All subsequent Russian rhetoric was written on the basis of Lomonosov's rhetoric (I. S. Rizhsky, N. F. Koshansky, A. S. Nikolsky, E. Kari, etc.). It is interesting to note that in 1877 "Children's Rhetoric, or Prudent Vitia for the Benefit and Use of Youth Composed" was published. The title of the book accurately reflects its addressee: children, youth. Address-oriented textbooks of rhetoric have become widespread in Russia: for the nobility (Feoktist Mochilsky), for the benefit of young girls (K. Glinka), for students in Russian religious schools (A. Nikolsky), military eloquence (Ya. V. Tolmachev) and etc. It is known that to mid-nineteenth in. in Russia, as well as in many other European countries, rhetoric was sharply criticized for scholasticism, schematism, prescription. It was supplanted by other subjects - at first by the theory of literature (where the subject of study is mainly artistic speech, trails), and then ( late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century) the culture of speech (where the norms of the literary language become the main subject of attention). The school is engaged in the development of coherent speech in children, where the focus is on learning through presentations and essays, the ability to create oral and written texts. At the same time, in Russian schools, the development communication skills a certain attention has always been paid, although by no means in all cases this work was designated as rhetorical. The revival of rhetoric began in the middle of the twentieth century. The rhetoric of the present tense has overcome the framework originally outlined by its creators: the speech organized by it exists both in oral and in writing; it intrudes more and more into the area that was previously considered the exclusive competence of poetics. Criteria for non-verbal (non-verbal) rhetoric are being developed - characteristics of interaction and the impact of facial expressions, gestures, voice modulations, and colors. Modern rhetoric is unimaginable outside the linguistics of the text, hermeneutics (the science of perception), semiotics (the science of the ways of meaning and character of signs), psychology, physiology, and didactics. Now in the asset of rhetoric are the works of Bart and, in general, the non-rhetorical group "Mu", published in Russian in the collection "General Rhetoric" (1986), the works of Lotman, B. A. Uspensky, to a certain extent, continued communicative-linguistic studies of Bakhtin. In 1958, a collection of articles and fragments "On Oratory" was published, 1967 - a collection of "Skill oral speech”, in 1978 the publication “Ancient Rhetorics” appeared, which included the works of Aristotle, Demetrius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and others. At present, the volume of literature on the problems of rhetoric is exceptionally large; complete bibliographic references are contained in the issues of the journal "Rhetoric", published since 1995. Rhetoric is one of the oldest arts. It originated around the 5th century BC. e. as a response to the practical needs of society. In this society, practical issues were decided at the People's Assembly, in public, with a huge confluence of people, the court was obeyed, and the festivities were quite crowded. Rhetoric became necessary for every person. Its creators were Plato and Aristotle; their predecessors, who created the first works on rhetoric: Lysias, Gorgias. The most famous orators of that time were Demosthenes, Isocrates, Socrates, Pericles.

oratory rhetoric

1. Rhetoric as the art of eloquence

Rhetoric is one of ancient sciences. At various times, it occupied a greater or lesser place in the development of society, was valued higher or lower, but never disappeared. In the development of rhetoric, the continuity of traditions, the mutual influence of cultures, national characteristics, and at the same time - a pronounced general humanistic character. The objective basis for the emergence of oratory as a social phenomenon was the urgent need for public discussion and resolution of issues of social significance. History shows that the most important condition for the manifestation and development of oratory, the free exchange of views on vital issues, the driving force behind critical thought are democratic forms of government, the active participation of free citizens in political life countries. Rhetoric as a systematic discipline has developed in Ancient Greece during the era of Athenian democracy. During this period, the ability to speak in public was considered a necessary quality of every full citizen. Thereby, Athenian democracy can be called the first rhetorical republic. Separate elements of rhetoric (for example, fragments of the doctrine of figures, forms of argumentation) arose even earlier in ancient india and in Ancient China, but they were not brought together in a single system and did not play such an important role in society. So, eloquence became an art under the conditions of the slave system, which created certain opportunities for direct influence on the mind and will of fellow citizens with the help of the speaker's living word. The flowering of rhetoric coincided with the flowering of ancient democracy, when three institutions began to play a leading role in the state: popular assembly, People's Court, Council of Five Hundred. Political issues were publicly decided, courts were held. In order to win over the people (demos), it was necessary to present their ideas in the most attractive way. Under these conditions, eloquence becomes necessary for every person.

It is customary to trace the beginning of rhetoric to 460 BC. e. and associate with the activities of the senior sophists Corax, Tisias, Protagoras and Gorgias. Corax allegedly wrote the textbook The Art of Persuasion, which has not come down to us, and Tisias opened one of the first schools for teaching eloquence. It should be noted that the attitude towards sophistry and sophists was ambivalent and contradictory, which was reflected even in the understanding of the word "sophist": at first it meant a sage, a talented, capable, experienced person in any art; then, gradually, the unscrupulousness of the sophists, their virtuosity in defending directly opposite points of view led to the fact that the word "sophist" acquired a negative connotation and began to be understood as a false sage, charlatan, cunning. Protagoras (c. 481-411 BC) is considered one of the first to study the derivation of a conclusion from premises. He was also one of the first to use a form of dialogue in which the interlocutors defend opposing points of view. Protagoras owns the works “The Art of Argument”, “On the Sciences”, etc., which have not come down to us. It was he who introduced the formula “The measure of all things is man”. Gorgias (c. 480-380 BC) was a student of Corax and Tisias. He is considered the founder or at least the discoverer of figures as one of the main objects of rhetoric. He himself actively used figures of speech (parallelism, homeoteleuton, i.e., uniform endings, etc.), tropes (metaphors and comparisons), as well as rhythmically constructed phrases. Gorgias narrowed down the subject of rhetoric, which was too vague for him: unlike other sophists, he claimed that he did not teach virtue and wisdom, but only oratory. Gorgias was the first to teach rhetoric in Athens. Undertaking to teach everyone to speak beautifully and being, by the way, a virtuoso of brevity, Gorgias taught everyone who wanted to speak rhetoric so that they could conquer people, “make them their slaves of their own free will, and not under duress.” By the strength of his conviction, he forced the sick to drink such bitter medicines and undergo such operations that even doctors could not force them to do. Gorgias defined rhetoric as the art of speaking.

The rhetorical ideal of the Sophists had the following features:

• 1) The rhetoric of the sophists was "manipulating", monologue. The main thing was the ability to manipulate the audience, to impress listeners with oratory techniques;
• 2) The rhetoric of the sophists was the rhetoric of a verbal contest, a struggle. A dispute, necessarily aimed at the victory of one and the defeat of the other, is the element of a sophist;
• 3) The goal of the sophist dispute was not truth, but victory at any cost, therefore it is not the content in the speech that dominates, but “ external form". Lysias (c. 415-380 BC) is considered the creator of judicial speech as a special type of eloquence. His presentation was distinguished by brevity, simplicity, logic and expressiveness, symmetrical construction of phrases. Isocrates (c. 436-388 BC) is considered the founder of "literary" rhetoric - the first rhetorician who paid predominant attention to writing. He was one of the first to introduce the concept of the composition of an oratorical work. The features of his style are complex periods, which, however, have a clear and precise construction and therefore are easily accessible for understanding, rhythmic articulation of speech and an abundance of decorative elements. The rich embellishment made Isocrates' speeches somewhat ponderous to hear. Plato (427-347 BC) rejected the value relativism of the sophists and noted that the main thing for a rhetorician is not copying other people's thoughts, but his own comprehension of the truth, finding own way in oratory. Plato noted that main task oratory is persuasion, meaning persuasion, primarily emotional. He emphasized the importance of a harmonious composition of speech, the speaker's ability to separate the paramount from the unimportant and take this into account in speech. Aristotle (384-322 BC) completed the transformation of rhetoric into scientific discipline. He established an inextricable link between rhetoric, logic and dialectics, and among the most important features of rhetoric he singled out its "special dynamic expressiveness and approach to the reality of the possible and probabilistic." In the main works devoted to rhetoric (“Rhetoric”, “Topeka” and “On Sophistic Refutations”), Aristotle indicated the place of rhetoric in the system of sciences of antiquity and described in detail everything that formed the core of rhetorical teaching over the following centuries (types of arguments, categories listeners, genera rhetorical speeches and their communicative goals, ethos, logos and pathos, style requirements, tropes, synonyms and homonyms, compositional blocks of speech, methods of proof and refutation, rules of dispute, etc.). Some of these questions after Aristotle were either perceived dogmatically, or were generally removed from rhetorical teaching. Their development was continued only by representatives of the new rhetoric, starting from the middle of the 20th century.

The rhetorical ideal of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle can be defined as:

• 1) dialogical: not manipulating people, but inciting their thoughts - this is the goal of verbal communication and the activity of the speaker;
• 2) harmonizing: the main goal of the conversation is not victory at any cost, but the unification of the forces of the participants in communication to reach agreement;
• 3) semantic: the purpose of a conversation between people, as well as the purpose of speech, is the search and discovery of truth.

Beyond the theorists in antiquity important role were played by practical orators who did not write theoretical works on rhetoric, but whose exemplary speeches were actively used in teaching. The most famous orator was Demosthenes (c. 384-322 BC).

In Greece, two styles of oratory developed - the richly decorated and flowery Asianism and the simple and restrained Atticism that arose as a reaction to the abuse of embellishment.

Rhetoric is a philological discipline that studies the relationship of thought to the word. main feature rhetoric in that it abstracts from the system specific language(which is chosen by the rhetor) and focuses on the structure of the linguistic personality of the sender and recipient of speech - the rhetor, on the speech technique of argumentation and on the method of constructing an expedient statement. Therefore, rhetoric may well be called a personalistic theory of speech. The social tasks of rhetoric are: 1) in the education of a rhetorician - a worthy citizen, competent in public speech; 2) in the creation of norms of public argumentation that ensure a productive discussion of problems that are significant for society; 3) in the organization of speech relations in the areas that form the basis of society: management, education, economic activity, security, law and order; 4) in determining the criteria for evaluating public activities, on the basis of which persons capable of holding responsible positions are selected. The traditional feature of rhetoric as an academic subject is that it is presented dogmatically - in the form of provisions and rules. The dogmatic method of presentation is sometimes misleading as to the nature of the provisions and rules of rhetoric. The rules of rhetoric are not mandatory prescriptions and prohibitions, they only generalize the experience of the great masters of the word, pointing out the difficulties and dangers that await anyone who speaks or writes in public. In the Russian tradition, rhetoric is divided into private and general. Private rhetoric studies specific types of speech. General rhetoric studies the principles of constructing expedient speech. Rhetoric generalizes the experience of social and linguistic practice and deals with statements and norms of argumentation that have been deposited in the culture of a particular society. There are Russian, French, American rhetoric, each of which studies a type of linguistic personality and the nature of speech relations that is specific only for a given cultural and linguistic community. Therefore, general and particular Russian rhetoric is possible, but universal rhetoric is impossible. Since Russian society with its ideals, moral standards, the technique of thinking, methods of organization and management has developed and developed in the tradition of Orthodox culture, the structure and system of concepts of Russian rhetoric are adapted to the cultural tradition and the tasks of such an ideological organization of society, in which the technique of argumentation is subordinated to higher worldview principles. Therefore, Russian rhetoric avoids a psychological interpretation of the individual, the use of public opinion as a criterion for the correctness of argumentation, a relativistic understanding of values ​​and is not the sum of recipes for achieving personal success or manipulating public opinion. It must be remembered that the true purpose of the speaker is to write an influential speech, that is, a speech that will benefit the audience.

Conclusion

Currently, the term "rhetoric" is used in a narrow and broad sense. Rhetoric (in the narrow sense) is the designation of a philological discipline that studies the theory of eloquence, ways of constructing expressive speech in all areas speech activity(primarily in various oral and written genres). Rhetoric (in a broad sense) is called neo-rhetoric (the term was introduced by the professor of the University of Brussels H. Perelman in 1958) or general rhetoric. Its rapid and productive development was caused by the emergence of new linguistic sciences - text linguistics, semiotics, hermeneutics, the theory of speech activity, and psycholinguistics. Neo-rhetoric is looking for ways practical application these disciplines, developed at the intersection of linguistics, literary theory, logic, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, psychology.

The purpose of the updated rhetoric is to identify the best options ( optimal algorithms) communication. For example, the roles of the participants in the dialogue, the mechanisms for generating speech, the language preferences of the speakers, etc. are studied. Thus, neo-rhetoric is the science of persuasive communication. Rhetoric taught and teaches how to communicate, logically and expressively express and develop thoughts, use words, how to use speech activity in personal life and social activities how to speak in front of an audience. The theory of eloquence has always paid primary attention to oral, "live" contact. Traditionally, rhetoric was also considered an art, compared with poetry, acting on the basis of the importance of creativity, improvisation in speech, the aesthetic pleasure that public "thinking out loud" delivers. Such views are typical, for example, for Aristotle, Cicero, A.F. Koni. Many have been given natural oratorical talent, which is a guarantee successful practice. Most likely, in rhetoric - the most important area of ​​culture - science and art form a complex alloy, unity.

Practical part.

1. Analyze one of the public speeches of any famous speaker past or our contemporary. Determine all the compositional parts of this speech, the arguments used (naming their type), the facts given, the figures of speech used, rhetorical words and expressions.

A. I. Solzhenitsyn.

Word upon receipt of the Freedom Foundation Prize. »

“Dear gentlemen, leaders and representatives of the Freedom Foundation!

I am deeply touched by your decision to award me your prize. I accept it with gratitude and with a sense of duty to that lofty human concept that sounds, is contained, enclosed in the name of your organization, in the symbol that united us here today. It is natural to touch on this symbol in my response.

In a situation such as today, it is easiest to succumb to the declamation of the dark abysses of totalitarianism and the praise of the bright strongholds of Western freedom. It is much more difficult, but also more fruitful, to look critically at ourselves. If the area of ​​free social systems on Earth is shrinking and huge continents, which have recently seemed to have received freedom, are being pulled into the area of ​​tyranny, then not only totalitarianism, for which swallowing freedom is a function of natural growth, is to blame, but, obviously, the free systems themselves, lost something in their inner strength and sustainability.

Our ideas about many events and phenomena are based on dissimilar life experience, therefore, they can differ markedly, however, it is this angle between the rays of vision that can help us perceive the object in more volume. I dare to draw your attention to some aspects of freedom, which are not fashionable to talk about, but from this they do not cease to be, therefore, to influence.

The concept of freedom cannot be correctly grasped without evaluation life tasks our earthly existence. I am in favor of the view that life goal each of us - not the endless enjoyment of material goods, but: to leave the Earth better than he came to it, than it was determined by our hereditary inclinations, that is, during our life to go through a certain path of spiritual improvement. (The sum of such processes can only be called the spiritual progress of mankind.) If so, then external freedom turns out to be not a self-sufficient goal of people and societies, but only an auxiliary means of our undistorted development; only a possibility for us to live not as an animal, but as a human being; only a condition for a person to better fulfill his earthly purpose. And freedom is not the only such condition. No less than external freedom does a person need - in an uncontaminated space for the soul, in the possibilities of spiritual concentration.

Alas, modern civilized freedom does not want to leave us precisely this space. Alas, it is precisely in recent decades that our very idea of ​​freedom has declined and shrank in comparison with previous centuries, it has been reduced almost exclusively to freedom from external pressure, to freedom from state violence. To freedom, understood only at the legal level - and no higher.

Freedom! -- forcibly litter mailboxes, eyes, ears, brains of people, television programs with commercial garbage, so that none can be watched with a coherent meaning. Freedom! -- to impose information, ignoring the human right not to receive it, the human right to peace of mind. Freedom! - to spit in the eyes and souls of passers-by and passers-by advertising. Freedom! -- publishers and film producers to poison the younger generation with corrupt abominations. Freedom! - teenagers 14 - 18 years old to revel in leisure and pleasures instead of enhanced studies and spiritual growth. Freedom! -- adult young people seek idleness and live at the expense of society. Freedom! -- strikers, brought to the point of freedom to deprive all other citizens normal life, work, movement, water and food. Freedom! - acquittal speeches, when the lawyer himself knows about the guilt of the defendant. Freedom! -- so exalt the juridical right of insurance that even charity can be reduced to extortion. Freedom! -- random vulgar feathers irresponsibly glide over the surface of any subject, rushing to mold public opinion. Freedom! - collecting gossip, when a journalist for his own interests will not spare either his father or his native Fatherland. Freedom! -- divulge their country's defense secrets for personal political purposes. Freedom! - a businessman for any business deal, no matter how many people it turns into misfortune or betrays its own country. Freedom! -- politicians thoughtlessly to carry out what pleases the voter today, and not what far-sightedly protects him from evil and danger. Freedom! - for terrorists to escape punishment, pity for them is like a death sentence for the rest of society. Freedom! - entire states dependently extort help from the outside, and not work to build their own economy. Freedom! - as indifference to the trampled distant freedom of others. Freedom! - not even to defend their own freedom, let someone else risk their lives. All these freedoms are legally often irreproachable, but morally they are all vicious. On their example, we see that the totality of all the rights of freedom is far from being the Freedom of man and society, it is only a possibility, it can be turned in different ways.

All this is a low type of freedom. Not the freedom that elevates the human race. But - hysterical freedom, which can reliably destroy him.

Truly human freedom is the inner freedom given to us by God, the freedom to determine one's actions, but also spiritual responsibility for them. And truly understands freedom is not the one who hastens to selfishly use his legal rights, but the one who has a conscience to limit himself and with legal correctness. Not one who hurries to win a favorable lawsuit, but one who has the nobility to refuse it - on the contrary: to publicly reveal his blunders or misdeeds. What was called the ancient and now strange word - honor.

I think it will not be too modest to admit that in some glorious countries of the Western world in the 20th century, freedom under the guise of "development" has degraded from its original high forms. That no country on Earth today has that higher form the freedom of spiritualized human beings, which consists not in maneuvering between the articles of laws, but in voluntary self-restraint and in the full consciousness of responsibility - as these freedoms were conceived by our ancestors.

However, I deeply believe in the integrity and soundness of the roots of the magnanimous powerful American nation, with the exacting honesty of its youth and unsleeping moral sense. I have seen the American province with my own eyes, and that is why I am expressing all this here today with firm hope.

Analysis public speaking:

The goal is to analyze both the very concept of “freedom” and its role in the life of the world community, so that people can more deeply understand the meaning and role of this key concept. All this makes it possible to qualify Solzhenitsyn's speech as an influencing speech, that is, as an oratory.

Topic: The meaning of the concept of "freedom".

Appeal

Expression of gratitude and definition of the topic of the speech.

A problem is posed, which is then analyzed into more particular aspects: freedom as a condition for undistorted spiritual development and freedom as a concept interpreted at the legal level.

Examples Confirming the Failure of a Narrow Legal Interpretation of Freedom

Introduction

1. Types of eloquence

2. Preparing for the performance

Conclusion

Bibliography

Appendix

Introduction

The art of eloquence was valued at all times among all peoples. "Before whom do people tremble? Who do they look at in shock when he speaks? Who do they admire? Who is considered almost a god among people? poetic size, - in a word, beautifully, "- said the great orator of antiquity Cicero.

Russian speaker M.M. Speransky in his "Rules of Higher Eloquence" added: "Eloquence is the gift of shaking souls, pouring their passions into them, and informing them of the image of their concepts."

Not knowing how to speak, it is difficult to succeed in any field: military, diplomatic, commercial. Therefore, even in ancient Greece, oratory (lat) art arose. Its synonyms are Greek word"rhetoric" and the Russian word "eloquence".

Rhetoric is the science of methods of persuasion, various forms of predominantly linguistic influence on the audience. The task of rhetoric since ancient times and today is to educate, delight, inspire. The impact can be carried out both orally and in writing with the help of arguments, evidence to form new or change old stereotypes of perception and behavior.

Eloquence, as ancient philosophers noted, is a way of knowing, interpreting complex phenomena, it should bring knowledge to people. It operates with facts, events, figures, putting them into a certain system. Rhetoric uses the discoveries and achievements of many sciences. It is based on psychology, philosophy, logic, ethics, aesthetics and other sciences. Rhetoric is a science that teaches reasoning, thinking logically, generalizing. Many of the speakers were prominent scientists and politicians of their time.

Rhetoric is the art of constructing and publicly delivering a speech, the art of owning a living word. As an art, she is close to poetry, acting and directing: she studies facial expressions and body movements, teaches her to control her voice and feelings.

The condition for the emergence and development of oratory is democracy, the free participation of citizens in the socio-political life of the country.

1. Types of eloquence

Each performance corresponds to its situation, takes place in a certain area. human activity. In oratorical activity, separate genera and species are distinguished.

At present, the types and types of eloquence correspond to the spheres of communication and distinguish academic, socio-political, judicial, spiritual, social and everyday eloquence.

Academic eloquence is a kind of speech that helps to form a scientific worldview, distinguished by scientific presentation, deep argumentation, and logical culture. In Russia, academic eloquence developed in the first half of the 19th century. The university tribune was a means of promoting scientific thought, advanced scientific ideas. Outstanding scientists-orators include physicist L.D. Landau, historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, physiologist I.M. Sechenov, botanist K.A. Timiryazev and others.

characteristic features academic eloquence are: a high level of scientificity, logic, accessibility of presentation, visibility, brightness and emotionality. Special place given to the scientific nature of the presentation. It involves the lecturer's acquaintance with new developments and discoveries not only in this field of science, but also in neighboring areas, fluency in all the material, the ability to explain certain provisions, the ability to draw conclusions, generalizations.

A speaker reading the text of a lecture or report must remember that oversaturation of the speech with factual material tires the listeners, just as frequent repetitions, complex constructions, and monotony tire them. To speak simply about the complex - - this is the task that the lecturer should set himself. The second task is to teach creative thinking, to awaken the minds of listeners, to make them independently look for answers to the questions posed.

Judicial eloquence is a kind of speech designed to provide purposeful and effective impact to the court, contribute to the formation of convictions of judges and citizens present in the courtroom. Russian judicial eloquence begins to develop after judicial reform 1864, when the hearing became public. Journalists and just curious people could attend the trials.

Prominent judicial orators of the past - V.D. Spasovich, K.I. Arseniev, A.I. Urusov, F.N. Plevako, A.F. Horses.

Judicial speech should form certain moral positions of the court and listeners. The purpose of the trial is a legally justified sentence. Find out, prove, convince - the components of a judicial speech. Features of judicial speech - knowledge of psychology, social problems, polemic, preliminary conditioning of the content, formality and final character of speech.

In judicial eloquence, the speech of the defender and the accuser is distinguished. The subject of the dispute is the qualification of the crime, which determines the type and extent of punishment. Judicial speeches reflect the socio-political significance of the case, characterize the personality of the defendant. It also reveals the causes and conditions that contributed to the commission of the crime. Judicial speeches should be interesting, bright, written correctly literary language are logical and convincing.

The speeches of F.N. Plevako.

“The deceased was a fighter for rights, for honor; the deceased saved the accused, defended the orphaned and offended. So does he really need a feast, does he really like the tears of the condemned, like the fragrance of a censer?

No, I would like to render him a different service, I would like to hear a different word than a merciless accusation on memorial days for him.

Social and everyday speech is the most common. Nowadays, even an unprepared person has to perform in front of colleagues, relatives, friends. The traditions of social and everyday speech in Russia date back to the court eloquence of the 18th century. Court eloquence was characterized by the use of comparisons, metaphors, imagery and ornateness. In the 19th century the syllable changes, becoming more and more free and simple. At present, there are traditions of pronouncing social and everyday speech using certain speech cliches.

"On this festive day, on behalf of our team, allow me to sincerely congratulate respected Ivan Ivanovich on his birthday and wish him long life, health and fruitful work."

Spiritual (church-theological) eloquence has a long tradition in Russia. AT Kievan Rus distinguished two of its subspecies: didactic, aimed at instruction, teaching, and panegyric, solemn, dedicated solemn events or dates. Preachers Ancient Russia chose philosophical, political, moral themes for their sermons. Sermons of Cyril of Turov - XII century, Tikhon Zadonsky - XVIII century, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Pimen - XX century are known. and etc.

A feature of spiritual eloquence in Russia is the comprehension of history, an element of education, an appeal to inner world person.

Spiritual eloquence studies special science- homiletics.

The genera of eloquence do not close in on themselves, there are no clear boundaries between them, they are often intertwined in subject matter.

2. Preparing for the performance

First of all, reading and learning new things in this field, awareness of what is happening in the country and in the world. It is necessary not just to read and memorize, but to comprehend and analyze the material received, to apply the information received in the material of the speech. It is also necessary to master the technique of speech. It's a well-trained voice good pronunciation, clear diction. Part of everyday training is the improvement of the culture of oral and written speech. The speaker must be able to critically reflect on his speeches and improve them, he must listen to the speeches of other speakers and learn from them.

Thus, the preparation of a speech begins long before the speech and consists of several stages, for example, at the suggestion of the German scientist X. Lemmermann, such:

material collection,

material selection and organization,

thinking about the material

preparation of abstracts or plan,

stylistic design,

speech writing,

mental exploration,

speech test.

In addition to the first, preparatory stage, the next stage is preparation for a specific performance. It is determined by the type of oratory, depends on the topic, goals, composition of the audience.

Preparation of a speech begins with the definition of its topic. The topic should not be abstract, but clear and understandable for listeners, accurate and concise. The topic can be chosen by the author himself or it can be determined by the case, situation.

The topic is disclosed if all selected aspects are covered, a sufficient number of necessary facts are given, when the conclusion logically follows from the content of the lecture and everything is clear to the audience. Then the goal of the speech is determined, since in one case the goal is to inform the listener, in the other - to make the listener worry, in the third - to accept the position of the author. So, the task of informational speech is to give listeners new knowledge. Informational speech contains facts, events, reflections and conclusions. Entertaining speech is designed to give listeners pleasure, relieve stress. Campaign speeches convince listeners, inspire, induce to action. Often these goals are combined. A necessary element of preparation is an assessment of the composition of the trainees and the situation. The speaker should find out in advance what the expected number of listeners is, social composition audience, age, educational and cultural level, nationality, In some cases - religion. It is also necessary to find out where the performance will take place - in a large hall, a small room, what is the acoustics of the chosen room, whether it will be crowded for the audience. The next stage of work is the selection of material for a specific performance.

The speaker should study official documents, reference and popular science literature summarize observations and reflections. In the course of this work, it is recommended to take notes, write out quotes, figures, facts, and keep a file cabinet. No matter how skillfully the speaker speaks, the text of the speech must be prepared in advance. Preparing a pre-written text has many advantages. You can check it, correct errors, make additions and changes, you can show it to someone for verification. In addition, when the speaker is working on a speech, he once again carefully thinks through all the details of the speech. In order for the speech to sound, to reach the audience, so that the speaker does not deviate from the topic, you need to arrange the material in a certain way. Therefore, the composition of the speech is very important - the compilation, arrangement of the material of the speech. The composition can be divided into five parts: the beginning, the introduction, the main part, the conclusion, the ending of the speech. But parts of it may be missing.

Conclusion

It is hardly necessary to prove that all types of eloquence need reflection, ordering, self-control. This is the culture of communication, i.e. speech. Scientific understanding of some types already has its own centuries-old history, others are new: for example, the culture of inner speech, which, by the way, is the largest, most difficult and longest block in a person’s life. The culture of mental speech is the key to the success of external, sounding or written, speech.

Relatively recently, everyday speech has also become the subject of rhetoric, in addition to friendly conversation, to which Aristotle paid attention.

Perhaps, in the future, some more types of speech will be singled out, their areas, for example, medical eloquence, speech in the service sector - hospitality, tourism ...

Bibliography

1. Aleksandrov D.N. Rhetoric. - M.: 1999.

2. Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G. Culture and art of speech. - Rostov - n / a, 1996.

3. Deletsky Ch. Workshop on rhetoric. - M.: 1996.

4. Ivanova S.F. The specifics of public speech. - M.: 1978.

The development of the country, the essence and goals of the scientific and technological revolution and other equally complex topics. It follows that mastery in eloquence is the mastery of the specifics of each kind and type of oratory, especially knowledge of its subject. For what scientific principles should we classify eloquence? It seems that a correct interpretation of the reasons for the diversity of oratory will help ...

sciences and speech culture, it makes sense to talk about rhetoric, which in recent decades has been restored in Russia as a scientific and academic subject. The object of the study is the oral public speech. The subject of the study is the main types of arguments, as well as types of modern oratory. Types of modern oratory Theorists of oratory distinguish such genera ...

Church preaching- oral and written - was a school of introducing the people to the high values ​​of culture, contributed to the formation national identity. History has not left direct evidence of the oratory of Ancient Russia. But according to documents and preserved literary works one can get an idea of ​​the main features and principles of ancient Russian eloquence. ...

Given in this essay, the impressions of the judicial and political life that surrounded the author are based. The same contradiction inherent in the art and activity of the orator is spoken of in Brutus. In the mid-80s, when Cicero's views on the essence of eloquence were being formed, he took up the translation of Plato's dialogue "Protagoras". The hero of the dialogue, the famous Greek sophist of the 5th century. taught that the truth is always...

AT modern world the key to success is mastering the art of public speaking. This is a special art in which each person will be able to rediscover himself. He will speak beautifully and correctly, feel confident in front of any audience, be interesting in communication. Of course, there are people who are born with this ability, but there are very few of them. Therefore, a person deprived of God's gift should not worry; if desired, oratory can be learned. At the same time, age does not play a special role, because it is never too late to acquire new knowledge and skills.

Of course, there are professions that simply oblige to thoroughly know the art of public speaking. These include politicians, judges, teachers, actors, announcers, etc. Even if you do not consider yourself to be in these categories, such skill in any case cannot harm you. Other than the benefits, nothing else is out of the question. In life, it can be useful, for example, when applying for a job, and when making new acquaintances. Therefore, it is art at its most different situations can provide an invaluable service.

What is oratory?

This is the art of the living word. A person who owns it can easily convey thoughts to others. At the same time, his sentences line up beautiful and clear. He feels confident, because his speech is attractive and interesting. This is what the art of oratory teaches. The degree of ownership of it may be different, but you need to work on yourself in any case. Often in life we ​​are faced with such situations when we have to think about how to say or give an answer to a question. To look convincing, you cannot do without important tricks of special skill.

Oratory and rhetoric participate in the formation of style and logical statements. They help to avoid unwanted pauses and develop memory. Ordinary speech turns into attractive and is filled with the right emotions. A real speaker is always more interesting for the public than one who does not know how to correctly formulate his thoughts. In addition, timely arguments and facts contribute to the successful resolution of controversial issues. And this is a kind of guarantee of the best way out of conflict situations. Unprepared people only in rare cases will be able to form their phrases clearly and correctly in right moment.

History of oratory

Chronicles of oratory are transferred to Ancient Greece. It was here that great skill was given close attention. From here come the roots of stylistic patterns and the development of speech, because before the advent of writing, thoughts were expressed orally.

Greek orators skillfully influenced the public, as they owned the laws of logic and the rules of oral speech. They were able to achieve eloquence served as their main weapon political point vision. Oratory, being the queen of the arts, could very effectively influence the decisions of state affairs.

It was in ancient Greece that the first school of oratory. Its outstanding masters were Demosthenes, Philocrates, Hyperides, Aeschines and others. public figures. Among them, Demosthenes was able to achieve the highest achievements. Without his contribution, it is difficult to imagine the practice of oratory and the basics of the theory of rhetoric, where the word was given great importance. His speeches were studied not only in antiquity, the surviving theories are relevant today. They are included in the golden fund of rhetoric as a separate science.

Speaking in front of an audience

Visual perception and appearance

Speaking to the public, the speaker must prepare not only his speech, but also diligently work on appearance. It is no secret that the speaker is first of all greeted in appearance. It has long been proven that appearance plays an important role in the first impression. Based on statistics, 55% of the persuasive power comes from the appearance of the speaker and visual perception listeners, for tone of voice - 35% and only 10% for words.

Listeners are first and foremost spectators. They will consider the speaker very carefully. Especially the female half pays close attention to detail. Outfit, hairstyle and demeanor will not go unnoticed. A person who is insecure, ill-prepared, or indecisive quickly catches the eye. The public will not want to concentrate and delve into the essence of it speeches. And no matter how hard the speaker tries, it will be very difficult to win over the audience.

Attention retention

The art of public speaking it just includes the ability to convey a prepared report or a speech built on the go. A real master knows how to quickly navigate and build logical sentences. In addition, he knows how to entice his listeners and interest in his performance.

For keeping attention the speaker uses special techniques that allow not only to win over, but also to tune in to the same psychological wave. At the same time, gestures and facial expressions, voice and intonation play an important role. It is one thing to listen, but quite another to be heard. The well-known poetess M. Tsvetaeva also spoke about this. Under no circumstances should the public be given the slightest cause for irritation.

Contact with the audience

Most of the speaker's speech is a monologue. However, the speaker needs to be able to find contact with the audience. He should try to establish a connection, even an imaginary one. Only in this case he will be able to count on a response. A good speaker is able to capture the mood of the audience and correct his speech at the right time. He seems to read the thoughts of the listeners and does not allow them to be distracted from the information presented. This is similar to a mental dialogue in which the other side does not say out loud their wishes. In turn, this does not distract the speaker, but it does not exclude two-way communication either.

So art public speaking- This is an imitation of live communication. It is difficult for a beginner to achieve this, but it is quite possible when mastering the basic rhetorical techniques. Among them: direct appeal to the audience, filling the speech with emotions, adhering to colloquial syntax. Do not worry in advance, everything comes with experience, you just need to make efforts and patience.

Another important means of establishing two-way communication is eye contact with the speaker. If you read the prepared text and do not look up from the paper, the interest of the public will quickly disappear. In this case, the speaker independently builds a wall that protects him from the audience. It is not recommended to look at one corner or the ceiling. Only by shifting his gaze from one listener to another, the speaker can count on uniting the audience and achieving the effect of communication, even at a mental level.

You need to be able to read the reaction in the eyes. In this case, the speaker will be able to control the audience. As soon as he notices the first signs of overwork of the listeners, he will be able to use one of the proven methods to defuse the hall. For example, it can be a recollection of a funny incident, an insertion of an aphorism or a proverb. It is desirable that they be close to the topic of the speech. You can generally step aside from the report and tell a funny anecdote, endearing the audience to yourself. Emotional discharge when tired, it will best recreate a friendly atmosphere. All this will allow to continue the performance, the interest in which will only increase.

Oratory in other types of speech communication

The multifaceted art of oratory includes not only speaking in front of a large audience, but also conducting a dialogue with an interlocutor, debates, discussions, and other types of speech communication. At the same time, the speech of the speaker should always strike with iron logic, but at the same time be sincere and sensual. Only in this case, you can count on the interest of the listener and his location.

For any speech communications can show oratory and leave an indelible imprint, a good opinion and earn respect by striking interesting conversation. At the same time, great importance is given not only to the literacy and erudition of the speaker, but also to his emotionality, interest and ability to listen to the interlocutor. Of course, natural data also help in this, but the experience gained, the culture of speech and intelligence are not secondary.

Oratory training

Anyone can learn public speaking. The main thing is to have a desire and focus on results. One should not be afraid of the difficulties that may arise in the learning process. Only patience and diligence will bring the expected results. Even many famous people who were able to achieve good luck in public speaking initially encountered difficulties. For example, Margaret Thatcher managed to change her shrill voice, which was naturally such. Her diligent study acting skills has borne fruit. The politician of France, Mirabeau, learned to present memorized texts so much that they began to seem like a real improvisation.

Oratory training you can do it yourself, but in specialized schools and centers, classes will be more effective. The developed programs and psychological trainings are popular ways to get rid of the fear of speaking in front of the public, develop thinking and memory, replenish conversational stock and gain self-confidence. Here you can learn how to formulate thoughts correctly, quickly interest the listener, gain artistic skills and speak beautifully on any topic, including impromptu. Experts will teach you how to choose the right intonation and skillfully use different speech techniques. They will talk about how to benefit from communication, introduce unproductive conversation patterns and reveal ways to avoid "uncomfortable" questions.

Who is a good speaker?

Master of Oratory is the person who easily owns the living word and can use it to influence the interlocutor or the whole audience. Speaking of such a professional, it is impossible not to mention high level. Good diction eliminates any fuzzy pronunciation of words and individual sounds. The speaker is pleasant and easy to listen to, because there are no tongue twisters and lisps. The power of the voice is manifested not only in loudness, but also in the mental impact on the consciousness and will of the listeners. In other words, the speech technique of a real speaker approaches perfection.

A successful speaker skillfully uses various techniques. For beautiful speech the use of popular expressions, well-known proverbs and sayings is of great importance. When they are unexpected, but said to the point, the performance seems more interesting and better remembered. speech culture speaker always judged by the richness of his vocabulary. How more words in the arsenal of a professional, the more interesting it is to communicate with him. And if, in addition to all this, the sentences are concise and well-structured, observing the accuracy of word usage and language norms pronunciation, then such a speaker is priceless.

• Anyone can learn public speaking. At the same time, it is important to tune in to luck and in no case deviate from the goal.
• You should never show your excitement to outsiders, and even more so talk about poor preparation.
• Avoid monotonous speeches, pause properly and highlight the right words. Be mindful of intonation when raising and lowering your voice.
• Spend more time training, it is advisable to rehearse a pre-prepared speech at least 3 times.
• Try to keep your audience interested from the very beginning of your speech by coming up with an intriguing title.
• When speaking in public, try to connect with your audience.
• During the speech, change your position, use gestures.

The main advice is this: to master the art of the living word, you need to learn to think beautifully.

Introduction

1. The speaker and his audience.

2. Preparation of speech: choice of topic, purpose of speech.

3. Basic methods of searching for material.

4. Beginning, completion and deployment of speech.

5. Logical and intonation - melodic patterns of speech.

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Expression oratory has several meanings. Oratory refers primarily to high degree skills of public speaking, qualitative characteristics of oratory, skillful possession of a living word. Oratory is the art of constructing and delivering a speech in public with the aim of having the desired impact on the audience.

Oratory is also called the historically established science of eloquence and an academic discipline that outlines the basics of oratory.

History shows that the most important condition for the emergence and development of oratory, the free exchange of opinions on vital problems, the driving force behind progressive ideas and critical thought are democratic forms of government. Active participation citizens in the political life of the country.

As the researchers emphasize, oratory develops most actively in critical eras of society. It is widely used when there is a historical need for the participation of the masses in solving important state issues. Oratory helps to rally people around a common cause. Convincing, inspiring and guiding them. Proof of this is the flourishing of eloquence during the Renaissance, during periods of social revolution. When in social movement millions of working people are involved. A new surge of public interest in oratory is currently observed in connection with the democratic processes taking place in our country.

Throughout the centuries-old history of its development, oratory has been used in various fields life of society: spiritual, ideological, socio-political. It has always found the widest application in political activity.

The moral position of the speaker is perhaps the most important thing in oratory. It is important not only for a politician, but also for any speaker, whose word can influence the fate of people, help make the right decision.

Let's note one more feature of oratory. It has a complex synthetic character. Philosophy, logic, psychology, pedagogy, linguistics, ethics, aesthetics - these are the sciences on which oratory relies.

The purpose of the work is the disclosure of the content of the concept of "oratory", the identification of the main features of oratory as a social phenomenon and the disclosure of the basic rules that should be followed when developing the content of a speech.

1. The speaker and his audience.

The highest manifestation of the skill of public speaking, essential condition The effectiveness of public speaking is contact with the audience. As seasoned speakers say, cherished dream every speaker. Scientists call the joint mental activity of the speaker and the audience intellectual empathy.

It is also important for the establishment of contact emotional empathy. Thus, contact between the speaker and the audience occurs when both parties are engaged in the same mental activity and experience similar empathy.

The main indicators of interaction between speakers and hearers are positive reaction to the words of the speaker, outer expression attention of the audience (their posture, focused look, smiles, laughter, applause), "working" silence in the hall.

The behavior of the speaker also indicates the presence or absence of contact. If the speaker speaks confidently, behaves naturally, often addresses the audience, keeps the whole room in sight, then he has found right approach to the audience. A speaker who does not know how to establish contact with the audience, as a rule, speaks confusedly, inexpressively, he does not see his listeners, does not react in any way to their behavior.

It should be borne in mind that the speaker sometimes manages to establish contact with only a part of the audience, and not with the entire audience.

Undoubtedly, the speaker's contact with the audience is influenced, first of all, by the relevance of the issue under discussion, the novelty in the coverage of this problem, and the interesting content of the speech.

The personality of the speaker has a great influence on establishing contact with the audience. His reputation, the prevailing opinion about him. If a speaker is known as an erudite, principled person, as a person whose words and deeds do not disagree, then the audience will have confidence in such a speaker.

To establish contact with the audience, it is important to take into account the characteristics of the audience in which you will speak. First of all, to know whether it is homogeneous or not. An essential feature is the quantitative composition of listeners. Also characteristic is the sense of community, which is manifested in the emotional mood of the listeners.

The establishment of contact between the speaker and the audience is also influenced by some features of the psychology of the listeners. A feature of the psychology of the audience is that listeners are at the same time spectators. The audience also closely follows the behavior of the speaker during the speech. Listeners are far from indifferent to where the speaker is looking.

The form of presentation of the material significantly affects the relationship between the speaker and the audience.

Establishing contact, capturing the attention of the audience ensures the success of public speaking, is necessary condition to convey information, to have the desired impact on listeners. Consolidation of certain knowledge and beliefs.

In conclusion, it can be emphasized that oratory practice is so complex, diverse, multifaceted that it is impossible to foresee everything in advance and give advice and recommendations for all occasions.

It is very important that each person creatively approach the preparation and delivery of oratory, the field and make wider use of their natural data, individual capabilities. Skillfully applied the acquired rhetorical skills and abilities.

2. Preparation of speech: choice of topic, purpose of speech.

Quite often, before a performance, people experience a feeling of insecurity, they are very worried, they are afraid of meeting with the audience. This also affects their physical condition: some are seized by nervous trembling, others blush or turn pale, others begin to tremble in voice, etc. There was even such a thing as "oratory fever".

In a word, the speaker needs a good psychological preparation. He must set himself up in a certain way before the performance, learn to control his feelings and mood.

Preparing for a speech is a very important and responsible matter in the activity of a speaker.

Preparation for a specific speech is determined by the type of oratory, depends on the topic of the speech, the goals and objectives of the speaker, his individual features, on the composition of the audience in which to speak, etc.

Consider the main stages in the development of oratory.

Preparation for any speech begins with the definition of the topic of speech. Having chosen a topic, you need to think about its wording. The title of the speech should be clear, concise, and as short as possible. It should reflect the content of the speech and be sure to attract the attention of the audience.

Long wordings, titles, including unfamiliar words, repel listeners, sometimes even cause a negative attitude towards the upcoming performance.

should be avoided and too common names, they require coverage of too many issues, which the speaker is not able to do.

When preparing a speech, it is necessary to determine the purpose of the speech. The speaker, preparing for a speech, must establish the primacy of the goal over the content and form of speech. If the speaker does not think about the purpose of the speech, he will not succeed in preparing and delivering it.

It must be borne in mind that the speaker should formulate the purpose of the speech not only for himself, but also for his listeners.

3.Basic methods of searching for material.

After determining the topic of the speech, its purpose is followed by the stage of search and selection of material. AT methodological literature the main sources from which you can draw new ideas, interesting information are identified. Facts examples, illustrations for your speech.

The most important stage in the preparation of oratorical speech is the study of selected literature. The speaker needs to choose from the literature what can be used in speech, i.e. read the relevant sections, make the necessary notes, systematize the material, etc.

The first screening of the selected books is very important point in preparing the speech. It allows you to determine which of the selected books are most suitable for the topic being developed and which of them should be studied in more detail.

While reading, it is important to be able to comprehend the content of what was read, to combine it with the knowledge that was obtained earlier. This helps to analyze and systematize the material, to draw the necessary conclusions. When preparing for a lecture, a report must be made with appropriate notes of what has been read.

The real preparation for a speech is to develop own attitude to the subject of speech, to formulate their thoughts on a particular issue, to analyze their ideas from the perspective of the future audience.

4. Beginning, completion and deployment of speech.

In the theory of oratory, the composition of speech is understood as the construction of a speech, the ratio of its individual parts and the relationship of each part to the entire speech as a whole.

The organization of the material in the speech, the location of all parts of the speech is determined by the intention of the speaker, the content of the speech. If the ratio of parts of the speech is violated, then the effectiveness of speech is reduced, and sometimes reduced to zero.