Socio-psychological problems of interpersonal relations. Problems of interpersonal relations in social psychology

Table of contents
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...3

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspect studying the problem of regulation of interpersonal relations

1.1. Basic approaches to the problem of interpersonal relations in psychology.................................................................. ................................................. .........................5

1.2. The structure of interpersonal interaction in a group……………………….9

Chapter Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Chapter 2. Regulation of interpersonal relations in a team

2.1. Conflict as an indicator of disharmony of interpersonal relations in a team……………………………………………………………………………………..13

2.2. Methods of regulation of interpersonal relations……………………………….21

Chapter Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………24

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….25

References…………………………………………………………………27

Introduction
The formation of a personality cannot be considered in isolation from society, from the collective, from the society in which he interacts. The nature of interpersonal relationships is quite complex. They manifest both purely individual qualities of the personality - its emotional and volitional properties, intellectual capabilities, as well as the norms and values of society assimilated by the personality. In the system of interpersonal relations, a person realizes himself, giving to society what he perceives in him (B.F. Lomov, N.I. Shevandrin). It is the activity of the individual, his actions that are the most important link in the system of interpersonal relations. Thus, the personal characteristics of each particular individual have an impact on the development of interpersonal relationships. Entering into interpersonal relations of the most diverse in form, content, values, structure of human communities - in a circle of friends, in various formal and informal associations - an individual manifests himself as a person and provides an opportunity to evaluate himself in a system of relations with others.

Many psychologists (G.M. Andreeva, B.V. Kulagin, B.F. Lomov, A.V. Petrovsky, etc.) have studied the nature of interpersonal relationships. B.F. Lomov defined interpersonal relationships as relationships covering a significant range of phenomena that can be qualified taking into account three components of interaction:

1) people's perception and understanding of each other,

2) interpersonal attractiveness (attraction and liking),

3) mutual influence and behavior (in particular, role-playing). A.A. Krylov and A.V. Petrovsky considered interpersonal relations through the aspect of the social situation of development, which is represented by a social position, i.e. the attitude of group members to these objective conditions, status, and their readiness to accept this position and act in accordance with it.

Much attention in social psychology(B.F. Lomov, G.M. Andreeva) is devoted to the study of interpersonal attractiveness, which manifests itself in sympathy and attraction. According to N.I. Shevandrin, the nature of interpersonal interaction is determined by the type of situation and the personal characteristics of its participants, such as value orientations, stereotypes of behavior, motivation, temperament, etc.

Relevance chosen topic is due to the fact that modern conditions place increased demands on harmonious interpersonal relationships between people. On the present stage there is an urgent practical need to study the methods of regulation of interpersonal relations. This is the reason for the choice of the topic of our study: "Regulation of interpersonal relationships".

Object of study: interpersonal relationships.

Subject of study: features of methods of regulation of interpersonal relations.

Purpose of the study – study of the regulation of interpersonal relations in a team.

Based on the goal of the study, it would be appropriate to decide the following tasks:

1. To study the main approaches to the problem of interpersonal relations in psychology.

2. Determine the structure of interpersonal relationships in the group.

3. Analyze the conflict as an indicator of the disharmony of interpersonal relations in the group.

4. Substantiate the methods of regulation of interpersonal relations.

Chapter 1. Theoretical aspect of studying the problem of regulation of interpersonal relations

1.1. Basic approaches to the problem of interpersonal relations in psychology
The problem of intergroup relations has been studied in social psychology relatively recently (Andreeva G.M., Lomov B.F., Krylov A.A., Petrovsky A.V. and others), at least in comparison with the study of problems intragroup relations, which were widely studied in the works of Pryazhnikov N.S., Karpov A.V., Shevandrin N.I. It is closely connected with purely psychological and sociological research. There are four main directions in the study of intergroup relations in social psychology and related disciplines.

The first direction is connected with the study of relations between large social groups within the whole society at the level social stratification Andreeva G.M., Andrienko E.V., Ts.P. Korolenko and others).

The second is determined by the study of intergroup relations in conditions when one group acts as a leader, and the other (or others) follow it (I.S. Kon, A.N. Leontiev, A.V. Mudrik, K. Levin).

The third direction is connected with the study of relations between small groups (B.G. Ananiev, A.V. Petrovsky, D. Myers, A. Maslow). Fourth - studies the influence of intergroup relations on intragroup processes (Burns E., T. Shibutani, McDougal, Schultz D. and others). These areas of research can be clearly separated only with a certain degree of conditionality, since they are all interconnected and interdependent.

The general socio-psychological characteristics of the group should begin with the identification of its social affiliation. General analysis in this case will be primary in relation to the particular. If we take for comparison two social groups that differ in their belonging to different large social groups, we must first of all determine the significant differences between the data large groups and on the basis of this give comparative characteristic the small groups that make up them. Most modern researchers (Andreeva G.M., Ananyev B.G., Petrovsky A.V., etc.) distinguish the following intergroup relations: cooperation, competition (competition, rivalry), intergroup conflict and independence relations. Competition and conflict are associated with the trend of differentiation, and cooperation (collaboration, compromise) with the trend of integration. Actually, competition and conflict are here very close strategies of interaction, just like cooperation and compromise. As for independence relationships, they are often not considered as a type of relationship at all. However, independent relations are also relations that may well characterize the position of the group. In independence relations there are groups that do not have social ties among themselves, while the presence of such makes groups interdependent in one or another aspect of activity and relations.

Any group is usually divided into microgroups, relations between which are not stable. One of critical factors influence on intergroup relations, according to BF Lomov, is the nature of joint activities. If such activity is extreme and carried out under stressful conditions, then there may be the dynamics of intergroup relations, described in the works of V. Hanoves, a member of the famous international expedition led by Thor Heyerdahl.

The philosophical and methodological substantiation of the psychological analysis of interpersonal relations was given by S.L. Rubinstein. Developing the foundations of the general psychological theory of activity in the early 1920s, he pointed out that activity as a philosophical category is initially not the activity of one subject, but always the activity of subjects, i.e. joint activities that determine interpersonal relationships.

Joint activity from individual, first of all, is distinguished by the presence of interaction between the participants of the activity, which transforms, changes their individual activity and is aimed at achieving a common result. Such interaction is observed in cases where the actions of one person or group of persons cause certain actions other people, and the actions of the latter can influence the actions of the former, etc.

The operational concept of joint activity, derived by Lomov B.F., includes a number of parameters, or features that distinguish it from individual.

The main features of joint activities include:

The distinction of a single goal for all participants involved in the activity;

The incentive to work together, i.e., in addition to individual motives, a common motivation should be formed;

Division of activities into functionally related components, i.e. distribution of functions between group members;

Integration individual activities, the relationship and interdependence of individual participants in the activity;

Harmonization and coordination of functionally distributed and integrated individual activities;

The presence of management;

Single end result;

Unified spatio-temporal functioning of participants in joint activities.

In order to make sure that all of the listed signs are the necessary characteristics of a joint activity, it is enough to imagine a team of a fishing trawler, a team of builders or any other really operating group. Such a group always has a common goal, common motives, its activities are based on the processes of integration and, at the same time, functional distribution. Someone must lead this group. She achieves overall result which cannot be achieved alone.

In psychology, such a group is defined as a collective subject of activity. AT foreign theory social psychology (McDougal, K. Levy) labor collectives, their parts, subdivisions are called groups. Any enterprise, organization consists of several groups, a group is two or more persons that interact with each other in such a way that each person influences others and at the same time is influenced by other persons. There are two types of groups - formal and informal. Formal groups or organizations (collectives) create leadership when they divide labor horizontally (divisions) and vertically (levels of management), to organize the production or trade process. Their primary function is to perform specific tasks and achieve specific goals.

Andreeva G.M. distinguishes three main types of formal groups.

The leader's group (team) consists of the leader and his immediate subordinates, who, in turn, can also be leaders. A typical team group is a company president and vice presidents. The same group is formed by the director of the store and the heads of its departments.

The working (target) group consists of people working together on a common task.

The third type of group is a committee (commission, council) within an organization to which powers are delegated to perform a task. Its distinctive feature is group decision-making and implementation of actions. There are two main types of committees: ad hoc and permanent. The first is a temporary group formed to fulfill a specific purpose. The second is a permanent group within the organization that has a specific goal. They are often used to provide advice to organizations on important issues. These are boards of directors (boards of forms), audit commissions, planning groups, salary review commissions.

The effectiveness of formal groups, according to Andreeva G.M., depends on the size and composition of formal groups, group norms, cohesion of people, the degree of conflict, status and functional roles of group members.

Thus, interpersonal relations, according to A.V. Petrovsky, are subjectively experienced connections between people, objectively manifested in the nature, methods of interpersonal interaction, that is, mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication.

1.2. The structure of interpersonal interaction in a group
The concept of group cohesion is key concept social psychology. Any set of people, considered from the point of view of their community, can be denoted as social group. Insofar as social life organized in such a way that a person can do little alone, without resorting to participation in groups, the latter are studied within the framework of systems approach as special social systems consisting of interconnected elements. It should not be thought that only people are the elements of the system. Actually, individuals do not belong to the group as a whole, but only to those aspects of their personality that are associated with social roles performed in this group.

There are several main features of a social group. First, the presence of integrated psychological characteristics, such as public opinion, psychological climate, group norms, group interests, etc., which are formed with the emergence and development of the group. A particular person cannot have an integral characteristic of a group, which is determined by a special psychological and arising from the interaction of individuals. Thus, the relative unanimity of the members of a group on a particular issue is determined by public opinion, but it does not represent the totality of individual opinions. It is simply the quintessence of an idea about which the participants in the interaction have come to an agreement. At the same time, the opinions of specific individuals may differ significantly from public opinion. Group processes include dynamic, i.e., changing indicators of the group as a social process of relations. It is quite clear that only a person who has observed the group over a certain period can give an analysis of group processes.

Particular importance is attached here to the psychological and organizational processes of cohesion (leadership and leadership), the level of development of the group as a social unity (stages of development of the team), the process of group pressure (conformism), etc. Thus, the phenomenon of group cohesion can be defined as harmoniously organized process leadership and subordination in a group (team) organization.

In the structure of interpersonal relationships special place occupies the moral and psychological climate - a stable emotional and moral state of the members of the group, which reflects the mood, attitude towards each other, towards material and spiritual values. It is customary to divide the moral and psychological climate into healthy (favorable) and unhealthy (unfavorable). The first is characterized by comfort, emotional satisfaction of group members, in which negative phenomena do not find ground for development and are overcome by common efforts.

The creation of a healthy moral and psychological climate is facilitated by empathy (from the Greek empatheia - empathy) - emotional responsiveness, sympathy, the ability to put oneself in the place of another, affiliation (from the English affiliate - to join) - the desire of a person to be in the company of other people, as well as mental contagiousness - contagiousness that occurs during joint communication and causes similar impulses. A healthy moral and psychological climate in a team arises when its members care about creating a good impression of themselves, the ability to objectively evaluate the behavior of others, show tolerance, and critically approach oneself.

Creating a favorable emotional background in relationships sets employees on the same wavelength and does not allow pessimists to extend their influence to others, puts a barrier to conflicting personalities. The opposite, destructive picture is observed in groups dominated by an unhealthy moral climate. There is no concern for the results of the case, common interests, labor activity, solidarity, and narrowly selfish aspirations, ambition, and disunity prevail. Of course, with no high moral organizational behavior cannot arise. Equally important, along with the moral and psychological climate, is the organizational climate - a clear regulation of the functioning of all parts of the production group, which imposes its own requirements and restrictions on the behavior of workers.

Chapter Conclusions
- Interpersonal relations, according to A. V. Petrovsky, are subjectively experienced connections between people, objectively manifested in the nature, methods of interpersonal interaction, that is, mutual influences exerted by people on each other in the process of joint activity and communication.

The concept of group cohesion is a key concept in social psychology. Any set of people, considered from the point of view of their community, can be designated as a social group. Since social life is organized in such a way that a person can do little alone without resorting to participation in groups, the latter are studied within the framework of a systems approach as special social systems consisting of interconnected elements. It should not be thought that only people are the elements of the system. Actually, individuals do not belong to the group as a whole, but only to those aspects of their personality that are associated with the social roles performed in this group.

Chapter 2

2.1. Conflict as an indicator of disharmony of interpersonal relations in a group

Organizational conflict is understood as a clash of oppositely directed tendencies in the psyche. individual person, in the relationship of people, their formal and informal associations, due to the difference in views, positions and interests. In an organization, conflict always results in certain behavior, actions that violate the interests of others.

Conflicts are often characterized by the uncertainty of the outcome. This is due to the wide variety options the behavior of the parties under the influence of random factors, psychology, hidden goals. But, nevertheless, the emergence of conflicts can be predicted, and their consequences, albeit with considerable difficulty, can be foreseen.

In terms of scale, conflicts are general, covering the entire organization, and partial, concerning its separate part; by stages of development - nascent, mature or fading; by goals - blind or rational; according to the forms of flow - peaceful or non-peaceful; by duration - short-term or protracted, for a long time feverish the entire organization. An extensive and acute conflict can cause a crisis and ultimately lead to its destruction or significant change. A person comes into conflict in a situation that is significant for him and only when he does not see the opportunity to change it, but usually tries not to complicate relations and maintain restraint.

The modern point of view is that many conflicts are not only permissible, but also desirable, because they make it possible to identify problems, processes hidden from the eyes, various points of view on certain events, etc.

The positive consequences of the conflict are: the solution of the problem in a way acceptable to all parties; strengthening mutual understanding, cohesion, cooperation in the team; reduction of antagonism, unanimity, humility.

Conflicts lead to the restructuring of existing and the formation of new social institutions and mechanisms, contribute to the strengthening of groups, maintaining a balance of interests and power between them, and thus ensure the relative stability of internal relations.

Finally, conflicts increase the activity of people, their desire to improve their skills, stimulate disputes and curiosity, creativity, the emergence of new ideas, and readiness for change. Completely without conflicts, experiences, stresses, a person can stop in his development.

All this facilitates the management process, increases its efficiency, and that is why it is often better not to suppress conflicts, but to regulate them.

At the same time, conflicts can also have dysfunctional (negative) consequences: cause dissatisfaction, deterioration of the moral and psychological climate in the team, curtailment of cooperation, increased staff turnover, reduced productivity, activity in the future, increased hostility and the formation of the image of the enemy and the desire for victories, not problem solving.

56. The main causes of conflicts.

The causes of the conflict are not always amenable to logical reconstruction, because they may include an irrational component, and external manifestations often do not give an idea of their true nature.

Conflicts are internal and external. The first are intrapersonal; to the second: interpersonal; between the individual and the group; intergroup. The emergence of internal conflicts is due to the contradiction of a person with himself. It can be generated by such circumstances as the need to choose between acceptable and acceptable, when both are desirable, but one must be chosen; unacceptable and unacceptable (of two evils); acceptable and unacceptable (the choice of alternatives that have both positive and Negative consequences- negative for acceptable and positive for unacceptable). The desire for what is acceptable is the stronger, the closer the goal is; the tendency to avoid the unacceptable is stronger the closer the danger is. At the same time, the danger avoidance gradient grows faster than the goal striving gradient. In a conflict between acceptable but incompatible aspirations, the stronger one wins.

intrapersonal conflict may also be due to a mismatch external requirements and internal positions; ambiguous perception of the situation, goals and means to achieve them; needs and opportunities to satisfy them; desires and responsibilities; various kinds of interests, etc. In general, most often we are talking about "choice in conditions of abundance" (motivational conflict) or "choosing the least evil" (role conflict).

Interpersonal conflicts are believed to be 75-80% generated by a clash of the material interests of the subjects, although outwardly this manifests itself as a mismatch of characters, personal views or moral values. Reacting to a situation, a person acts in accordance with his views and character traits, and different people behave differently in the same situations.

Conflicts between the individual and the group are mainly due to the discrepancy between individual and collective norms of behavior, and intergroup conflicts are generated by differences in views or interests.

In the first case, everyone seeks to prove his case; in the second - to seize the necessary resources, limiting others, which, if escalated, threatens with large losses. The conflict of views leads only to the refutation of the point of view, to a logical dead end.

In terms of organizational levels to which the parties belong, conflicts can be divided into horizontal and vertical. The first type includes, for example, a conflict between individual areas of the organization's activities; to the second - between different levels of the hierarchy. Practice shows that vertical conflicts are the majority - up to 70-80%. The interweaving of intra-organizational relations in practice leads to the fact that many conflicts are mixed, containing various elements.

According to the sphere of origin and development, conflicts can be divided into business, related to the performance of official duties by a person, and personal, affecting his informal relations.

According to the distribution of losses and gains between the parties, conflicts can be divided into symmetrical and asymmetric. In the first case, they are divided approximately equally; in the second, some gain or lose substantially more than others. If the participants in the conflict hide it from prying eyes, or the conflict is not yet “ripe”, which, of course, makes it difficult to manage it, or resolve it, it is hidden, latent; otherwise, the conflict is considered open. Because the latter is under management control, it is less dangerous; the hidden one can imperceptibly undermine the foundations of the team, although outwardly it will seem that everything is going fine. Conflicts can be constructive or destructive in their consequences. Structural suggest the possibility rational transformations in the organization, as a result of which their very cause is eliminated, and, therefore, they can be of great benefit to it, contribute to development. If the conflict has no real ground, it becomes destructive, first destroying relations between people, and then disorganizing the management system. The conflict is one of universal characteristics world and the main driving force of its development. This is one of the most controversial phenomena and the main mechanisms of all changes and transformations. Determining the psychological factors that determine the emergence, dynamics and final result of the development of interpersonal conflict is important for understanding psychological mechanisms regulation of personality behavior. In addition, this problem is essential for the development methodological foundations psychodiagnostics, forecasting and correction of interpersonal conflicts in a broader context. The definition of psychological factors of conflict depends on understanding the determination of the human psyche and, in particular, his behavior, on preliminary methodological approaches to the study of interpersonal conflicts.

The conflict is a bipolar phenomenon, which manifests itself in the activity of the parties. The idea of "multi-subjectivity" of the inner world of a person is considered in the works of many authors, especially those who proceed from the structural construction of the personality. For example, psychoanalysis claims that conflict arises in the depths of the psyche as a result of the interaction of the internal structures and tendencies of the psyche due to the laws of its objective existence; trend towards interpersonal conflicts- the result of a distortion of a person's basic attitudes that arise under the influence of negative experiences acquired in childhood. Psychological conflicts play a significant role in the formation of new character traits and personality restructuring, and their solution is an acute form of development - there is a change in the structure of the adolescent's personality and the formation of new relationships. The conflict translates it, the participants into qualitatively new level interaction, which is accompanied by a value reorientation, awareness and formation of personal and group interests, a change in the communicative structure, the destruction of old and the creation of new legitimization schemes. The conflict is being considered different levels personality. Intrapersonal conflict manifests itself in external interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal conflicts are accompanied by emotional experiences of a person. To the same extent, internal conflicts of a person lead to certain features of his interpersonal behavior. Different types of conflicts are interconnected and can move from one level to another. Interpersonal conflict associated with contradictions in interaction can turn into an internal conflict: into a conflict of motives, a conflict of choice, etc.; the conflict that arises between members of separate groups can be the beginning of an intergroup conflict. The first theoretical and experimental studies of interpersonal conflicts were carried out by K. Levin, who considered them in the context of satisfaction - dissatisfaction with the needs of the individual. The conflict is characterized by him as "a situation in which oppositely directed forces act on an individual approximately equal size", that is, K. Levin refers to interpersonal conflicts the contradictions between human needs and external coercive forces. If a teenager is in such a situation, then the force that induces him on the part of an adult is the result of the field of power of this person over a teenager. The conflict is the more serious the more significant needs of the individual it affects.The dissatisfaction of needs creates tension, and the condition is almost instinctive in origin.

It is the presence of this reaction that can explain the fact that adolescents commit most violations in a group; It is there that the formation of mental dependence on alcohol occurs. Hobby reaction in adults may be absent, but it is an integral attribute of adolescents. The same hobby can be formed by different motives, that is, to relate to different types hobbies, so some adolescent hobbies may underlie behavioral disorders - due to the excessive intensity of the hobby or the asocial content of the hobby itself. Studies of reactions conditioned by sexual desire indicate that sexual behavior adolescents is characterized by extreme instability and may approach pathological forms. The cause of this instability is undifferentiated sexuality. In addition, adolescents are characterized by children's behavioral reactions of refusal, opposition, imitation, compensation and overcompensation.

L. S. Vygotsky noted that the transitional period includes two series of processes: puberty, and the social series - the processes of learning and socialization in broad sense this word."

The central new formation of a teenager's personality is the formation of a sense of his own adulthood: not just to be, but also to seem like an adult. The sources of the sensation of adulthood are significant shifts in physical development, the onset of puberty and social sources, as well as their awareness by the adolescent himself.

But social status the adolescent does not change - he was and remains a student, his material dependence on his parents, who play the role of educators, remains, especially since adults still have the habit of directing pi to control the child, which is very difficult to lose, even understanding the need for this. After all, giving independence to a child, an adult must limit his rights. And this creates a solid foundation for maintaining an adult attitude towards a teenager as a child who must obey and not claim new rights. Such an attitude unconsciously flatters the self-esteem of adults: the more helpless and infantile the child seems, the more significant and necessary teachers and parents look in their own eyes. An unfavorable educational situation is created: such an attitude of adults contradicts the tasks educational process, creates a contradiction in the adolescent's ideas about himself, hinders the development of social adulthood and the acquisition of social competence in communication and behavior. In the works of L. I. Bozhovich, conflict behavior is considered as a result of internal and external contradictions between society, the microenvironment and the person himself. This is the result of internal and external contradictions between the need for self-affirmation and the possibility of satisfying it, between self-esteem and the assessment of the group, between the requirements of the group and one's own attitudes and beliefs, that is, conflict behavior acts as a person's tendency to conflict in the interaction of personal factors and environmental factors. Conflict is defined as a permanent personality trait that is accumulated by her natural inclinations and social experience. Conflict involves a certain level of mental tension. It can be different for different people, which is related to the level psychological stability person. Mentally strong and mentally unstable people in difficult situations behave differently. Mentally unstable teenagers do not have effective ways overcoming obstacles, therefore, the phenomenon of self-induction of negative emotional stress is sometimes observed: disorganized behavior enhances stressful condition, which further disorganizes the behavior, leading to a "wave of disorganization" .

Psychological stability is a property of the individual and consists in maintaining the optimal state of the functioning of mental energy and is acquired.

Conflict resistance - specific manifestation psychological stability, which is considered as a person's ability to adequately and conflict-free solve the problems of social interaction. The structure of conflict resistance includes such components as emotional, volitional, cognitive, motivational and psychomotor. Therefore, given that conflict and conflict resistance are at different poles of the same continuum, it would be legitimate to define the structure of conflict as identical to the structure of conflict resistance, but with the opposite sign.

The conflict components will thus have next view: emotional component (state of the individual in a situation of interpersonal interaction, inability to manage their emotional state in pre-conflict and conflict situations); volitional component (inability of the individual to conscious mobilization of forces and self-control); cognitive component (includes the level of perception of the opponent's provocative actions, subjectivity, inability to analyze and predict the situation); motivational component (reflects the state of internal motivating forces that do not favor appropriate behavior in conflict and problem solving). psychomotor component (inability to control one's body, control gestures and facial expressions).

2.2. Methods of regulation of interpersonal relations
Specialists have developed many recommendations regarding various aspects of people's behavior in conflict situations, the choice of appropriate behavioral strategies and means of conflict resolution, as well as its management. Consider, first of all, human behavior in conflict situation in terms of its compliance with psychological standards. This model of behavior is based on the ideas of E. Melibruda, Siegert and Laite.

It is believed that the constructive resolution of the conflict depends on the following factors:

The adequacy of the perception of the conflict, that is, a fairly accurate assessment of the actions, intentions of both the enemy and one's own, not distorted by personal predilections;

Openness and effectiveness of communication, readiness for a comprehensive discussion of problems, when participants honestly express their understanding of what is happening and ways out of the conflict situation,

Creation of an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation.

Summarizing the research of psychologists, we can say that the following can be attributed to such qualities:

Inadequate self-esteem of one's capabilities and abilities, which can be both overestimated and underestimated. In both cases, it may contradict an adequate assessment of others - and the ground for a conflict is ready;

The desire to dominate at all costs where possible and impossible;

Conservatism of thinking, views, beliefs, unwillingness to overcome outdated traditions;

Excessive adherence to principles and straightforwardness in statements and judgments, the desire to tell the truth at all costs;

A certain set of emotional personality traits: anxiety, aggressiveness, stubbornness, irritability.

K.U. Thomas and R.H. Kilmenn developed the main most acceptable strategies of behavior in a conflict situation.

They point out that there are five basic styles of behavior in conflict: accommodation, compromise, cooperation, ignoring, rivalry or competition.

Topic 3. The problem of communication and interpersonal
relations in social psychology

(in psychology) - fixed on some basis
mutual arrangement of subjects, objects and their properties.
In Russian scientific and psychological language, this term
showed up after work
, which,
singling out the endopsyche in a person as an internal
side of the psychic and exopsyche as its external
side, presented the latter in the form of a system
relationship of the subject to reality
Revealing the essence of the concept of "attitude" in psychology,
pointed out that psychological
The meaning of the relationship is that it
2
. Relationship building in
structure of a person's personality occurs as a result of
their reflection on a conscious level of the essence of those
social objectively existing relations
society in the conditions of its macro- and microexistence, in which
he lives.

3
phenomena and
properties
in his relation to
other objects
phenomena, properties
(for example, any law
as essential
relation between
phenomena)
(for example, relationship
subject to political
system)

"SOCIAL CONTEXT"
as the totality of real relations
personality with the outside world includes:
V. N. Myasishchev
PUBLIC
RELATIONS
4
INTERPERSONAL
(PSYCHOLOGICAL)
RELATIONS

multiple connections,
emerging
as well as
,
them
SOCIAL
5
,
,
rendered by people to each other
friend in the process of joint
activities and communication.
PSYCHOLOGICAL

Public and interpersonal relations

characterize
same
relations
or relationships developing
between
various
(individuals,
personalities)
constituting this society
(social relations have little to do with
emotions individual people and exist relatively independently.
from them)
(always
associated with emotions
specific people)
(people "turn on" in
these relationships that exist outside of them)
(they express the inner world of a person, and their source is in the person himself)
social relations are described
through concepts
6
interpersonal relationships are characterized using terms

Public and interpersonal relations

First set and decided in social psychology
the question of the relationship between public (social) and
psychological (interpersonal) relationships, highlighting
the following
:
Galina Mikhailovna
Andreeva
content is revealed and discussed
in social sciences, including in
sociology
7
act as a subject
research in the social
psychology

–

Andreeva
Galina
Mikhailovna
8
Interpersonal relationships emerge
within each type of public
relations. They represent one
whole, there are no pure public relations, they refract
through interpersonal, so the person
simultaneously
speaks
and
as
performer of impersonal social
roles, and as a unique human
personality,
what
implemented
through

Interpersonal relations as a form of manifestation of social relations

It is here that the social and the psychological collide directly.
Therefore, for social psychology, the formulation of this problem is of paramount importance.
9

Interpersonal relations as a form of manifestation of social relations

–
(ideological, political,
social, economic, etc.
- socially necessary
social activities and behavior
- position of a person
system of group relations, which is determined
individual psychological
personality traits.
Fulfillment of a specific cross-group role
determines the status of a person in a group
10

Interpersonal relations as a form of manifestation of social relations

–
(ideological, political,
social, economic, etc.
,
i.e. in the process of direct
communication there are certain
emotional manifestations
different intensity
11

Interpersonal relations as a form of manifestation of social relations

–
(ideological, political,
social, economic, etc.
Relationships between small groups
build like
There are three levels of emotional
manifestations:
Intragroup
favoritism
–
its
Group
rated by its members as more attractive
(better) than other groups
affects
Intergroup
discrimination
relation to the other group.
intergroup cooperation
12
–
hostile
emotions
feelings

feelings

CONJUNCTIVE
FEELINGS
DISCONJUNCTIVE
FEELINGS

relate different kind feelings
In each case, this relationship
the other side is speaking
,
in relation to which it is shown
willingness to cooperate,
to joint actions, etc.
the other side is speaking
,
maybe even as a frustrating object,
in relation to which does not arise
desire for cooperation, etc.
SOCIOMETRY METHOD
the position of each group member in the system
her interpersonal relationships
13
J. Moreno

official
informal
14
primary
business
secondary
personal
guides
rational
subordination
emotional

Classification of interpersonal relationships

relationships between people
which are installed and
officially supported
15

who do not wear official
character (not regulated
no legislation)

Classification of interpersonal relationships

official
informal
16
primary
business
secondary
personal
guides
rational
subordination
emotional

Classification of interpersonal relationships

relationships between people who
arise
(the case that their
unites) or about it
relationships are not based on
feelings, but on responsibility and
obligations that people
take on in joint
activities or duties
which are assigned to them
17
relationships between people who
Based on personal
relationships lie
feelings that people
experiencing in relation
to each other

Classification of interpersonal relationships

OFFICIAL AND BUSINESS RELATIONSHIPS
18
Physician by profession
must treat
patient with attention
and respect
this is his attitude
but not business
people can join
with each other in business
relationship,
contrary to the law
this is his attitude
but not official

Classification of interpersonal relationships

official
informal
19
primary
business
secondary
personal
guides
rational
subordination
emotional

Classification of interpersonal relationships

relationships that
based on calculation and reason,
,
which the people who enter them
can bring or bring
each other
20
relationships based on
,
on their personal, individual
perception of others

Classification of interpersonal relationships

official
informal
21
primary
business
secondary
personal
guides
rational
subordination
emotional

Classification of interpersonal relationships

relationships between people who have
different social status
holding various positions in
some organization (group,
team) or different position
in society
22
relationships between people
into which they enter as quite
equal, independent people,
who only agree, coordinate
their actions with each other, but not
depend on each other and do not obey
each other

Classification of interpersonal relationships

official
informal
23
primary
business
secondary
personal
guides
rational
subordination
emotional

Classification of interpersonal relationships

basic, basic,
,
based on strong, deep
emotional connections that exist
between these people, on a feeling
personal affection or devotion
each other
24
, characterized
limited interaction experience
people with each other and the absence
clear rules of engagement

types of social contacts

ACTIVITY
COMMUNICATION
The result of the activity is
usually
The result of communication is
.
,
product (for example, wording
thoughts, ideas, statements).
should be seen as related
aspects of human development
25

communication - view
human
activities
communication -
human
activities
26
communication -
subjects

Approaches to the study of the problem of communication

Lomov
Boris
Fedorovich
Leontiev
Alexei
Nikolaevich
Leontiev
Alexei
Alexeyevich
27
and activities -
human being, his way of life
(B.M. Lomov, 1976)
social
included in any human activity, therefore
activities, and activities
it is communication
(A.N. Leontiev, 1975)
- This

Sociological concept of communication

SUBSTANTIATES
COMMUNICATION HOW
IMPLIES
DEEP SCAN
SHAPES
METHODOLOGY
UNDERSTANDING
society and
or
social
structure of society
social group in
28
communication processes.
how important
social
personality production

psychological concept of communication

COMMUNICATION
DETERMINED
PSYCHOLOGICAL
COMMUNICATION ANALYSIS
as
and
reveals
its implementation.
as
necessary for
other
activities
personality.
way of organizing activities
29
COMMUNICATION
UNDER CONSIDERATION
as the most important
social
, without
implementation of which
slow down and sometimes
stops
formation
personality.
satisfaction of human needs
in another person, in living contact.

like a special
;
as a specific social
as
;
subjects;
as
;
as
as
;
thoughts, feelings and experiences;
as essential
, which implies
any form of joint activity of people;
, is generated and
supported by various forms of human relations.
30

Features of the content of the concept of "communication" in domestic psychology

BROAD SENSE
- interaction between
mostly direct.
"communication" is used and
IN THE NARROW SENSE
people
concept
-
complicated
multifaceted
generated
needs
joint activities and
("international exchange
information,
exchange
actions
communication", "communication of cultures"), i.e. in terms of more perception and understanding of the partner "
broader than the interpersonal relationship between (Brief psychological dictionary. M., 1998)
people" (Modern philosophical dictionary. M., 1996)
"Concept"
includes in
two or more people
myself
,
exchange of information between them
insofar as social attitude- economic, cognitive or affective-evaluative
political or ideological
character"
and
(Psychological dictionary. M., 1996)
in direct or indirect contact
between people "(B.D. Parygin)
- exchange of information between people
interaction” (R.S. Nemov)
31
«
- interaction between people
there is an exchange of emotional
and rational information and activity” (V.M. Shepel)

The Importance of Social Communication

SOCIAL COMMUNICATION IS IMPORTANT
Social
communication
communication is going on
psychological connections
. Through
into a complex system of social
going on
, since the formation and manifestation of mental qualities
a person is possible only in his communication with other people
Communication through sign systems
. There is an obvious connection between effective communication and
relevant skills, culture of behavior
32

Structure of communication

communication in situations
direct
interactions
34
LIST OF MAIN

The structure of communication (levels of communication according to B.F. Lomov)

Lomov
Boris
Fedorovich
LEVELS
CHARACTERISTIC
Communication is
with other people and
social groups and is considered
Communication is considered
purposeful, logically completed
,
that change and in which they find themselves
people in the process of life
Interaction covers
partner and
35
ACCENT
Mental analysis
individual development
throughout life
Content analysis
situation components
communication (goals, dynamics,
facilities)
Analysis of elementary
units of communication
interactions
behavioral acts

The structure of communication levels of communication (or ways of structuring time) according to E. Bern

Eric
Berne
36
RITUALS
certain course of action
a custom is made and established
PASSTIME
(watching TV, reading books, dancing, etc.)
GAMES
activities that do not result in
becomes the production of a product
PROXIMITY
intimate relationship
ACTIVITY
a specific type of human activity,
aimed at knowledge and transformation
the world around

Dobrovich
Anatoly
Borisovich
level
level;
level
EACH OF THE LEVELS IS CONSIDERED IN
IN THE CONTEXT OF THE FOUR PHASES OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
1
focus on
partner
Mutual
orientation
2
mental
reflection
partner
Mutual
display
3
informing
partner
Mutual
informing
4
incentive
motives
Mutual
shutdown
th level
level
37
survived
disappeared

Annex - as a socio-psychological device

- socio-psychological technique, consisting
in active and extraordinary imposition of relations.
imposing one's
dominant role
imposing one's
subordinate role.
imposing cooperation, information
exchange, competition
narrative
intonation, questions,
rationality,
emphatic respect and
other
.
38

The structure of communication (levels of communication according to the features of the dialogue)

Dobrovich
Anatoly
Borisovich
, and necessary or interfering
Strategy
behavior
39
IM WORTH
ITS SHOULD

The structure of communication (levels of communication according to the features of the dialogue)

Dobrovich
Anatoly
Borisovich
aggressiveness mask
40
don't incur anger
or the ridicule of others

The structure of communication (levels of communication according to the features of the dialogue)

Dobrovich
Anatoly
Borisovich
41

The structure of communication (levels of communication according to the features of the dialogue)

Dobrovich
Anatoly
Borisovich
42

The structure of communication (levels of communication according to the features of the dialogue)

Dobrovich
Anatoly
Borisovich
perceived
get closer
humanity
as
: from friendship to opportunity
to
highest
values
SPIRITUALITY is not ensured by the selection of topics
for conversation and
43

Structure of communication

Communication is so difficult
systemic and multilevel phenomenon
SUBJECT-CONTENT
ASPECT
COMPONENT
DYNAMIC
ASPECT
PROCESS
(time parameters)
PROCESS
COMPONENT
SUBJECTS
COMPONENT
44

Structure of communication

object - the order of stable links between
elements of the object of study that ensure the integrity of this phenomenon,
identity to oneself in the process of external and internal changes
APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM OF THE STRUCTURE OF COMMUNICATION
communication in situations
direct
interactions
45
LIST OF MAIN

The structure of communication - communications

COMMUNICATOR
the man, who
sends a message
CONTENT
MESSAGES
what is transmitted
communicator
CHANNEL
COMMUNICATIONS
how or with what
is being transferred
messages
DESTINATION
COMMUNICATIONS
people or audience that
a message is sent and
RESULT
COMMUNICATIONS
with what effect
corresponding message
46
LASSWELL,
HAROLD
(Harold D. Lasswell)

The structure of communication (G.M. Andreeva)

Andreeva
Galina
Mikhailovna
information exchange
between individuals
47
process of perception and
partner knowledge
each other and
establishing
on this basis
mutual understanding
organization
interactions
between participants
communication, i.e. exchange
not only knowledge
ideas, but
actions

aspects of the study of communication (L.P. Bueva)

48
Bueva
Ludmila
Panteleevna
communication is seen as
during which information is exchanged
communication is analyzed
in the process of cooperation
ides
considered
communication is being studied
come to light
individuals, as well as analyze
in everyday consciousness of stereotypes of behavior
communication is described
on the one hand, and an intermediary in the functioning
different sign systems - on the other
communication is considered
,

Structure of communication

information,
which through
communication
transmitted
from a person
to a person
49
what for
man enters
in communication
with other people
that with which
it is being implemented

Types of communication By content

50
exchange of items or
products of activity
information exchange,
knowledge
people influence each other
friend, designed to
bring each other to a certain
physical or mental
condition
exchange of desires, motives,
goals, interests or
needs
exchange of skills and abilities,
which is carried out as a result
joint activities
PERSONAL
organized among people
connection with their
work or business that their
interested
INSTRUMENTAL
This
communication that serves
means of satisfaction The structure of communication of an object is the order of stable connections between
elements of the object of study that ensure the integrity of this phenomenon, the identity
itself in the process of external and internal changes
APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM OF THE STRUCTURE OF COMMUNICATION
communication in situations
direct
interactions
55
LIST OF MAIN

Communication functions

Communication is the most important
during
any joint activity.
Communication is the most important
human
while interacting with other people
«
»
myself
interpersonal relationships
Communication of a person with himself (through internal or
external speech, constructed according to the type of dialogue)
56

Communication functions

Lomov
Boris
Fedorovich
First level
Second level
Third level
Man
but also
entering into psychological
contact
.
At this level of communication, it implements the goals of informing, necessary training and etc
(consent - not
agreement, comparison of views, etc.)
not only models
, reacts to their actions
57
57
,

Communication strategies and tactics

Under
understand general scheme actions of participants in a communicative
process, overall plan achieving the goal that the interlocutors are striving for.
whether the goal is achieved
during communication
one entity or
both
58
communicative
installations -
humanistic or
manipulative
character
construction
communication certain
ratio
between dialogue and
monologue

Introduction…………………………………………………………………….3

The main problems in interpersonal relationships of people .... 4

Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities.

The main problems in interpersonal relationships of people.

Problems of interpersonal relationships of people are encountered quite often in the practice of conducting psychological counseling, and if the client does not directly talk about them, expressing complaints only about other personal problems, this does not mean that in fact he does not have interpersonal relationship problems.

The opposite is also true in most cases of life: if the client is worried about the state of affairs in the field of interpersonal relations, then almost always one can also find problems of a personal plan concerning his character. In addition, the methods of practical solution of these and other problems are largely similar to each other.

In addition, there is a significant difference in the ways of solving problems of personal and interpersonal plans. If personal problems are usually associated with the need for a radical change in the inner world of a person, then interpersonal problems- with the need to change mainly only the external forms of human behavior that relate to the people around.

Psychological problems related to the relationship of a person with other people can be different in nature. They may turn out to be related to personal and business relationships of a person with people around him, relate to relationships with people close and quite distant from him, for example, with relatives and strangers.

These problems may also have a pronounced age connotation, for example, arise in the client's relationships with peers or with people of a different generation, younger or older than himself.

The problem of interpersonal relations can also concern people of different sexes: women and men, both in monosexual and heterosexual social groups.

The multidimensional nature of these problems reflects the complexity of the real-life system of human relationships.

Problems of personal relationships of the client with people.

The group of these problems primarily includes those that relate to the relationship of the client with those people who are approximately the same age as him and differ in age from each other by no more than two or three years.

The psychological development of a person gradually slows down with age, and the commonality of life experience, psychology and behavior of people becomes the main criterion for evaluating them as peers.

Observations show that most often those who are over fifteen and under sixty years old turn to psychological counseling about problems of relationships with other people. As for the relationship of preschool children, primary school children and the elderly with each other, they are less likely to cause concern among their participants and, in addition, have their own specific features.

In preschool and primary school age, there are usually no serious problems in the relationship of children with peers that would require increased attention and psychological counseling. In old age, people's relationships are usually limited to a narrow circle of relatives, acquaintances and friends with whom these relationships have been established for a long time and are more or less regulated. In addition, the relationship of older people with others is relatively easy to settle due to the large life experience accumulated by such people, and, therefore, their problems are also relatively easy to resolve without contacting psychological consultation.

Lack of mutual sympathy in personal human relationships.

Show sympathy for a communication partner, trying to understand him even if he is clearly wrong. The mood of the client in communicating with a partner should be as follows: by all means try to understand why in this moment time, the partner behaves in this way, and not otherwise;

Try to go towards the partner as much as possible, yielding to him, demonstrating a sincere desire to take into account his needs and interests as much as possible.

The client usually complains that conflicts arise between close, significant people for him too often, and he is very worried about them, or he himself often becomes involved in these conflicts against his will. At the same time, it often seems to the client that if it were not for him, then there would be much less conflicts between people significant to him.

There may be two different situations that require different corrective actions on the part of the psychologist-consultant.

In the first of the situations, he himself really acts as a “bone of contention” between the conflicting parties (for example, they can fight among themselves for his attention to themselves).

In the second situation, the client does not personally participate in the conflict, but his sincere desire to reconcile the conflicting parties and his personal intervention in existing conflict relationships in order to eliminate them does not lead to the desired effect or, on the contrary, gives rise to the exact opposite result: the conflict from the client’s intervention only intensifies.

In the first of the situations described above, the following can be recommended to the client:

- firstly, in no case stand up for only one of the conflicting parties, do not show great favor to one side to the detriment of the other side. From this the conflict will not disappear, but can only become aggravated;

- secondly, to try in every possible way to avoid the manifestation of any special feelings, positive or negative, only to one of the conflicting parties;

- thirdly, try to make both parties to the conflict firmly understand that the cessation of the conflict is a prerequisite for maintaining friendly relations between them and the client.

In the second situation, in order to eliminate the conflict that has arisen or to relieve its severity, it is first of all necessary to carefully analyze why the client’s personal intervention in the conflict between people significant to him does not lead to desired result, i.e., to eliminate the conflict. Before receiving a precise and clear answer to this question it is advisable to completely stop unsuccessful attempts intervention in it.

Once a satisfactory answer to the above question has been found, it is necessary to carefully consider and plan actions that, given past failures, this time will have to lead to a positive result, and experimentally test the corresponding actions in practice.

In this case, the client may apply, in particular, to those forms of behavior that have already been discussed in relation to the first of the situations described above.

Conclusion.

Communication is of great importance in the formation of the human psyche, its development and the formation of reasonable, cultural behavior. Through communication with psychological developed people Thanks to the wide opportunities for learning, a person acquires all his higher cognitive abilities and qualities. Through active communication with developed personalities, he himself turns into a personality.

Especially great importance for the mental development of the child has his communication with adults on early stages ontogeny. At this time, he acquires all his human, mental and behavioral qualities almost exclusively through communication, since until the beginning of schooling, and even more definitely before the onset of adolescence, he is deprived of the ability to self-educate and self-educate. The mental development of a child begins with communication. This is the first kind social activity, which arises in ontogeny and thanks to which the infant receives the necessary individual development information. In communication, first through direct imitation (vicarial learning) , and then through verbal instructions (verbal learning) the basic life experience child.

Communication is the internal mechanism of joint activity of people, the basis of interpersonal relationships. The growing role of communication, the importance of its study is due to the fact that in modern society much more often in direct, immediate communication between people, decisions are made that were previously made, as a rule, by individual people.

List of used literature.

1. Andreeva psychology. - M: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1988.

2. Bodalev and understanding of man by man. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1982.

3. Bodalev and communication: Selected works. - M.: Pedagogy, 1983.

4. Leontiev as an object psychological research// Methodological problems of psychology / Ed. ed. . - M.: Nauka, 1975. - 295 p.

5. Carriage attitude. - L.: Publishing House of Leningrad State University, 1979. Pankratov in disputes and their neutralization. - M.: Ros. ped. agency, 1996.

6. Problems of communication in psychology: Collection of articles / Academy of Sciences, Institute of Sociology.; Rep. ed. . - M.: Nauka, 1981.

7. Petrovskaya in communication: socio-psychological training. M., 1983.

8. Reznikov relations // Modern psychology: Reference guide / Ed. . - M.: Infra-M, 1999.

9. Lunev become the master of the situation. Anatomy of effective communication. Guide practical psychologist/ IP RAS. - M., 1996.

10. Theoretical and methodological problems of social psychology / Ed. and. M., 1977.

11. Shibutani T. Social psychology. M., 1968.

Feelings and emotions in interpersonal relationships

The problem of interpersonal relations in a group can be approached from different angles. You can explore the form of these relationships, their influence on the individual, on the situation in the group. And all these aspects of interpersonal relationships are important for modern practice.

Intra-group relations also have a structure. They can be determined both by a person, his position in the system of formal relations, and by the feelings that people experience for each other in the process of joint activity.

Feeling as an indicator of interpersonal relationships was considered by many psychologists (T. Shibutani, J. Moreno, A. Maslow, K. Rogers and others).

People behave according to the rules. But feelings determine features, regulate behavior.

- these are stable experiences that are associated with. They direct the mutual orientations of people. Feelings are different from emotions - subjective reactions to the impact of internal and external factors. Feelings are stronger than emotions.

Feelings have certain social functions. The social functions of feelings determine the readiness of a person for a certain way of behavior in a particular situation.

Cognitive function of the senses associated with the comprehension of the significance of this event for the person himself.

Mobilization function of the senses manifests itself in the willingness of a person to act in a certain way. Feelings determine the overall energy level human activity.

Integrative-protective and warning function provide a choice of direction of activity, orientation in situations and relationships.

Not all interpersonal relationships are accompanied by feelings. A person may not have any feelings towards another.

If feelings conflict with social norms, the person is often unaware of them. The problem of some people is that they do not quite understand what kind of feelings they experience in a given situation, if on a conscious and unconscious level the feelings do not coincide.

A person seeks to avoid negative experiences in the group.

Psychological defense mechanisms

Psychological defense mechanisms act on a subconscious level and represent a system of personality regulation aimed at eliminating negative experiences.

Every person has a normative level of psychological protection. There are individuals in whom the effect of psychological protection is excessive.

In addition to psychological defense, there are such specific violations when a person experiences relationships in a group: emotional stuckness and explosiveness. emotional stuck is a state in which the resulting affective reaction is fixed on long time and influences thoughts and behavior. For example, an experienced resentment “gets stuck” for a long time in a vindictive person. explosiveness- increased excitability, a tendency to violent manifestations of affect, an inadequate reaction in strength.

In any existing relatively long period of time, one can observe emotional preferences. The American psychologist J. Moreno, considering the totality of preferences of group members, developed a worldwide known theory sociometry. Moreno believed that the psychological comfort of a person depends on his position in the informal structure of relations in a small group. The sociometric structure of a group is a set of subordinate positions of group members in the system of interpersonal relations.

System of interpersonal relations

The system of interpersonal relations includes a set of likes and dislikes, preferences and rejections of all members of the group.

sociometric status

Each individual in the group has a sociometric status, which can be defined as the sum of preferences and rejections received from other members. Sociometric status can be higher or lower depending on what feelings other members of the group experience in relation to this subject - positive or negative. The totality of all statuses defines status hierarchy in the group.

The highest status are the so-called sociometric stars- members of the group having the maximum number of positive choices with a small number of negative choices. These are the people to whom the sympathy of the majority, or at least many, of the members of the group is directed.

Next come high-status, middle-status and low-status group members defined by the number of positive choices and not having a large number of negative choices. There are groups in which there are no sociometric stars, but only high, medium, low status.

At a lower level of intergroup relations are isolated- subjects that do not have any choices, both positive and negative. The position of an isolated person in a group is one of the most unfavorable.

Outcasts are members of the group who have a large number of negative choices and few preferences. At the last rung of the hierarchical ladder of social preferences are neglected or outcast- members of the group who do not have a single positive choice in the presence of negative ones.

Often the position of a sociometric star is considered as a position of a leader. This is not entirely true, since leadership is associated with intervention in the process of action, and sociometric status is determined by feelings. It is possible to meet subjects who are both sociometric stars and leaders, but this combination is rare. A person often loses the sympathy of others, becoming a leader. A sociometric star causes a good attitude, primarily because other people feel psychologically comfortable in the presence of this person. As for the leader, his socio-psychological function is connected with management.

The problem of combining a leader and a sociometric star in one person is extremely acute both for the individual and for the group as a whole. Sometimes, in critical social situations, this can provoke some tendencies of fanatical behavior of group members. In an ordinary family, roles can be distributed as follows: the father is the leader, the mother is the sociometric star. The high-status, middle-status, and low-status members of a group usually make up the majority.

Isolated, rejected and neglected members of the group are at risk according to the criteria of interpersonal relationships. Should be paid Special attention to the position of an isolated person. In many cases, it turns out to be more unfavorable than the position of the outcast or even the neglected. A negative attitude towards a person in a group is more favorable social factor than the absence of any attitude, since a negative incentive is better than its absence. Sometimes the transition of a person from a position of neglect to a position of isolation is considered a great punishment. There is a well-known phenomenon of the influence of a boycott - the termination of relations with a person, the lack of response to his words and deeds and the manifestations of various feelings towards him. With a boycott, a person finds himself not in the position of the neglected, to whom the negative feelings of those around him are directed, but in the position of the isolated, to which those around him are completely indifferent. Change in the sociometric status of a group member — important problem. A person's status is often a relatively stable quantity. However, from the point of view of personality development, the immutability of the sociometric status is considered as a risk factor, even if it is a high status.

The need to change the sociometric status dictated by human needs to develop flexible behavior strategies for social adaptation in various groups. Therefore, it is advisable to go through the various statuses. The complexity of the problem also lies in the fact that people perceive and relate to their status differently. Most have an idea of what status they hold in the primary group. Average-status members of the group, as a rule, perceive their position adequately. But the extreme status categories due to action psychological defenses often perceive other people's attitudes towards themselves inadequately. Most often it is sociometric stars and neglected members of the group who are not aware of their position in the system of interpersonal relations in the group.

The stability of sociometric status is determined by many factors, among which are the following:

appearance (physical attractiveness, the leading modality of facial expressions, appearance design, non-verbal language);
success in leading activities;
some character traits and (tolerance, sociability, goodwill, low anxiety, stability nervous system and etc.);
correspondence of the values of the individual to the values of the group of which he is a member;
position in other social groups.

To change the status of a person in a group, sometimes it is enough just to work with one or another status factor.

Reciprocity of emotional preferences

Knowledge of sociometric status does not complete information about the position of a person in the system of interpersonal relations. It is necessary to know about such a phenomenon as reciprocity of emotional preferences group members. Even a sociometric star will feel disadvantaged if her choice is not reciprocated. Conversely, a neglected member of the group may feel quite well if his choice was mutual. The more mutual choices a group member has, the more stable and favorable his position in the system of interpersonal relations will be. Groups differ considerably in the reciprocity of the choice of their members. If there are few mutual choices in the group, then there will be a weak coordination of actions and emotional dissatisfaction of its members with interpersonal relationships.

Interpersonal relationships in a group include relationships of interpersonal preference.

small group divided into microgroups, and the more small group, the greater the number of microgroups in it exists. Each microgroup has its own sociometric structure. Often a microgroup is a group of friends with common interests. Sometimes the association of people into microgroups can be caused by other reasons, for example, belonging to a certain social stratum, etc.

Revealing the rejection system in a group is necessary to predict its actions in a situation. Rejections in a group can be grouped into three types.

The first type is normative, indicating the well-being of relations in general, when rejections are not pronounced, there are no persons who received a large number of negative choices, and all rejections are distributed relatively evenly. There are no people whose rejections would prevail over preferences.

The second type is the polarization of rejections, in which two main microgroups are distinguished that reject each other.

The third type is the most unfavorable for the group, when there will be only one outcast, acting as a defendant for all misunderstandings, the so-called "switchman". Sometimes in a group negative attitude to one person by the majority may be quite justified. However, such cases are considered exceptional. If the group always chooses the switchman, then we can conclude that the nature of interpersonal relations in it is unfavorable. Even if the rejected person leaves the group, a new "guilty" person will be found for the appropriate role.

Group habits in the system of interpersonal relations are formed in the same way as any other group actions.

Habit refers to a form of social control and directs the behavior of specific individuals and the group as a whole.

The most important characteristics of the system of intragroup preferences are: sociometric status, reciprocity of choice, the presence of stable groups interpersonal preferences and a rejection system. Despite the equal importance of all characteristics, special attention is paid to the status of the subject. This is due to the fact that, firstly, the status has a relative social stability, and the subject often transfers it from one group to another. Secondly, it is the dynamics of the status hierarchy that entails the corresponding changes in the system of rejections and relations between microgroups. In addition, a person's understanding of his status in the system of interpersonal relations has a significant impact on the self-esteem of the individual.

Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Unity of communication with activity. Types of communication. Psychological features of business communication. The structure of interpersonal communication The communicative aspect of communication. communication barriers. Interactive side of communication. The perceptual side of communication. Mechanisms of social perception.

Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon.

Man is a social being, his life and development is impossible without communication and interaction with people. Communication is a process of interaction between people, during which interpersonal relationships arise, manifest and form. Communication is a decisive condition for the formation of each person as a person.

In the psychological dictionary, communication is defined as complicated, a multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, people's perception and understanding of each other.

In domestic psychology, one of the methodological principles in the study of communication is the idea of the unity of communication and activity. On the one hand, activity acts as a part, a side of communication, on the other hand, communication is a side of activity. But communication and activity form an inseparable unity in all cases.

Communication functions.

The functions of communication are diverse, so there are different reasons for their classification. In domestic social psychology, it is customary to single out three interrelated aspects in communication: communicative, interactive and perceptual.

There are three functions of communication: information and communication; regulatory-communicative, affective-communicative (B.L. Lomov).

Types of communication.

one. " Contact masks»- formal communication, when there is no desire to understand and take into account the characteristics of the person, the interlocutor, the usual masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference, modesty, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow you to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor .

2. primitive communication, when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object: if necessary, they actively come into contact, if it interferes, they will push away or aggressive rude remarks will follow.

3. Formal role communication when both the content and means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they manage with knowledge of his social role.

4. Business conversation when they take into account the characteristics of the personality, character, age, mood of the interlocutor, but the interests of the case are more significant than possible personal differences.

5. Spiritual, personal communication It is concentrated mainly around psychological problems of an internal nature, those interests and needs that deeply and intimately affect the personality of a person.

6. manipulative communication is aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deceit, demonstration of kindness, etc.) depending on the characteristics of the interlocutor's personality.

7. Secular communication.

Psychological features of business communication

Business communication is a process of verbal interaction of people in which there is an exchange of activities, information and experience in order to achieve a certain result. Business conversation included in productive activities and is aimed at improving the quality and improving the result of this activity. It arises in situations of joint work or study and does not affect the inner world of the participants in communication; its content is the processes and issues related to production.

There are the following forms of business communication: business conversation, business meeting, press conference, business negotiations, presentation, business receptions.

In business situations, it is important not only to understand the needs, motives, attitudes of a business partner, but also to predict his mental reactions, his behavior, and the dynamics of the business situation. In business relations, universal ethical principles of business communication, value orientations and attitudes, professionally oriented business etiquette are implemented.

The structure of interpersonal communication. The communicative side of communication.

There are three interrelated aspects in communication:

- communicative side communication consists in the exchange of information between people;

- interactive side is to organize interaction between people;

- perceptual side communication includes the process of perception of each other by partners in communication and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.

In communication, as in a communicative process, there is an active exchange of information between people, as a result of which not just mutual information is achieved, but an understanding of information, a common meaning is developed.

The means of non-verbal communication are gestures, facial expressions, intonations, pauses, pantomime, laughter, tears, etc., which form sign system, complementing and reinforcing, and sometimes replacing the means of verbal communication.

Compliance of the means of non-verbal communication used with the goals and content of the verbal transmission of information is one of the elements of the culture of communication.

Communication barriers

A communication barrier is a psychological obstacle that arises in the way of transmitting adequate information. In modern social psychology, there are different types of communication barriers. The most common are the following: barriers of misunderstanding (phonetic, semantic, stylistic, logical, etc.); barriers socio-cultural differences (social, political, religious, professional, etc.); relationship barriers (occur when negative feelings and emotions interfere with the interaction).

An important feature of interpersonal communication is the possibility of the appearance phenomena of interpersonal influence , which, in particular, include: suggestion, infection, persuasion. Influence in interpersonal communication is aimed at satisfying one's motives and needs with the help of other people or through them.

Interactive side of communication.

In the process of interaction, everyone seeks to focus on their goals and the goals of the partner. Depending on the degree of consideration in the interaction of these goals, the following are distinguished: behavior strategies:

1.Cooperation assuming the maximum achievement by the participants of the interaction of their goals.

2. Counteraction (rivalry), which involves focusing only on one's goals without taking into account the goals of the partner. Competition and competition are types of rivalry.

3. Compromise involving private, intermediate achievement of partners' goals for the sake of maintaining conditional equality and maintaining relationships.

4. Compliance involving the sacrifice of one's own needs in order to achieve the partner's goals;

5. Avoidance(evasion), which involves avoiding contact, refusing to strive to achieve one's goals in order to exclude the gain of another.

A unique approach to the structural description of the interaction is presented in transactional analysis, developed by the American psychiatrist E. Bern. A transaction is a unit of communication, it is an action (action) directed at another person. Bern's concept was created on the need to provide psychological assistance to people who have problems in communication. This direction, which involves regulating the actions of participants in the interaction through the regulation of their positions, also taking into account the nature of situations and the style of interaction. These positions are not associated with the corresponding social role: they are purely psychological descriptions of a certain strategy in interaction (the “child” position can be defined as the “I want” position, the “parent” position as “I must”, the “adult” position is the union of “I want” and "Necessary"). Interaction is effective when transactions are "additional" in nature, i.e. match.

Each of the states of "I" performs certain functions and, as a result, is vital. For optimal functioning, for effective interaction with others, in terms of transactional analysis, in a person should be harmoniously represented, depending on the situation of communication, all three states of "I".

Each of the communicants occupies one of the three positions in communication. Transactions proceed from a certain state of "I" of one communication partner and are directed to a certain state of "I" of another partner. Some transactions lead to optimal interaction, others to conflict.

The perceptual side of communication.

The process of perception by one person of another acts as an obligatory component of communication and constitutes what is called perception.

In social psychology, the term "social perception" means the perception, understanding and evaluation by people of other people, groups.

Allocate mechanisms of social perception - the ways in which people interpret, understand and evaluate another person. The most common mechanisms are the following: empathy, attraction, causal attribution, identification, social reflection.

empathy- comprehension of the emotional state of another person, understanding of his emotions, feelings and experiences. Empathy as the ability to understand the emotional state of another person develops in the process of life and may be more pronounced in older people. Any professional activity in the sphere of "human-to-human" requires the development of this mechanism of perception.

attraction- a special form of perception and cognition of another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling towards him. Attraction as a mechanism of social perception is usually considered in three aspects:

The process of forming the attractiveness of another person;

The result of this process;

Relationship quality.

Mechanism of causal attribution associated with attributing causes of behavior to a person. When attributing certain causes of behavior to another, the observer does this either on the basis of the similarity of his behavior with some familiar person or in a certain way person, or on the basis of an analysis of their own motives, assumed in a similar situation. Perceiving and interpreting the surrounding world and other people, a person also perceives and interprets himself, his own actions and motives. The process and result of a person's self-perception in a social context is called social reflection.

Social reflection as a mechanism of social perception means that the subject understands his own individual characteristics and how they manifest themselves in outward behavior; awareness of how it is perceived by a communication partner.

The perception of a person also depends on his ability to put himself in the place of another, to identify himself with him. The process and result of such an identification is called identification

Identification is similar to empathy, but empathy can be viewed as the emotional identification of the subject of observation, which is possible on the basis of past or present experience of similar experiences.

In the process of perception, distortions of the perceived image are possible, which are due not only to the subjectivity of interpretation, but also to some socio-psychological factors. perceptual effects. From this point of view, distortions are objective in nature and require certain efforts of the perceiving person to overcome them. The most significant information about a person is the first and last ( effect of primacy and novelty). At the same time, if we know a person for a long time, then the most significant will be the latest information about him. If the person is unfamiliar to us or we know him very poorly, then the first information received is the most significant.

In addition, it is of great importance Effect positive or negative halo. Usually this effect occurs in relation to a person about whom a general evaluative idea is formed due to a lack of information.

Stereotyping is also considered as one of the effects of interpersonal perception. Stereotype- this is some stable image of a phenomenon or person. Very often, a stereotype arises regarding a person's group affiliation, for example, his belonging to a certain profession. Then the pronounced professional traits of the representatives of this profession met in the past are considered as traits inherent in any representative of this profession.

People's perception and understanding is influenced by installations. Installation is an unconscious readiness of a person to perceive and evaluate any people in a certain habitual way and react in a certain, pre-formed way without a complete analysis of a specific situation.

Task topics for section 2

1. Functions and structure of communication.

2. Strategies and types of communication.

3. Factors preventing communication.

4. Verbal and non-verbal means of communication.

5. Mechanisms of interpersonal perception.

6. Effects of interpersonal perception.

7. Interpersonal attraction.

8. Communication as interaction.

9. Transactional analysis of E.Bern on the structure of human relationships.

10.Business communication and its forms.

References for section 2

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