Geography - definition, history, main branches and scientific disciplines. Methodological foundations of geography and the process of geographical knowledge

Methodological foundations geography and the process of geographical knowledge, the theory of geographical science (problems, ideas, hypotheses, concepts, laws), the theoretical foundations of geographical forecasting.

Methodology- a set of the most essential elements of the theory necessary for the development of science itself, i.e. it is the concept of theory development.

Methodology- a set of technical methods and organizational forms for conducting scientific research.

Hypothesis- this is some kind of purely theoretical generalization of the material, without proof.

Theory- a system of knowledge supported by evidence.

Concept is a set of the most essential elements of the theory, presented in a constructively acceptable form for practice, i.e. it is a theory translated into an algorithm for solving a specific problem.

Paradigm- the initial conceptual scheme, the model for the resolution of the decisions made, the method of solution that prevails at the present time.

scientific apparatus- apparatus of facts, systems and classifications of scientific knowledge. The main content of science is an empirical scientific apparatus.

The subject of study of geography (physical geo) is the geographical envelope, the biosphere, taking into account the main characteristics of the geographical envelope - zonality, limit, etc.

There are 4 principles: territoriality, complexity, concreteness, globality.

Zoning: a consequence is the presence of natural zones and subzones.

Integrity is the interconnection of everything with everything.

Inhomogeneity of matter at any point earth's surface(example - azonal) - spatial polymorphism.

Cyclicity is closure. Rhythm - has some kind of vector.

Gyroscopicity (object location parameters) - the appearance of a gyroscopic effect in any object moving parallel to the Earth's surface (Coriolis force).

Centrosymmetry - central symmetry.

Limitation - there are clear boundaries of spheres.

Material polymorphism - as a result of the presence of a landscape shell, physical, chemical and other conditions that contribute to the emergence of diverse forms and structures of matter.

Geographic thinking- complex; Territorial thinking.

Globality is the correlation of local, regional problems with the global background.

Systematics - classification and typification. Classification - division into groups according to the totality, different in quantitative terms. Typification - on a qualitative basis.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concept of "forecast" and "forecasting". Forecasting is the process of obtaining data about the possible state of the object under study. Forecast is the result of predictive research. There are many general definitions of the term “forecast”: a forecast is a definition of the future, a forecast is a scientific hypothesis about the development of an object, a forecast is a characteristic of the future state of an object, a forecast is an assessment of development prospects.

Despite some differences in the definitions of the term “forecast”, apparently related to differences in the goals and objects of the forecast, in all cases the researcher’s thought is directed to the future, that is, the forecast is specific kind knowledge, where, first of all, it is investigated not what is, but what will be. But a judgment about the future is not always a forecast. For example, there are natural events that do not raise doubts and do not require forecasting (change of day and night, seasons of the year). In addition, determining the future state of an object is not an end in itself, but a means of scientific and practical solution to many general and particular modern problems, the parameters of which, based on the possible future state of the object, are currently set.

The general logical scheme of the forecasting process is presented as a sequential set:

1) ideas about past and current patterns and trends in the development of the forecasting object;

2) scientific substantiation of the future development and state of the object;

3) ideas about the causes and factors that determine the change in the object, as well as the conditions that stimulate or hinder its development;

4) fourth, predictive conclusions and management decisions.

Geographers define the forecast primarily as a scientifically based prediction of trends in changes in the natural environment and industrial territorial systems.

Geography Methods– collection ( system) including general scientific methods, private or working methods and methods for obtaining factual material, methods and techniques for collecting and processing the received factual material.

Method is a system of rules and techniques of approach to the study of phenomena and laws of nature, society and thinking; way, way to get there certain results in knowledge and practice, reception theoretical research or practical action, proceeding from the knowledge of the laws of development of objective reality and the object, phenomenon, process under study. The method is the central element of the whole system of methodology. Its place in the structure of science in general, its relationship with others building blocks can be visualized as a pyramid (Fig. 11), in which the relevant elements of science are arranged in an ascending manner in accordance with the origin of scientific knowledge.

According to V. S. Preobrazhensky, the current stage of development of all sciences is characterized by a sharp increase in attention to the problems of methodology, the desire of sciences to know themselves. This general trend is manifested in the increased development of questions of the logic of science, theory of knowledge, and methodology.

What objective processes are responsible for these trends, what are they connected with?

First, there is an expansion of the use of scientific knowledge, deepening the penetration into the essence of natural phenomena and the relationships between them. It is impossible to solve this problem without improving the methodology.

The second reason is the development of science as a single process of understanding nature. This raises new questions about the properties of natural bodies and systems. And new questions often require for their solution and the search for new methodological ways and techniques.

In modern conditions, it is becoming increasingly important to predict the behavior of complex systems, including both natural complexes and technical structures. At the same time, the need for a new upsurge in work on the development of methods becomes more acute.

It should be noted that there is a relationship between the methodology and theoretical level science: the more perfect the methodology, the deeper, broader and stronger the theoretical conclusions, on the other hand, the deeper the theory, the more diverse, clearer, more definite, more refined the methodology.

The third impetus to the accelerated development of the technique is determined by the gigantic growth of geographical information. The volume of scientific data on terrestrial nature is growing so rapidly that it is impossible to cope with this flow with the help of the already established methodology, with the help of purely intuitive solutions. There is a growing need for scientific organization research, in choosing not just any methods, but in creating the most rational and effective system of methods and techniques.

The task of searching for fundamentally new methodological techniques arises. The search is always associated with the solution of problems that have not yet been solved or have remained unresolved so far.

Before proceeding to consider the actual methods of geography, it is necessary to establish some concepts.

Fundamentals of Geography

WORKING PROGRAMM

V.F.Valkov - Professor of the Department of Ecology
and nature management RGU,
K.Sh.Kazeev - Associate Professor of the Department of Ecology
and nature management RSU
The program is approved as author's
meeting of the Department of Ecology and Nature Management of the Russian State University
November 17, 2004, protocol 4.

Program for the course "INVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY"

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE COURSE

The course "Fundamentals of Geography" is included in the cycle of natural science disciplines of the State educational standard. The course "Fundamentals of Geography" examines the position of the Earth in the solar system, the shell structure of the Earth, the evolution of the biosphere, the geophysical conditions of life, the bioclimatic belts of the Earth. The course "Fundamentals of Geography" creates a system of basic knowledge necessary for the development of some sections of botany and zoology, ecology, biogeography, the course "local flora and fauna", disciplines dedicated to nature protection.

Objectives of the course "Fundamentals of Geography"

To form a system of knowledge among students about the structure of the Earth's shells;

To form a system of knowledge among students about the geophysical conditions of life and bio climatic zones Earth;

To reveal the dependence of some biological patterns on the geographical location of the ecosystem;

To form initial ideas about the evolution of the biosphere

PROGRAM ON THE COURSE "FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOGRAPHY"

2.1 System geographical sciences. Physical geography, orography, biogeography (zoogeography, botanical geography, geobotany). Economic and ecological geography. Brief essay the history of the great geographical discoveries.

2.2 The structure and movement of the Earth. Place of the planet Earth in the solar system. The shape and size of the earth. The revolution of the Earth around the Sun and rotation around its own axis and their consequences.

2.3 Zoning of nature. V.V. Dokuchaev is the author of the law of zoning. Posledokuchaevskoe development of ideas about the zonality of nature. Modern views about zoning. The concept of natural-geographical formations: natural zone, province, landscape, biogeocenosis. Natural geographic prerequisites for zonality and provinciality of nature. Main climatic features. Heat input and circulation (sums of positive temperatures, mean annual temperature, winter and summer temperatures). Receipt of atmospheric precipitation on the earth's surface (sum of precipitation, annual, summer and winter periods, moisture coefficients). Atmospheric circulation (trade winds, monsoons, cyclones, anticyclones). Continental climate. Features of the climate in the western and eastern coasts of the continents. Peculiarities climatic conditions mountain territories.

Components of natural geographic formations: vegetation, zoocenoses, microbial cenoses, weathering crusts, hydrogeology and hydrology, soils, atmosphere.

Zoning of the World Ocean. Warm and cold sea currents.

2.4 Systems approach to the study of the geographic environment. VV Dokuchaev - the founder of the doctrine of a systematic approach to the knowledge of objects and natural phenomena. Relationship and interdependence natural objects. Comparative geographical method - essential tool knowledge of the natural environment. Hierarchy natural systems unity of part and whole. Openness of natural systems Metabolism, energy and information are the main characteristics of natural systems. Integration and differential phenomena in the development of the geographical environment A systematic approach to forecasting the environmental situation and developing measures to protect the environment.

2.5 Formation of modern lithosphere. Formation of the solar system. Place of the planet Earth in the solar system. Neighbors of the Earth - Venus and Mars, their features. Protocontinent Gondwana. Continental drifts. Geostructure of the Earth: continents, oceanic depressions, flat-platform areas, mountain belts. Morphostructures: ridges, uplands, plateaus, intermontane depressions, lowlands, uplands of plains, anticlines, synclines, faults, rifts. Mobile platform belts, earthquake zones and volcanic zones. Morphostructures of the ocean floor: shelf, continental slope, oceanic basins, mid-ocean ridges, oceanic mountains and uplands, deep-sea trenches, rifts and faults.

2.6 Hydrosphere. World Ocean. Vertical and horizontal movement in the global ocean. Resources of the World Ocean.

2.7 Polar bioclimatic zone Arctic desert zone, tundra zone, forest tundra zone. Provincial features of the zones of the polar bioclimatic belt.

2.8 Boreal bioclimatic belt. Taiga zone, mixed forest zone, forest-steppe zone. Provincial features of the zones of the boreal bioclimatic belt.

2.9 Subboreal bioclimatic belt. Deciduous forest zone, steppe zone, dry steppe zone, semi-desert zone, desert zone. Provincial features of the zones of the subboreal bioclimatic belt.

2.10 Subtropical bioclimatic zone. A zone of broad-leaved forests with evergreen undergrowth, a zone of xerophilic forests with a grassy cover with a Mediterranean type of climate, a zone of subtropical steppes and semi-deserts. subtropical deserts. Provincial features of the zones of the subtropical bioclimatic belt.

2.11 Tropical bioclimatic zone. The zone of permanently moist tropical forests (giley), the zone of tall grass savannahs and deciduous forests, the zones of savannahs and dry savannahs. Tropical deserts. Provincial features of the zones of the tropical bioclimatic belt.

2.12 The nature of mountain systems. Vertical zonality of nature. Posledokuchaevskoe development of ideas about the zonality of mountain systems. Natural individuality of mountain systems and their zonality. Features of natural systems of various bioclimatic zones. The main mountain systems of Russia: the Caucasus, the Urals, Altai, Sayan, Baikal, Transbaikalia. Shadow effects of mountain systems.

2.13 Geographic features North Caucasus and Rostov region. Geographical position, geological structure, relief, hydrographic network. Climatic characteristics of the territory: temperature isotherms, the sum of positive and active temperatures, extreme values and amplitude of temperatures, the amount and nature of precipitation, moisture coefficient, prevailing direction and speed of winds. Unfavourable conditions weather (frost, ice, dry winds ...). Landscapes of the North Caucasus. Soil cover.

2.14 Evolution of the biosphere. The concept of the biosphere and its place among other spheres of the Earth. Evolution of flora and fauna in various geological epochs. Past biospheres and their features. Factors of evolution of the biosphere. Biogeochemical cycles and the participation of living organisms in them. Transformation and formation of the Earth's shell under the influence of living organisms. The emergence of man, the formation of the noosphere and its genesis.

3. CALENDAR PLAN OF PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Lesson 1.

Plan and map. sides of the horizon. Scale. degree network and its elements. Map projections. Types of cards. Map values. The globe.

Lesson 2.

Physical map of the world. Largest objects geographical map(lakes, islands, rivers, deserts, mountain systems, straits, etc.).

Lesson 3.

Climate map of the world and continents.

Lesson 4.

Soil map of the world and Russia.

Lesson 5.

Map of natural zones of the world and continents.

Lesson 6.

Physical map of Russia.

Lesson 7.

Physical and other maps of the North Caucasus and the Rostov region. Ecological atlas of the Rostov region.

Lesson 8. Topographic maps and work with them. Geomorphological profile of the area. Measurement of distances, areas on maps. Location orientation. Compass, magnetic declination, azimuth.

LITERATURE:

Atlas of physical geography. Continents and oceans. 7th grade. - M.: Enlightenment, 1998. - 32 p.
Valkov, V.F., Kazeev K.Sh., Kolesnikov S.I. Fundamentals of physical geography. In 3 parts. - Rostov n / a: UPL RGU, 2001. - 167 p.
Voitkevich G.V., Vronsky V.A. Fundamentals of the doctrine of the biosphere. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 1996. - 477 p.
Valkov, V.F., Kazeev K.Sh., Kolesnikov S.I. Soil science. - Moscow-Rostov n / a: March, 2004. - 496 p.
Valkov, V.F., Kazeev K.Sh., Kolesnikov S.I. Essays on soil fertility. - Rostov n / a: SKNTS VSH, 2001. - 234 p.
Preparing for the geography exam. Part 2. Physical and economic geography of Russia. - M.: 1998, - 240 p.
Lazarevich K.S. Physical geography: A manual on the geography of students and applicants to universities. M.: Moscow Lyceum, 1996. - 159 p.
World of Geography: Geography and Geographers. Natural environment - M.: Thought, 1984. - 367 p.
Natural conditions and natural resources. Southern District. Rostov region. - Rostov n / a: Batayskoye book publishing house, 2002. - 432 p.
. Cheshev A.S., Valkov V.F. Fundamentals of land use and land management. - Rostov n / a: March, 2002. - 544 p.
Ecological atlas of the Rostov region. - Rostov n / a: SKNTS VSH, 2000. - 150 p.

The fascinating subject of geography is scientific direction, studying the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, as well as the interaction between human society and environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means "description of the earth." The following is a general definition of the term geography:

"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies physical features Earth and the environment, including the impact of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production.

Scholars who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although the cartographers of the ancient world were known as geographers, today it is a relatively independent specialty. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas geographical research: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps surrounding area, and also explained the difference between people and natural landscapes in different places on the Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the bright Islamic minds. The golden age of Islam witnessed astonishing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their pioneering discoveries. New lands were explored and the first base grid for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also instrumentally contributed to the development of early geography. The compass developed by the Chinese was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A fresh interest in geography woke up in the European world. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and traveler led this new era research. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main incentive for travel at that time. Europeans have moved forward in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and. The enormous potential of geography for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized and in the 18th century, it was introduced as core discipline at the university level. Relying on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software revolutionized science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in the space of the Earth, as well as develop solutions to problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physiography

is defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

Geomorphology: engaged in the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps to elucidate various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also tries to predict future changes physical characteristics appearance Earth.
Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological research.
Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine life, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study chemical composition sea waters and their impact on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. It explores the rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers of the planet. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the surface of the Earth, through.
Soil science: the branch of science that studies the different types of soils in their natural environment on the surface of the earth. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (pedogenesis), composition, texture and classification of soils.
: an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the dispersal of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. It also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship to physical geographic features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (the geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (the geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (the study of factors affecting individual ecosystems), etc.
Paleogeography: branch of physical geography that studies geographic features in various moments time of the earth's geological history. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics as determined by studying paleomagnetism and fossil records.
Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important section of geographical research in modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate, as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
Meteorology: deals with the study of weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that affect local and global weather.
Ecological geography: explores the interaction between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial perspective.
Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape change. The study also involves understanding the impact of coastal residents on the topography and ecosystem of the coast.
Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Quaternary period of the Earth (geographical history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about the environmental changes that have taken place in the recent past of the planet. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and storage of data about the earth's surface.
landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the influence anthropogenic activities to the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures in the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the direction of research:

Geography population: deals with the study of how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle and migration of human populations.
Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. While this section is seen as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography tries to understand why, how and when places and regions on the Earth change, and what impact they have on human society.
Cultural geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it is concerned with the study of the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, and so on.
Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographic space.
Political geography: considers the political boundaries of the countries of the world and the division between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions, and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the sub-disciplines of political geography.
Geography of health: explores the impact of geographic location on the health and well-being of people.
Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the human population of the world and tries to understand how and why such standards change depending on place and space.
Geography of settlements: researches urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
Geography of animals: studies animal world Earth and interdependence between humans and animals.

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Man has two worlds:

One, who created us, Another, which we have been creating from time immemorial to the best of our ability.

N.Zabolotsky

The whole nature of the earth's surface is that special geographical community, certain combinations of which were favorable conditions for the emergence of mankind. The appearance of man on Earth meant the birth of a new, even more powerful force than the forces of nature. material production- the basis and mode of existence of human society in the course of its natural-historical development. The elements of nature are thus transformed into components of human society. Being both a product of labor and a means of production, this “second nature”, together with people and technology, constitutes the main content of human society. This historical nature serves as a geographical basis that is part of the content of the society, or geographic environment.

R.K. Balandin and L.G. Bondarev give an interesting example of how the doctrine of the relationship between nature and society began to emerge in domestic science. More than 260 years ago V.N. Tatishchev was asked to compile a geographical description of Russia. He tackled the job with passion and dedication. Started to collect the necessary books and documents. But he soon became convinced that it was impossible to make an intelligent land description without good knowledge the history of the country. For this reason, he began to study the history of Russia. And I came to the conclusion that for success in this enterprise, it is necessary to constantly use geographical information.

Tatishchev expressed his idea about the relationship between the history of nature and the history of human society in this way: “Where, in what position or distance, what happened, what natural obstacles to the ability to take those actions were, and where what kind of people lived before and now lives, how the ancient cities are now called and where they are transferred, this is explained to us by geography and composed land maps; and so history or descriptive stories and chronicles without land description (geography) cannot give us perfect pleasure in knowledge.

Many years have passed since then, but Tatishchev's idea has not become outdated. Moreover, now we know what close and complex interrelations the unity of nature and man is carried out, how the history of the nature of the earth's surface is inextricably linked with the history of human society.

Accounting for changes in the natural environment caused by human activity is absolutely necessary for geography. This was well understood by K. Ritter, who, a hundred years after Tatishchev, argued that geography cannot do without a historical element if it wants to be true science about earthly spatial relations, and not an abstract copy of the terrain.

Since the second half of the XX century. the problem of interaction between nature and society becomes extremely relevant in the practical aspect. Under these conditions, the geographical approach to the problem of studying changes and rearrangements of the planet's landscapes (and even some geospheres) as a result of human activity is becoming increasingly important.

Geographic environment- a part of the geographical shell, which in one way or another, to one degree or another, has been mastered by man, is involved in social production and forms the material basis for the existence of human society.

Geographic environment- one of the main and at the same time controversial categories of geographical science. To date, there are disputes regarding the following scientific positions:

the essence and meaning of this scientific category;
its relationship with the geographical (landscape) shell;
its structure and, in particular, whether the society is part of the geographic environment.

noteworthy different points view, different answers to these controversial questions. But before presenting them, let us recall that the term "geographical environment" (GS) was first used by the outstanding French geographer Elise Reclus, who under this term understood the conditions surrounding a person community development. Reclus considered the essence of the HS to be a combination of not only natural, but also social elements, which he called “dynamic”. He wrote: “So, the whole environment breaks up into countless individual elements: some of them relate to external nature, and they are usually denoted by the name “external environment” in the narrow sense of the word; others belong to a different order, since they arise from the very course of development of human societies and are formed, increasing successively to infinity, multiplying and creating a complex complex of phenomena in action. This second “dynamic” environment, joining the influence of the primary “static” environment, forms a sum of influences in which it is difficult and often even impossible to determine which forces prevail.

Reclus understood the historical nature of the influence of the HS on the life of human society: “So, human history, both in its entirety and in its parts, can only be explained by the cumulative influence of external conditions and complex internal aspirations over the centuries. In order, however, to better understand the ongoing evolution, it is necessary to take into account the extent to which the external conditions themselves change and to what extent, consequently, changes with general evolution their action. So, for example, a mountain range, from which colossal glaciers once descended into neighboring valleys and did not allow anyone to climb its steep slopes in later times, when the glaciers retreated and only its crest was covered with snow, could lose the significance of such an obstacle to communication between neighboring peoples. . In the same way, this or that river, which was a powerful obstacle for tribes unfamiliar with navigation, could later become an important navigable artery and become of great importance in the life of the population of its banks when this population learned to manage boats and ships.

In the preface to the book of his friend and colleague in geographical activity L.I. Mechnikov "Civilization and the Great Historical Rivers" Reclus wrote that "the environment changes not only in space, it also changes in time ... Human history is something else, as a long series of examples of how the conditions of the environment and the outlines of our surface planets have had a favorable or retarding effect on the development of mankind.

Here are similar thoughts L.I. Mechnikov: "Many geographers overlooked that the factors of the physical and geographical environment ... are of very different value in different areas of the globe for the historian and sociologist." Further, he writes that “man, possessing, together with all organisms, the ability to adapt to the environment, dominates all animal species by virtue of his own inherent ability to adapt the environment to his needs. This ability, as it seems, can develop in a person to infinity along with the progress of science, art and industry.

And one more important position of Mechnikov: “... we are by no means advocates of the theory of “geographical fatalism”, which proclaims, contrary to the facts, that given set physical and geographical conditions plays and must play the same invariable role everywhere. No, the point is only to establish the historical value of these conditions and the variability of this value over the centuries and at different stages of civilization.

The concept of "geographical environment" was introduced into sociological literature by G.V. Plekhanov. By geographic environment he meant natural conditions the life of society. He rightly believed that the geographic environment external to society can only indirectly, through the level of productive forces achieved by society, influence production relations. This understanding of the geographical environment has entered our scientific literature: "The geographical environment is a set of objects and phenomena of nature (the earth's crust, Bottom part atmosphere, water, ground cover, flora and fauna) involved in this historical stage into the process social production and components the necessary conditions existence and development of human society” 1 .

Without dwelling on the views of other scientists of the XIX and the first half of the XX century. regarding the essence and influence of the HS on the life of human society, let us pay attention to the interpretation of this category, which was proposed in the late 50s of the XX century. SOUTH. Saushkin and V.A. Anuchin, "arousing" with his works a keen interest in the fundamental theoretical and methodological issues of geography.

SOUTH. Saushkin"approved" the category of HS in both editions of his "Introduction to Economic Geography" (1958 and 1970), considering the interaction of HS and social production.

Here are its main provisions:

“The geographical environment is that earthly nature in which mankind lives, works, develops, continuously transforms its environment, makes it more diverse and productive ... The geographical environment is the source and indispensable condition for the life of people and social production, historically changing under the influence and self-development of nature, and human activity... The interaction of nature and man is... very complex: nature affects a person's life, but man also changes nature, therefore a changed, "humanized" nature affects a person, in which its own properties are combined , and the results of labor imprinted in it, the results of its change by man, in many cases of an uncountable number of generations.

V.A. Anuchin defending your idea unity of geography believed that the essence of this unity lies, first of all, in the commonality of the object of science. So common object of all geographical sciences is part of the landscape shell, namely, the geographical environment, which is "simultaneously a condition and a source of the processes of social production ...".

At the same time, the acceleration of the "humanization" of the GS is emphasized, due to the growing process of interaction between society and nature. As a result, elements created and created by human labor begin to occupy an increasing place within the GS.

"one. Elements that arose as a result of a modification of the earthly nature that existed before man. This includes modern, yet not so significant changes in the relief, plowed steppes turned into agricultural land, forests after forest management and sanitary cuttings, deforested and eroded mountain slopes, drained swamps, all complexes of modified human activity soil and climatic conditions, regulated rivers, etc.

2. Elements of the environment, but created by man. It is, first of all, a material product of the material and production activity of people. This includes all the structures that appeared on Earth as a result of labor, created by people from the materials of nature.

These theoretical positions supporters of geographical monism (V.A. Anuchin and related scientists) met with rejection and sometimes even harsh criticism from a number of well-known domestic geographers, especially about the hasty “humanization” of the GS and saturation of it with “various extraneous elements”.

In this regard, the following conclusions of Academician S.V. Kalesnik:

"one. The geographical environment is only the earthly (in the sense of the planet Earth) environment of human society.

2. The geographical environment is only that part of the earthly environment of society with which society is currently in direct interaction.
3. The geographical environment and the geographical (landscape) shell is different concepts relating to two different objects.
4. Human society now lives in two interconnected environments - geographical and technogenic, different in origin and in the possibilities of further self-development.
5. The geographical environment arose without human intervention and regardless of his will and consciousness. It includes both the natural elements of the landscape shell untouched by man, and those natural elements changed by him, which retained both their typological counterparts in virgin nature and the ability to self-development.
6. The technogenic environment is created by the labor and will of man. Its elements have no analogues in virgin nature and are not capable of self-development.
7. The essence of even the largest changes made by man to the geographic environment lies in the change in the structure of geographic landscapes. In the development of the geographical environment, human society plays the role of an external guiding stimulus, and not a decisive factor” 1 .

According to Kalesnik, "learning the laws of nature and skillfully using them, human society becomes only a pilot of the geographical environment, directing its movement towards the most convenient harbor for a person" .

These were the different "vectors" of the development of the doctrine of the HS in the 50-70s.

Overcoming dualistic views (such as the ideas of S.V. Kalesnik) in the 80s, as it seems to us, new foundations of theory(teachings) of the HS, one of the spokesmen of which was N.K. Mukitanov.

He believes that the:

“the geographical environment includes society and the results of its subject-practical activity, in the process of which it begins to include the geographical environment and its elements into the orbit of its specific movement”;
“The geographical environment is a dialectical unity of natural and social phenomena developing under the influence of two classes of regularities”;
"the contradiction between natural and social in the geographical environment on this stage development of social production is the main contradiction leading to its further development.

It is characteristic that in the works of domestic scientists last decade The GS is actually ignored, this term is not used, it is bypassed, and the geographic shell is usually called the general and ultimate object of study of the geographical sciences.

In some cases, referring to the fact that the concept of the geographic environment has not been established (this is the opinion of quite a few scientists), instead of the term GS, others are used, for example, “environment” or “natural environment”, considering them to a certain extent identical concepts.

However, in our opinion, this is not a reason to “bury” the idea and the foundations of the doctrine of the HS, dating back to E. Reclus and L.I. Mechnikov.

And from time to time some scientists return to this geographical category. So, A.G. Doskach believes: "Earth science in its essence is the science of the most general laws of the formation of the geographical environment and its isolation as an independent real object from the natural world as a whole." This highlights the idea of complexity of the HS, which was milestone in the history of geographical thought.

M.A. Smirnov (2002) introduced the concept of the information environment as a reflection of the geographic environment. From the point of view of a geographer, the significance of information lies in its organizing aspect, when it becomes a resource that actively influences the development of society, its individual groups, and in combination with the action of other factors (resources) leads to a certain territorial differentiation of society and productive forces.

The peculiarity of information as an object of geographical research is that it evolves so quickly that its influence on the territory and population can have a very short time impulsive character. This is difficult to detect statistically, but can be of great importance for the development of the territory. When using the concept of information environment, a certain uniqueness, locality, and focus on the studied territorial grouping of objects are emphasized.

At the dawn of mankind, the information environment coincided with the landscape. The main source of information was nature, on which people's lives completely depended. With the development of society, there was an accumulation of secondary, social information, which today plays a decisive role in the development of an individual and society as a whole.

The society existed in the natural environment and received all necessary information from her. The ability to “extract”, accumulate and use information made it possible to develop faster. At a certain stage, societies began to compete in the use of natural resources. The nature of their activities could change significantly due to the "absorbed" information.

There are still relevant issues, the discussion of which has been going on for more than 20 years:

a) that "geographical envelope", "geographical environment" and "environment" are not identical concepts;
b) that, although society is “a component of the geographical shell (since it exists within the Earth), it is at the same time an essentially special factor that opposes this shell (which in this aspect already acts as a geographical environment) - nature in as a whole (Earth plus Galaxy)";
c) about the nature of the interaction between society and the geographic environment as a process occurring within the geographic envelope;
d) about the existence of "humanized" nature, its expansion and development, and about the complication of its connections with the still "not humanized" nature of the Earth (Scheme 5).

Scheme 5

The ratio of the concepts of "nature", "geographical shell", "geographical environment of society", " Natural resources», « human environment Wednesday"

(according to the publication “Landscape Protection // Explanatory Dictionary”)

In this regard, the evolution of the views of the famous Russian geographer V.S. Preobrazhensky on the structure of the geographic shell, which he considered the general and ultimate object of study of the geographical sciences, a complex heterogeneous open dynamic supersystem, including the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, pedosphere and biota 1 .

As can be seen, human society is not represented in this structure, although it is recognized that the fate of the geographic shell increasingly depends on its activities.

But soon, in another work, Preobrazhensky states: “The geographical shell is a complex unity of nature and society ... For the evolutionary geographer, it is the current, past and future state of the geographical shell and its constituent geosystems and individual shells (atmosphere, hydrosphere, biotosphere, pedospheres, sociospheres) and constitutes the subject of research” .

The sphere of life and activity of human society (sociosphere) is considered here as one of the components of the geographical envelope. Preobrazhensky adds that this belief is not shared by all geographers. And indeed it is.

At the same time, in the above reasoning of the scientist, there was no place for the concept of "geographical environment".

One of the founders of modern domestic ecology N.F. Reimers proposed to consider the human environment as consisting of four inextricably interrelated components - subsystems: 1) the natural environment itself; 2) generated by agricultural technology environment - "second nature"; 3) artificial environment - "of the third nature"; 4) social environment. Since these concepts often receive different interpretations, he gave them definitions.

natural environment, surrounding a person - factors of a purely natural or natural-anthropogenic systemic origin (i.e., having the properties of self-maintenance and self-regulation without constant corrective action on the part of a person), directly or indirectly, consciously or unconsciously (registered and not registered by the senses, measurable or unmeasurable , for example, information, devices) affecting individual person or human collectives (up to all mankind).

Wednesday "second nature", or quasi natural environment,- all modifications of the natural environment, artificially transformed by people and characterized by the absence of systemic self-maintenance

(i.e., gradually deteriorating without constant human regulation): arable and other human-transformed lands (“cultural landscapes”); dirt roads; the outer space of populated areas with its natural physicochemical characteristics and internal structure; green spaces. All these formations are of natural origin, represent a modified natural environment and are not purely artificial, not existing in nature.

"Third Nature" or arterial environment,- the entire artificial world created by man, material and energetically unparalleled in natural nature, systemically alien to it and without continuous renewal immediately begins to collapse. This is no longer “humanized nature”, but a substance fundamentally transformed by man, either not included in natural geochemical cycles, or entering them with difficulty.

1. Is it possible to observe the Sun in the north in the Northern Hemisphere north of the Tropic of the North?

With the existing tilt angle of the earth's axis (66 degrees 30'), the Earth is facing the Sun with its equatorial regions. For those living in the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun is visible from the South, and in southern hemisphere, from North. But to be more precise, the Sun is at its zenith in the entire zone between the tropics, so the solar disk is visible from the side where the Sun is currently at its zenith. If the Sun is at its zenith over the Northern Tropic, then it shines from the North for everyone to the south, including for the inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere between the equator and the tropic. In Russia, beyond the Arctic Circle, during the polar day, the Sun does not set below the horizon, making a full circle in the sky. Therefore, passing through northern point The sun is in its lower culmination, this moment corresponds to midnight. It is behind the Arctic Circle that you can observe the Sun in the North from the territory of Russia at conventionally night time.

2. If the earth's axis had an inclination to the plane earth orbit 45 degrees would change the position of the tropics and polar circles, and how?

Mentally imagine that we give the earth's axis a tilt of half a right angle. At the time of the equinoxes (March 21 and September 23), the change of days and nights on Earth will be the same as now. But in June the Sun will be at the zenith for the 45th parallel (and not for 23½°): this latitude would play the role of the tropics.

At a latitude of 60°, the Sun would only be 15° short of the zenith; the height of the Sun is truly tropical. The hot zone would directly adjoin the cold one, and the moderate zone would not exist at all. In Moscow, in Kharkov and other cities, the whole of June would have reigned as a continuous, sunsetless day. In winter, on the contrary, the whole polar night would last for decades in Moscow, Kyiv, Kharkov, Poltava ...

The hot zone at that time would have turned into a temperate one, because the Sun would have risen there at noon no higher than 45 °.

The tropics would lose much from this change, as would the temperate. The polar region, on the other hand, would gain something this time too: here, after a very severe (more severe than now) winter, a moderately warm winter would set in. summer period when even at the very pole the sun would stand at noon at an altitude of 45 ° and would shine for more than half a year. The eternal ice of the Arctic would gradually disappear.

3. What kind solar radiation and why does it prevail over eastern Siberia in winter, over the Baltic states in summer?

Eastern Siberia. In the territory under consideration, all components of the radiation balance are subject mainly to the latitudinal distribution.

Territory of Eastern Siberialying south of polar circle, is located in two climatic zones - subarctic and temperate. In this region, the influence of the relief on the climate is great, which leads to the allocation of seven regions: Tunguska, Central Yakutia, North-Eastern Siberia, Altai-Sayan, Angara, Baikal, Transbaikal.

Annual amounts of solar radiation per 200–400 MJ/cm 2 more than at the same latitudes European Russia. They vary from 3100–3300 MJ/cm 2 at the latitude of the Arctic Circle up to 4600–4800 MJ/cm 2 in the southeast of Transbaikalia. Over Eastern Siberia the atmosphere is cleaner than over the European territory. The transparency of the atmosphere decreases from north to south. In winter, the greater transparency of the atmosphere is determined by the low moisture content, especially in the southern regions of Eastern Siberia. South of 56°N direct solar radiation prevails over scattered. In the south of Transbaikalia and in Minusinsk basin direct radiation accounts for 55–60% of total radiation. Due to the long-term snow cover (6–8 months) up to 1250 MJ/cm 2 per year is spent on reflected radiation. The radiation balance increases from north to south from 900–950 mJ/cm 2 at the latitude of the Arctic Circle up to 1450–1550 MJ/cm 2 .

Two regions are distinguished, characterized by an increase in direct and total radiation as a result of increased transparency of the atmosphere - Lake Baikal and the highlands of the Eastern Sayan.

The annual arrival of received solar radiation on a horizontal surface in a clear sky (that is, a possible arrival) is 4200 MJ/m 2 in the north Irkutsk region and increases to 5150 MJ/m 2 to the south. On the shores of Lake Baikal, the annual amount increases to 5280 MJ/m 2 , and in the highlands of the Eastern Sayan it reaches 5620 MJ/m 2 .

Annual sums of scattered radiation at cloudless sky are 800-1100 MJ/m 2 .

An increase in cloudiness in certain months of the year reduces the inflow of direct solar radiation by an average of 60% of the possible one and at the same time increases the proportion of scattered radiation by 2 times. As a result, the annual arrival of total radiation fluctuates between 3240-4800 MJ/m 2 with a general increase from north to south. At the same time, the contribution of scattered radiation ranges from 47% in the south of the region to 65% in the north. AT winter time the contribution of direct radiation is insignificant, especially in the northern regions.

In the annual course, the maximum monthly sums of total and direct radiation to a horizontal surface in most of the territory falls on June (total 600 - 640 MJ / m 2 , straight 320-400 MJ/m 2 ), in the northern regions - shifts to July.

The minimum arrival of total radiation is everywhere observed in December - from 31 MJ / m 2 in highland Ilchir up to 1.2 MJ/m 2 in Yerbogachen. Direct radiation to a horizontal surface decreases from 44 MJ/m 2 in Ilchir to 0 in Yerbogachen.

We present the values of the monthly sums of direct radiation to the horizontal surface for some points of the Irkutsk region.

Monthly amounts of direct radiation to a horizontal surface (MJ/m 2 )

Items

The annual course of direct and total radiation is characterized by a sharp increase in monthly amounts from February to March, which is explained both by an increase in the height of the sun, and by the transparency of the atmosphere in March and a decrease in cloudiness.

The diurnal course of solar radiation is determined primarily by the decrease in the height of the sun during the day. Therefore, the maximum solar radiation is volumetrically observed at noon. But along with this, the transparency of the atmosphere affects the diurnal course of radiation, which is noticeably manifested in clear-sky conditions. Two areas stand out in particular, characterized by an increase in direct and total radiation as a result of increased transparency of the atmosphere - Lake. Baikal and the highlands of the Eastern Sayan.

In summer, the atmosphere is usually more transparent in the first half of the day than in the second, so the change in radiation during the day is not symmetrical about half a day. As for cloudiness, it is precisely this that is the reason for the underestimation of the irradiation of the eastern walls compared to the western ones in the city of Irkutsk. For the southern wall, the sunshine is about 60% of what is possible in summer and only 21-34% in winter.

In some years, depending on the cloudiness, the ratio of direct and diffuse radiation and the total arrival of total radiation can differ significantly from the average values. The difference between the maximum and minimum monthly arrivals of total and direct radiation can reach 167.6-209.5 MJ/m in the summer months 2 . Differences in scattered radiation are 41.9-83.8 MJ/m 2 . Even greater changes are observed in the daily amounts of radiation. The average maximum daily amounts of direct radiation may differ from the average by 2-3 times.

The arrival of radiation to differently oriented vertical surfaces depends on the height of the sun above the horizon, the albedo of the underlying surface, the nature of buildings, the number of clear and cloudy days, and the course of cloudiness during the day.

Baltic. Cloudiness reduces on average per year the arrival of total solar radiation by 21%, and direct solar radiation by 60%. Number of hours of sunshine - 1628 per year.

The annual arrival of total solar radiation is 3400 MJ/m2. In autumn-winter time, scattered radiation prevails (70-80% of the total flow). In summer, the share of direct solar radiation increases, reaching about half of the total radiation incoming. The radiation balance is about 1400 MJ/m2 per year. From November to February it is negative, but the heat loss is largely compensated by the advection of warm air masses from the Atlantic Ocean.

4. Explain why temperate and tropical belts Does the temperature drop a lot at night?

Indeed, in deserts, daily temperature fluctuations are great. During the day, in the absence of clouds, the surface becomes very hot, but cools quickly after sunset. Here the underlying surface plays the main role, that is, sands, which are characterized by their own microclimate. Their thermal behavior depends on color, humidity, structure, etc.

A feature of the sands is that the temperature in the upper layer decreases very quickly with depth. The top layer of sand is usually dry. The dryness of this layer does not cause heat to evaporate water from its surface, and absorbed by the sand solar energy goes mainly to heat it up. Sand under such conditions warms up very much during the day. This is also facilitated by its low thermal conductivity, which prevents the escape of heat from the upper layer to deeper layers. At night, the top layer of sand cools significantly. Such fluctuations in the temperature of the sand are reflected in the temperature of the surface layer of air.

Due to the rotation, it turns out that not 2 air flow, and six. And in those places where the air descends to the ground, it is cold, but gradually heats up and acquires the ability to absorb steam and, as it were, “drinks” moisture from the surface. The planet is surrounded by two belts of arid climate - this is the place where deserts are born.

It's hot in the desert because it's dry. Low humidity affects temperature. There is no moisture in the air, so Sun rays without stopping, they reach the surface of the soil and heat it. The surface of the soil heats up very strongly, but there is no heat transfer - there is no water to evaporate. That's why it's so hot. And in depth, heat spreads very slowly - due to the lack of the same heat-conducting water.

It's cold in the desert at night. Due to dry air. There is no water in the soil, and there are no clouds above the ground, which means there is nothing to retain heat.

Tasks

1. Determine the height of the level of condensation and sublimation of air not saturated with steam rising adiabatically from the Earth's surface if its temperature is knownt\u003d 30º and water vapor elasticity e \u003d 21.2 hPa.

The elasticity of water vapor is the main characteristic of air humidity, determined by a psychrometer: partial pressure water vapor contained in the air; measured in Pa or mm Hg. Art.

In rising air, the temperature changes due toadiabaticprocess, i.e. without heat exchange with the environment, due to the conversion of the internal energy of the gas into work and work during internal energy. Since the internal energy is proportional absolute temperature gas, the temperature changes. The rising air expands, performs work for which it expends internal energy, and its temperature decreases. The descending air, on the contrary, is compressed, the energy spent on expansion is released, and the air temperature rises.

Dry or containing water vapor, but not saturated with them, air, rising, cools adiabatically by 1 ° for every 100 m. Air saturated with water vapor cools by less than 1 ° when rising to 100 m, since condensation occurs in it, accompanied by release heat, partially compensating for the heat spent on expansion.

The amount of cooling of saturated air when it rises by 100 m depends on the air temperature and atmospheric pressure and varies within wide limits. Unsaturated air, descending, heats up by 1 ° per 100 m, saturated by a smaller amount, since evaporation takes place in it, for which heat is expended. Rising saturated air usually loses moisture during precipitation and becomes unsaturated. When lowered, such air heats up by 1 ° per 100 m.

Since the air is heated mainly from the active surface, the temperature in the lower atmosphere, as a rule, decreases with height. The vertical gradient for the troposphere averages 0.6° per 100 m. It is considered positive if the temperature decreases with height, and negative if it rises. In the lower surface layer of air (1.5-2 m), vertical gradients can be very large.

condensation and sublimation.In air saturated with water vapor, when its temperature drops to the dew point or the amount of water vapor in it increases, condensation - water changes from a vapor state to a liquid state. At temperatures below 0 ° C, water can, bypassing the liquid state, go into a solid state. This process is called sublimation. Both condensation and sublimation can occur in the air on the nuclei of condensation, on the earth's surface and on the surface of various objects. When the temperature of the air cooling from the underlying surface reaches the dew point, dew, hoarfrost, liquid and solid deposits, and frost settle on the cold surface.

To find the height of the condensation level, it is necessary to determine the dew point T of the rising air from pshrometric tables, calculate how many degrees the air temperature must drop in order for the water vapor contained in it to begin to condense, i.e. determine the difference. Dew point = 4.2460

Determine the difference between air temperature and dew point (t- T) \u003d (30 - 4.2460) \u003d 25.754

Multiply this value by 100m and find the height of the condensation level = 2575.4m

To determine the level of sublimation, you need to find the temperature difference from the dew point to the sublimation temperature and multiply this difference by 200m.

Sublimation occurs at a temperature of -10°. Difference = 14.24°.

The height of the sublimation level is 5415m.

2. Bring the pressure to sea level at an air temperature of 8º C, if: at a height of 150 m, the pressure is 990.8 hPa

zenith radiation condensation pressure

At sea level, the mean atmospheric pressure is 1013 hPa. (760mm.) Naturally, atmospheric pressure will decrease with height. The height to which it is necessary to rise (or fall) in order for the pressure to change by 1 hPa is called the baric (barometric) stage. It increases with warm air and an increase in altitude. Near the earth's surface at a temperature of 0ºC and a pressure of 1000 hPa, the pressure step is 8 m/hPa, and at an altitude of 5 km, where the pressure is about 500 hPa, at the same zero temperature it increases to 16 m/hPa.

"Normal" atmospheric pressure is the pressure equal to the weight of a 760 mm high mercury column at 0°C, at 45° latitude and at sea level. In the GHS system 760 mm Hg. Art. equivalent to 1013.25 mb. The basic unit of pressure in the SI system is the pascal [Pa]; 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2 . In the SI system, a pressure of 1013.25 mb is equivalent to 101325 Pa or 1013.25 hPa. Atmosphere pressure is a very variable weather element. From its definition it follows that it depends on the height of the corresponding column of air, its density, on the acceleration of gravity, which varies with the latitude of the place and the height above sea level.

1 hPa = 0.75 mmHg Art. or 1 mm Hg. Art. = 1.333 hPa.

An increase in altitude by 10 meters leads to a decrease in pressure by 1 mmHg. We bring the pressure to sea level, it \u003d 1010.55 hPa (758.1 mm Hg), if at a height of 150 m, pressure \u003d 990.8 hPa (743.1 mm.)

Temperature 8º C at an altitude of 150 meters, then at sea level = 9.2º.

Literature

1. Tasks in geography: a guide for teachers / Ed. Naumov. - M.: MIROS, 1993

2. Vukolov N.G. "Agricultural meteorology", M., 2007

3. Neklyukova N.P. General geography. M.: 1976

4. Pashkang K.V. Workshop on general geography. M.: Higher school.. 1982