The labor market plays a special role in macroeconomics. First of all, wages, employment and working conditions, influenced by market forces, decisively determine the level of well-being of workers and their families. Secondly, wages have a direct impact on household spending and, accordingly, on aggregate demand. Finally, the labor costs of entrepreneurs are essential element production costs of the finished product. If the increase in wages outstrips the growth in labor productivity, then the costs (costs) per unit of output increase, which leads to an increase in prices.

The main thing, however, is that the labor market determines the level of employment, and, accordingly, the size of GDP in the short period. The fact is that in macroeconomics, as well as in microeconomics, there is a production function that shows the dependence of real GDP (Y) on the amount of labor (L) and capital (K): Y=F(K,L). At the same time, in the short run, the amount of capital and production technologies are given, which means that GDP depends only on the amount of labor used: the more it is used, the higher the output.

The level of employment, as well as the size of wages, are determined in the labor market. At the same time, they distinguish nominal wage- the amount of money that employees receive for their work and real wages The quantity of goods and services that workers are able to buy with their nominal wages. Thus, the value of real wages is determined by dividing the nominal wage (W) by the price level (P) for consumer goods and services: . Similarly, the real wage index is calculated by dividing the nominal wage index by the price index.

The situation on the labor market determines not only employment, but also unemployment, which means that the supply of labor exceeds the demand for it. Neoclassicists and Keynesians explain the functioning of the labor market and the existence of unemployment in different ways.

The neoclassical concept proceeds from the fact that supply and demand in the labor market depend on real wages: the higher it is, the less demand for labor, and its supply more. The point of intersection of the supply and demand curves determines the equilibrium real wage, as well as the equilibrium level of employment. Unemployment in the strict sense of the word is not here, because. the demand for labor coincides with its supply: everyone who wants to work for a given wage has a job. We can only talk about some voluntary unemployment among those who are not satisfied with the price of labor prevailing in the market. Thus, according to the neoclassicists, the market mechanism automatically ensures full employment in the labor market, respectively, the achievement of potential GDP.

In contrast to the neoclassicalists, the Keynesian demand for labor is entirely determined by the aggregate demand for finished products. If aggregate demand is known, then entrepreneurs, relying on the production function, determine the number of workers needed to produce the corresponding GDP. This level of employment corresponds to the maximum rate of nominal wages at which employers are willing to hire this number of workers.

As aggregate demand decreases, so does the demand for labor at the same wage. Unemployment occurs because the supply of labor at this wage exceeds the demand for it. It is important to keep in mind that even if all workers agreed to a wage cut, this would not lead to an increase in employment and a decrease in unemployment, because if given level the aggregate demand for finished products, business simply does not need additional workers.

Based on these arguments, Keynesians advocate the stimulation of aggregate demand by the methods of state economic policy.

The labor market is a collection economic relations for the sale and purchase of such a factor of production as labor. The main subjects of the labor market are, on the one hand, the business sector, which forms the demand for labor in order to combine all resources for the production of goods and services and make a profit, on the other hand, households as owners of the labor force offering their labor on the market in order to generate income in the form of wages.

In the labor market, they act in the form of an economically active population, including both those already employed and the unemployed.

The sale of labor has its own specifics in comparison with the sale of goods and services, financial assets. Since labor is a factor of production, the demand for it is of a derivative nature and depends on the demand for final goods and services created with the help of this factor of production. When selling labor, one can note the long duration of the relationship between the seller and the buyer, which are formalized by long-term contracts. Important role at the same time, non-monetary factors play - the complexity and working conditions, the safety of the employee's health, guarantees professional growth. Institutional structures have a significant impact on the conditions for the sale of labor: trade unions, labor legislation, public policy, unions of entrepreneurs.

The macroeconomic approach to the analysis of this market has the following specific features:

¦ the labor market is considered as a single national market without taking into account sectoral, national, regional and other differences;

¦ the price of labor (wage rate) is set on the market as the only parameter influencing employment relations.

The labor market from macroeconomic positions is considered as the most imperfect of all national markets. This is explained by the fact that the search for a job takes a long time, many employees are poorly informed about vacancies, in some cases a positive solution to the issue of employment requires a change of residence or retraining.

Therefore, even full employment implies the presence of frictional and structural unemployment.

The functioning of the labor market has its own characteristics in the long and short term. In the long run, all price indicators, including wage rates and price levels, become flexible, and with their help, labor market actors get the opportunity to adapt to ongoing changes. As a result of this adaptation, the balance of supply and demand in the labor market is ensured and full employment is formed. In the short term, prices and nominal wage rates are rigid and economic entities cannot fully adapt to changes in the labor market, so in the short term, the discrepancy between labor demand and labor supply can become sustainable in the form of unemployment.

In macroeconomic theory, there are two main concepts of employment that explain the mechanism of the functioning of the labor market: neoclassical and Keynesian. The first of them explains the mechanism of functioning of the labor market in the long run, the second - in the short run. Each of the concepts includes three main components:

The theory of labor demand, which explores the factors underlying the decisions of entrepreneurs to hire a certain number of workers;

The theory of labor supply, which analyzes the motives of workers that prompt them to make decisions about the supply of a certain amount of labor on the market;

A theory that explains the mechanism for establishing equilibrium in the labor market and the causes of persistent unemployment.

Regional labor market. Economic activity and employment.

The development of both federal and regional labor markets is most dependent on macroeconomic factors. Common to all constituent entities of the Russian Federation was a significant reduction in economic activity and employment during the crisis period of 1992–1998, and then a post-default increase in activity and employment due to economic recovery. However, already in 2001. this growth ceased to be general and was replaced by a new recession in 63 regions (71% of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation). Despite the continued growth of the economy, the stage of "recovery" growth in economic activity and employment after the 1998 financial crisis. basically completed. Only since 2005 the second wave of employment growth began, covering the vast majority of regions. It was the result of a steady growth in demand for labor in all sectors of the economy. This period ended in autumn 2008. with the onset of a new economic crisis.

In general, for 1990-2007. the level of economic activity of the population decreased slightly - from 70 to 67% at the age of 15-72 years. Territorial differences in economic activity are inertial, because they depend on inherited features - demographic, settlement and socio-cultural. More than half of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation have average Russian indicators, but two contrasting groups have survived:

northern and north eastern regions new development, as well as the agglomeration of federal cities with a high level of economic activity of the population (68-80%);

More agrarian and underdeveloped regions European South and southern Siberia with reduced economic activity (40-60%).

In the country as a whole, the level of employment in 2008 accounted for 63% (70.8 million people) of the population aged 15-72 years, in 2009 - 60.6% (69.1 million people), in the Republic of Ingushetia - 25%, in Chechnya - 37%. Employment rate in largest agglomerations(69-72%) is much higher than the Russian average, almost the entire economically active population works in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Maximum employment rates in some sparsely populated autonomous regions Far North(74-77%) are due to a very high proportion of the able-bodied population. Composition of the unemployed by level vocational education shown in Table 24.

Table 24

The composition of the unemployed by the level of prof. education in 2008
(according to the sample survey of the population on employment problems; as a percentage of the total).

The employment situation is very similar to that of the economy as a whole: general indicators are encouraging, but a closer examination points to a number of problems. Unemployment rate for 2008 - 6.3%, for 2009 8.2% or 6.1 million Human. The unemployment rate is the ratio of the number of unemployed to the total adult working population in the country. Dynamics of the unemployment rate by regions since 1995 in Annex 5. The lowest unemployment rate for 2009 is noted in the Central Federal District (5%), the highest - in the Southern Federal District (11.3%).

In comparison with other countries, Russia wins in terms of unemployment. For example, in Latvia this figure is 22.8%, in Spain - 19.5%. It is important that the growth of this indicator over the year is insignificant. According to the ILO ( international organization labor) in 2009, the number of unemployed in the world reached a record level of almost 212 million people. This indicator shows an unprecedented growth since 2007, when 34 million people were registered as unemployed.

Another indicator is the number of unemployed per vacant workplace, which characterizes the tension in the labor market, demonstrates real situation affairs in the economy. For Russia on 10/01/2009 it was 20.2 people, on 01/01/2010 it increased to 24.1 people. The absence of new vacancies indicates that enterprises do not have plans for the development of production, and a decrease in the number of vacancies indicates that projects are being curtailed. However, the same indicator may indicate the beginning of the modernization of production, the active introduction new technology and technology and, as a result, increased productivity. But, unfortunately, not for Russia, since “in practice, the introduction of innovations is limited to the purchase of a new pump by an oil company,” says I. Nikolaev, director of the strategic analysis department.

“And finally, such a phenomenon as informal employment is officially estimated by Rosstat at 13 million people,” said T. Maleeva, director of the Independent Institute for Social Policy.

In 2009, the reduction in wages amounted to 5%, and taking into account the market of "gray" wages - 8%. According to the forecasts of T. Maleeva, the level of wages in the informal labor market in 2010 will be significantly lower. At the same time, it will affect the official salary, which, according to her forecasts, will decrease in 2010. by 7-10%. However, the reduction of wages in the interests of curbing unemployment puts an end to the possibility of increasing labor productivity. On the other hand, modernization processes in the economy are always accompanied by an increase in unemployment. Precisely because Russia is afraid of unemployment, modernization will not begin in any way.

The Government's program for the development of entrepreneurship and support for starting a business in the amount of 60 to 100 thousand rubles will not be able to ensure the growth of entrepreneurship in Russia and seriously affect the reduction in unemployment. “World experience shows that entrepreneurial talent is inherent in only 7-8% of the population. Create a class of businessmen from the unemployed difficult task. Therefore, the emphasis should be placed on supporting businessmen who create jobs.”

However, the Government of the Russian Federation considers it expedient to continue in 2010. all programs to promote employment of the population. For these purposes in 2010. 36.3 billion rubles will be allocated, special attention will be paid to the implementation of programs for self-employment of the population, internships for graduates (they will cover more than 70% of graduates of higher and secondary educational institutions). In addition, in 2010 the costs of mentoring at enterprises will be compensated, as well as employers will be paid extra for hiring disabled people.

test questions

1.What are historical features urban and rural settlement in the Russian Federation? What are the current trends?

2. What are the reasons for the change ethnic composition in RF? What are the trends in the dynamics of the ethnic composition of the national subjects of the Russian Federation?

3. What is the birth rate, its dynamics in the Russian Federation?

4. What are the reasons for migration in Russia? What is labor migration, its "+" and "-" for the country?

5. Give examples of regions with different levels of employment?

abstract

discipline: "Regional Economics and Management"

on the topic: "Regional labor market"

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Demand for labor

1.2 Labor supply

1.3 Economic activity and employment.

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

The concept of the labor market.

Labor is the basis of life and development of every person. In the very essence of man, the need to work is initially laid down as a necessary and natural condition for existence. Equally necessary is labor from the point of view of its role in society, meaning the labor of workers and collectives as commodity producers.

The labor market is a system of relations regarding the conditions for the purchase and sale of labor. The labor market includes the relationship between employers and employees. In the conditions of market relations, a person as a subject of labor can realize his labor potential, his ability to work in two ways: when he acts as an independent commodity producer who sells his products on the market, or as an employee who offers his services to a commodity producer. In the second case, there is an exchange according to the principle: qualification and work time hired worker - for wages and profit from the results of activities.

The labor market determines the cost of the labor force, the conditions of its employment, including the amount of wages, working conditions, the possibility of obtaining education, professional growth, job security, etc.

The labor market reflects the main trends in the dynamics of employment, its main structures (sectoral, vocational, demographic), i.e., in the social division of labor, as well as labor mobility, the scale and dynamics of unemployment.

The labor market is a mechanism for establishing contacts between labor force buyers (employers) and labor force sellers (hired). This market includes not only specially organized institutions - labor exchanges, but also all individual transactions for hiring labor.

The labor market is closely connected with other subsystems of the market. For example, in order to be in demand, the labor force must have a certain combination of physical, mental and professional abilities. Realizing these abilities in the production process, it must be constantly reproduced. It depends, in particular, on the state of the consumer goods market. There should be competition in the labor market as the main driving force for improving the employee's ability to work.

Feeling the need for constant reproduction, and each time at a new, higher level, the bearer of the labor force is looking for only such an employer to whom he could offer it on the most favorable terms. Therefore, there must also be competition in the demand for labor. Under such conditions, the social and economic development of society will take place, based on the market activity of workers offering their labor force, on the one hand, and employers, on the other.

1. Regional labor markets: dependence on macroeconomic factors

The state of national, regional and local labor markets is determined by the ratio of two main components: the supply of labor (the number of economically active population 1 , its education, age and professional structure, territorial distribution and mobility) and the demand for labor, i.e. existing quantity work places.

1.1 Demand for labor

It depends primarily on macroeconomic trends. With the growth of the economy, there are more jobs, with a crisis or recession, their number is reduced. In addition, the demand for labor, as well as its supply, depends on the level of wages. In countries and regions with "cheap" labor, the costs of creating new jobs are lower and therefore new labor-intensive industries are more often located. With a high level of wages, employers seek to reduce their costs by automating production or moving it to "cheap" countries or regions, thereby limiting the supply of new jobs in regional or local labor markets
A significant role in the formation of demand is played by the structure of the economy, including the ratio of labor-intensive and non-labor-intensive industries. AT modern economy the most labor-intensive service industries, therefore, in major cities where the service sector is growing faster, the supply of jobs is greater, which contributes to better labor markets. In small monofunctional cities, labor markets depend on the position city-forming enterprise and therefore the most vulnerable and unstable.

Another factor in the demand for labor is the state's policy in the field of employment.

First, the state acts as a regulator of the labor market, defining the "rules of the game" - hiring and firing workers, social guarantees and social insurance for employees. With more rigid state regulation and high level social protection employed, typical for Western European countries, employers, as a rule, seek to minimize the risks of additional costs and limit the hiring of workers, which leads to an increase in unemployment. With more lenient regulation, typical of the US, the employed are less protected when the economy deteriorates, but with a favorable economic environment, it is easier to create new jobs, as a result, the labor market is more flexible. In Russia, labor relations are regulated by federal law. In the early 2000s, it was adopted Labor Code with a fairly strict regulation of relations between the employee and the employer for the purpose of social protection of employees. However, a side negative effect was hidden discrimination in hiring those categories of employees who are protected by law (women with minor children, disabled people, etc.).

Secondly, the state influences the labor market as the largest employer, paying at the expense of the state budget those employed in the field of social services, defense and public order, public administration, etc. The policy of the state, which determines the number and structure of those employed in these industries, the level of payment for them labor also affects employment. If wage increases are not accompanied by measures to reduce inefficient employment, the result is usually an increase in the number of employees in the public sector. In Russian regions with underdeveloped economies, especially highly subsidized ones, the public sector has become the leader in terms of the number of employees and employment in it continues to grow.

1.2 Labor supply

Depends on population dynamics and age and sex composition. In regions with an incomplete demographic transition and a growing population, employment problems are most acute. They are caused, in particular, by the quantitative disproportion between the age cohort of young people entering the labor market and the smaller age cohort of those retiring. This situation is typical for the underdeveloped republics of the North Caucasus and southern Siberia, and is exacerbated by the insignificant supply of new jobs.

The disproportion can be not only quantitative, but also structural, when the demand for labor does not match the supply by sex, professional structure, level of education and qualifications. Many structural mismatches can be reduced by retraining existing staff, but this is not always possible. In addition, such an active employment policy is very costly.

The behavior of the population in the labor market also depends on the level of education, sociocultural characteristics, including the emancipation of women, and territorial mobility. In regions and cities with a higher level of education of the population, its adaptation to changes in demand in the labor market is faster, so unemployment is usually lower. In the regions of new development, populated by recent migrants, when the situation on the labor market worsens, migration outflow begins faster, since the mobility of the population is higher.

Regional and local labor markets have great potential for self-regulation. Quantitative and structural imbalances in supply and demand can be smoothed out by the territorial mobility of the economically active population: moving to a new place of residence, seasonal or pendulum labor migration to regions and cities with a greater supply of jobs. However, against the background of countries with a developed labor market, the territorial mobility of the population modern Russia is still small. It is twice as low as compared to the Soviet period, when labor migration was stimulated by the state or forced. The main reasons for low mobility in modern Russia are a sparse network of cities and an underdeveloped transport infrastructure, hindering commuting, huge price fluctuations in local housing markets, and high relocation costs that are unbearable for most households.

So far, only a large "gradient" of socio-economic differences, created by both pull and push factors, can stimulate territorial mobility, which is observed, for example, in the Moscow agglomeration with its huge demand for labor and its high wages. That is why it has become the largest center of attraction for the labor force. The radius of labor migration to the capital has sharply expanded: pendulum migration has spread beyond the boundaries of the metropolitan agglomeration to neighboring regions of the Center, labor migration is growing, especially from the regions of the Russian south.

It is the "gradient" of socio-economic differences that has led to an increase since the late 1990s labor migration The return of the titular population of the CIS countries to Russia, filling jobs with lower wages, made the return migration of the Russian population from these countries economically motivated, and the settlers are gradually moving to large urban agglomerations of Russia.

The contrasts are especially pronounced in the northeastern regions of new development: in the leading oil and gas producing districts with higher wages, an influx of labor migrants continued until the mid-2000s, while the rest of the northern and eastern regions have been losing population since the 1990s. Numerous examples territorial mobility of the population, due to economic factors, confirm the development of self-regulation mechanisms in the regional labor markets.

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

LECTURE 4. Formation of universal learning activities in basic school

Definition of the concept of "universal learning activities" (UUD)

The changes taking place in modern society require a change educational space, a different definition of the goals of education, taking into account state, social and personal needs and interests.

The previous standards focused on the subject content of education. The training was based on the amount of knowledge, abilities, skills (KUNs) that a school graduate should master. Scientists and teachers: mathematicians, physicists, biologists determined what you need to know modern man on one subject or another. However, on this stage development of modern society, it becomes obvious that the requirements for the level of training of a graduate in specific subjects do not mean his successful socialization after graduation educational institution, the ability to build relationships with other people, work in a group and team, be a citizen and patriot of their homeland.

Today, when information is updated at a monstrous speed, when the amount of human knowledge doubles every 3-4 years, it is important for a modern school graduate not only to acquire a certain amount of knowledge, but also to master universal learning activities (UUD), which give the student the opportunity to independently successfully master new knowledge. , skills and competencies, including the ability to learn.

That is why the “Planned Results” of the Education Standards determine not only subject, but meta-subject and personal results.

AT broad meaning of the term"universal learning activities" means self-development and self-improvement through the conscious and active appropriation of new social experience.

AT narrower (actually psychological meaning) term"universal learning activities" can be defined as a set of student actions that ensure his cultural identity, social competence, tolerance, ability to independent assimilation new knowledge and skills, including the organization of this process.

The functions of universal learning activities are:

-ensure the student's ability to independently

learning activities, set learning goals, seek and use

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

the necessary means and methods to achieve, monitor and evaluate the process and results of activities;

–creation of conditions for the development of personality and its self-realization on the basis of readiness for continuing education, competence "teach to learn", tolerance in a multicultural society, high social and professional mobility;

-ensuring the successful assimilation of knowledge, skills and the formation of a picture of the world and competencies in any subject area of ​​knowledge.

The universal nature of UUD appears to be:

have a supra-subject, meta-subject character;

ensure the integrity of the general cultural, personal and cognitive development and self-development of the individual;

ensure the continuity of all levels of the educational process;

underlie the organization and regulation of any activity of the student, regardless of its specially-subject content;

provide stages of assimilation educational content and the formation of the psychological abilities of the student.

Psychological and pedagogical foundations for the emergence of the concept of UUD

The development of the personality in the education system is ensured, first of all, by the formation of universal educational activities (UUD), which act as the basis of educational and educational process. The quality of assimilation of knowledge is determined by the diversity and nature of species

activity cultural-historical approach, position-based scientific school L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, D.B.

psychological conditions and mechanisms of the process of mastering knowledge, forming a picture of the world, as well as general structure learning activities students. Let's take a quick look at each of the above theories in the context of studying methodological foundations formation of universal educational activities.

The system-activity approach allows us to highlight the main results of training and education in the context key tasks and universal learning activities that students must master. From the point of view of systems theory, a person is considered as a biopsychosocial system that functions simultaneously in several large systems, namely: family, educational, social and

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

professional. The system-activity approach assumes both individual activity child or adult in each of the systems, and the interaction of the individual with other people in all of the above systems.

L.S. Vygotsky viewed learning as driving force development. It is training that sets the patterns of higher mental functions or the “ideal form” of development and ensures their formation as a meaningful characteristic of consciousness. L.S. Vygotsky wrote that learning plays its leading role in mental development, primarily through the content of acquired knowledge. Learning leads to development. However, not all learning is leading. Education, indeed, "leading development", should be carried out in the zone of proximal development of the child; its content should be a system of scientific concepts.

According to the theory of systematic, phased formation of mental actions and concepts by P.Ya. Galperin, the subject of formation should be actions understood as ways to solve a certain class of problems. To do this, it is necessary to identify and build such a system of conditions, the consideration of which not only ensures, but even “forces” the student to act correctly, in the required form and with given indicators.

This system includes three subsystems:

1) conditions that ensure the construction and correct implementation by the student of a new mode of action;

2) conditions that ensure "working out", that is, the education of the desired properties, mode of action;

3) conditions that allow you to confidently and fully transfer the performance of actions from the external objective form to the mental plane. In other words, we, instead of performing some action in reality at this particular moment, plan and work it out mentally.

Six stages of mastering the action have been identified.

At the first stage, assimilation begins with the creation of a motivational basis for an action, when the student's attitude is laid to the goals and objectives of the action being assimilated, to the content of the material on which it is practiced. This attitude may change in the future, but the role of the initial motivation for assimilation is very great.

At the second stage, the formation of the scheme of the orienting basis of the action takes place, that is, the system of guidelines necessary to perform the action with the required qualities. In the course of mastering the action, this scheme is constantly checked and refined.

At the third stage, the action is formed in a material form, when the orientation and execution of the action are carried out based on the externally presented components of the scheme of the orienting basis of the action.

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

The fourth stage is external speech. Here the action is transformed - instead of relying on externally presented means, the student proceeds to describe the meanings of these means and actions in external speech. The need for a material (materialized) representation of the scheme of the orienting basis of the action, as well as the material form of the action, disappears; its content is fully reflected in speech, which begins to act as the main support for the emerging action.

At the fifth stage (action in external speech “to oneself”), a further transformation of the action takes place - a gradual reduction in the external, sound side of speech, while the main content of the action is transferred to the internal, mental plane.

At the sixth stage, the action is performed in hidden speech and takes the form of the actual mental action. P.Ya. Galperin emphasized that empirically the formation of an action, concept or image can take place with the omission of some stages of this scale; moreover, in a number of cases such a omission is psychologically quite justified, since the student in his past experience has already mastered appropriate forms and is able to successfully include them in the current process of formation (actions with objects or their substitutes, speech forms, etc.). At the same time, P.Ya. Galperin drew attention to the fact that the essence is not in stages, but in a complete system of conditions that makes it possible to unambiguously determine both the course of the process and its result.

The idea of ​​the functions, content and types of universal educational activities should be taken as the basis for building a holistic educational process. The selection and structuring of the content of education, the choice of methods, the definition of forms of education should take into account the goals of the formation of specific types of universal educational activities. The development of universal educational activities depends decisively on the method of constructing the content of educational subjects. In other words, the content of the subjects reflected in the textbooks, as well as the methods and forms used by the teacher in the classroom, significantly affect the formation of UUD, which form the basis of all

teaching and educational system of education.
Mastery	students		universal		educational
actions	going on		context
items. Certainly, every		academic subject		reveals	various

opportunities for the formation of UUD, determined, first of all, by the function of the subject and its subject content.

Mastering universal learning activities ultimately leads to the formation of the ability to independently successfully acquire new knowledge, skills and competencies, including independent organization the process of assimilation, i.e., the ability to learn. This ability is ensured by the fact that universal learning activities are generalized activities that open up the possibility of a broad orientation of students, as in

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

various subject areas, as well as in the structure of the educational activity itself, including the awareness by students of its target orientation, value-semantic and operational characteristics. Thus, the "ability to learn" implies the full development of all components of educational activity, which include: 1) cognitive and learning motives, 2) learning goal, 3) learning task, 4) learning activities and operations (orientation, transformation of the material, control and evaluation). "The ability to learn" is a significant factor in increasing the efficiency of students mastering subject knowledge, skills and the formation of competencies, the image of the world and the value-semantic foundations of personal moral choice, in other words, it underlies the formation of UUD.

UUDs are subdivided into the following types: personal, cognitive, communicative and regulatory.

Personal universal learning activities

Personal universal learning activities provide a value-oriented orientation of students (the ability to correlate actions and events with accepted ethical principles, knowledge of moral norms and the ability to highlight the moral aspect of behavior) and orientation in social roles

and interpersonal relationships. Age personality trait elementary school children is awareness of themselves in society. In relation to educational activities, two types of actions should be distinguished:

the action of meaning formation, i.e., the establishment by students of a connection between the purpose of educational activity and its motive, in other words, between the result of learning and what stimulates the activity, for the sake of which it is carried out. The student must ask himself the question “what is the meaning, the meaning of the teaching for me”, and be able to find the answer to it.

the action of moral and ethical evaluation of the assimilated content, based on social and personal values, providing a personal moral choice. The child begins to understand

and be aware of "What is good and what is bad"; evaluating events emotionally.

Speaking about the criteria for the formation of personal UUD, it can be argued that they are: 1) the structure of value consciousness; 2) the level of development of moral consciousness; 3) the appropriation of moral norms that act as regulators of moral behavior; 4) the completeness of students' orientation to the moral content of the situation, action, moral dilemma that requires the implementation of a moral choice.

Educational subjects of the humanities cycle and, first of all, literature are the most adequate for the formation universal action moral and ethical assessment. Forms matter joint activities and educational cooperation of students, which open the zone of proximal development of moral consciousness.

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

The formation of a moral action, like any other action, is determined by the completeness of the student's orientation to the conditions that are essential for solving a moral dilemma and making a moral choice.

(Eisenberg N., 1987, 1992; Plotnikova Yu.E., 1998):

1. the subject evaluates the situation, its inconsistency(something happened);

2. assesses the ability of the sufferer to successfully cope with the situation of damage (deficit, loss);

3. assistance costs are estimated;

4. the relationship between the helper and the victim is assessed;

5. the reactions of other people are evaluated (before, at the time, and after the provision of assistance);

6. assessed their condition (mood, healthy);

7. assesses how the act of helping will affect self-esteem (if I help, then I'm good);

8. having the necessary skills to provide assistance,

9. ability to plan the sequence of operations of the action of rendering assistance;

10. practical provision of assistance or refusal of it.

Thus, the systematic, purposeful formation of personal UUD leads to an increase in the moral competence of younger students.

Cognitive universal learning activities

Cognitive activities include general educational and logical universal educational activities.

I. General educational universal educational activities

General educational universal educational activities include:

independent selection and formulation of a cognitive goal;

search and selection of the necessary information; application of information retrieval methods, including using computer tools;

structuring knowledge;

selection of the most effective ways of solving problems depending on specific conditions;

reflection of the methods and conditions of action, control and evaluation of the process

and performance results;

semantic reading as understanding the purpose of reading and choosing the type of reading in

depending on the goal; extracting the necessary information from

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

listened texts of various genres; definition of primary and secondary information; free orientation and perception of texts of artistic, scientific, journalistic and official business styles; understanding and adequate assessment of the language of the media;

ability to adequately, consciously and voluntarily build speech statement in oral and writing, conveying the content of the text in accordance with the purpose (detailed, concise, selective) and observing the norms of constructing the text (corresponding to the topic, genre, style of speech, etc.);

statement and formulation of the problem, independent creation of activity algorithms in solving problems of a creative and exploratory nature;

action with sign-symbolic means (substitution, coding, decoding, modeling).

II. Universal logical learning activities

Logical actions are of the most general (universal) nature and

aimed at establishing connections and relationships in any field of knowledge. As part of schooling under logical thinking usually understood as the ability and ability of students to perform simple logical actions (analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, etc.), as well as composite logical operations(construction of negation, affirmation and refutation as the construction of reasoning using various logic circuits- inductive or deductive).

The classification of logical actions includes:

1 - comparison of specific sensory and other data in order to highlight the identity / difference, definition common features and compiling a classification;

2 - identification of concrete-sensory and other objects in order to include them in a particular class (for more information about the process of identification, see additional material). 3 - analysis - selection of elements and "units" from the whole; division of the whole into parts;

4 - synthesis - the compilation of a whole from parts, including independently completing construction, replenishing the missing components;

5 - seriation - ordering of objects according to a selected basis (more details about the concept of seriation can be found in the additional material);

6 - classification - assignment of an object to a group based on a given attribute. More details about the classification - in the supplementary material;

7 - generalization - generalization and derivation of commonality for a whole series or class of single objects based on the allocation of an essential relationship. (Generalization - generalization and derivation of generality for a whole series or class of single objects based on the identification of an essential relationship.)

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

8 - proof- establishing cause-and-effect relationships, building a logical chain of reasoning, proof. Disclosure of the concept - in the additional material.

9 - summing up under the concept - object recognition, selection of essential features and their synthesis;

10 - establishment of analogies. (According to the definition, an analogy is a conclusion in which, on the basis of the similarity of objects or elements in one respect, a conclusion is made about their similarity in another respect).

Let us dwell in more detail on the role of reading as part of universal learning activities.

1. Requirements for the level of reading in the basic school and state of the art literacy issues

As practice shows, students often find it difficult to complete tasks that require correlation various points view of phenomena and events, to express their own version of their meaning, which once again shows the relevance of the introduction of purposeful formation communicative component universal educational activities within the basic school.

Reading is rightfully considered the foundation of all subsequent education. Full reading is a complex and multifaceted process that involves the solution of such cognitive and communicative tasks as understanding (general, complete and critical), search specific information, self-control, restoration of a broad context, interpretation, commenting on the text, etc.

During the course, students must master various types and types of reading. Reading types include: introductory reading aimed at extracting basic information or highlighting the main content of the text; learning reading, with the aim of extracting complete and accurate information with the subsequent interpretation of the content of the text; search / viewing reading, aimed at finding specific information; expressive reading passage in accordance with additional norms for voicing written text.

Read types are communicative reading aloud and to yourself, educational, independent.

Learning the most developed species reading - reflective reading - is to master the following skills:

a) anticipate the content of the subject plan of the text by heading, based on previous experience;

b) understand the main idea of ​​the text; c) form a system of arguments;

d) predict the sequence of presentation of the ideas of the text;

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

e) compare different points vision and different sources information on the topic;

f) carry out the semantic folding of the selected facts and thoughts; g) understand the purpose different types texts;

h) understand the implicit (implied, unexpressed) information of the text;

i) compare illustrative material with text information; j) express the information of the text in the form short notes; k) distinguish between topics and subtopics of a special text;

l) set the goal of reading, directing attention to useful information this moment information;

m) highlight not only the main, but also redundant information; o) use different reading comprehension techniques;

n) analyze changes in their emotional state in the process of reading, receiving and processing information and its comprehension.

The objective requirements for the level of reading of students are very high. In modern society, the ability to read cannot be reduced to mastering the technique of reading. Now it is a constantly developing body of knowledge, skills and abilities, i.е. quality of a person, which should be improved throughout his life in different situations activities and communication.

One of the main criteria for the level of reading skill is completeness of understanding of the text. The following skills may indicate a fairly complete understanding of the text:

– general orientation in the content of the text and understanding of its holistic meaning (definition main theme, common purpose or destination text; formulation of the thesis expressing the general meaning of the text; an explanation of the order of instructions offered in the text; comparison of the main parts of the graph or table; explanation of the purpose of the map, drawing; finding a correspondence between a part of the text and its general idea formulated by the question);

– finding information (the ability to run through the text with “eyes”, determine its main elements and search for the necessary information, sometimes expressed in the text itself in a different (synonymous) form than in the question);

– interpretation of the text (the ability to compare and contrast the information contained in it of a different nature, to find arguments in it in support of the theses put forward, to draw a conclusion about the intention of the author or the main idea of ​​the text);

– reflection of the content of the text (the ability to connect the information found in the text with knowledge from other sources, evaluate the statements made in the text based on their ideas about the world, find arguments in defense of their point of view);

PMC PK and PP RO K(P)FU

– reflection on the form of the text (the ability to evaluate not only the content of the text, but also its form, and in general - the skill of its execution, which implies sufficient development of critical thinking and independence of aesthetic judgments).

A team of international experts identified and described five levels of literacy, each of which included tasks of the following types:

– find in the text the information you are looking for, which can be contained as

in explicitly and implicitly, both in the main and in the auxiliary text (captions under the illustration, in the note) expressed verbally or in another (graphic, digital) sign system, be unambiguous or contradictory;

– interpret the text: in easy cases, determine and justify the main idea of ​​the text, in more complex tasks - to establish connections and relationships between parts of the text, to show the ability to classify the material, reason by analogy and understand the contextual meaning of the word, the meaning of linguistic subtleties;

– reflect: in an easy version to establish links between the text and external experience, in a more complex one - to reasonably and critically evaluate the text, raise questions, put forward hypotheses.

2. Organization conditions effective learning reading

The formed reading skill includes two main components: 1) reading technique (correct and quick perception and voicing of words, based on the connection between their visual images, on the one hand, and acoustic and motor speech images, on the other) 2) understanding of the text (extracting it meaning, content).

In the works of E.I. Zaika, an effective set of exercises was developed, aimed at developing a child’s interest in the reading process, at removing the associated emotional tension and anxiety. Here are some examples of exercises: separating words from pseudowords (for example, road, subway, olubet, wunka), search in the text for given words, i.e. choice of cards with words matching the standard (slovoflomendia, and there are words on the cards flomandy, flomenady etc.).

The above exercises form various operations and abilities that are constituent parts reading skills, and also provide linking them with each other into more complex complexes. This complex can be used as a way to correct reading skills at all stages of schooling.

Another approach to improving reading among schoolchildren is aimed at mastering their skills and techniques understanding the information contained in the text. The essence of understanding is to understand the idea of ​​the work, the intention of its author and to feel emotional mood and the beauty of the language of a work of art.