The textbook can be interesting and useful also for graduate students, teachers of higher educational institutions, students of advanced training faculties, and teachers. Introduction

PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS AS A SECTION OF DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGYPsychology as a science:
general
differential
In psychodiagnostics, you need to answer next questions:
What is being diagnosed?
How is diagnostics carried out (both from measurements
go to results)?
Psychodiagnostics as a branch of differential psychology refers to
differential psychology
It studies the individual differences between people and the variability of their
psychological properties

LOW FORMALIZED AND HIGHLY FORMALIZED PSYCHODIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES

Less formalized:
conversations, observations
product analysis
poll
Highly formalized:
questionnaires
questionnaires

PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS AS PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

The main tool of psychodiagnostics - TEST
A test in the narrow sense refers to standardized
psychological tests
Tests:
individual and group
written and oral
blank, permutable
hardware, computer
verbal and non-verbal

APPLICATION OF TESTING

In the practice of higher education, the use of psychological
testing meets the following goals:
improving the quality of education
promoting mental and personal development
students
development of psychological criteria for growth
professionalism of teachers, use
psychological methods at the stages of selection of applicants
or monitoring the success of training, etc.

HISTORY OF THE USE OF PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS FOR SOLVING THE PROBLEMS OF THE HIGHER SCHOOL

Public opinion and society's attitude
greatly influenced the use
psychodiagnostic means "compensatory
training programs" USA and Western Europe
In the 1920s in Russia, psychodiagnostics began
apply to higher education

PROBLEMS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHODIAGNOSIS

The limitations of tests in the study of potential
mental development opportunities
Traditional tests did not allow building
correctional development work
The content was based on the experience and intuition of the authors of the test, and not on
scientific ideas about mental development and the role in it
learning.

PSYCHODIAGNOSIS AS A SPECIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL METHOD

Psychodiagnostics as a psychological method
used for comparison individual properties
Validity is a set of indicators that reflect
different aspects of assessing its compliance (or adequacy)
that psychological reality or that psychological
constructs that are supposed to be measured

MEASUREMENT COEFFICIENTS

Aspects of validity:
theoretical - verification of the measurement tool itself
pragmatic - testing the methodology in terms of its practical
significance, efficiency, usefulness
Validity coefficient:
low order 0.20-0.30
medium - 0.30 - 0.50
high - above 0.60
Reliability

SCALES USED IN PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS

Psychological properties can be measured in the following
scales:
NAMES, where different psychological indicators
may be attributed to different classes
ORDER, or rank scale; using it to determine
order of elements following each other, but unknown
there is a division on the scale
INTERVAL scale (for example, intelligence quotient - IQ),
on the basis of the use of which it is possible not only to establish,
of which subject this or that property is more pronounced, but also on
how many units is it more pronounced
scale of RELATIONSHIPS, with which you can indicate, in
how many times one measurable indicator is more or less
another.

CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHODIAGNOSTIC METHODS

Types of psychological indicators
Intelligence Tests
Ability tests
Achievement Tests
The problem of mental development in connection with success
adaptation in higher education
personality tests
Projective Techniques

NOMOTHETIC AND IDEOGRAPHIC APPROACHES

Nomothetic
the individual severity of all those parameters is measured through the prism
which the researcher considers each subject
Ideographic
first of all, precisely those properties that are inherent only in
to a specific person, most often used in the results of interviews, conversations

TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL INDICATORS

L - life record (facts of life)
T - test (sample, test)
Q - questionnaire (questionnaire)
R. Cattell's classification.

INTELLIGENCE TESTS

INTELLIGENCE means:
broad context cognitive processes and skills (including
memory features, speed and dynamic properties in solving problems and
etc.)
operationalization of diagnosed psychological reality in ways
her measurements.
Initially, the tests used a selection of children who did not cope
with
general education program
Subsequently, to measure individual psychological characteristics
normal children in order to rank and classify them according to the characteristics studied

IQ TESTS

This coefficient was calculated based on the diagnostic
examination by dividing the so-called "mental age"
(according to the number of completed test tasks) into chronological, or
passport, age and multiplying the resulting quotient by 100.
A value above 100 indicates that
the subject solved tasks intended for an older
age
IQ limits from 84 to 116

SHTUR ASTUR TESTS

Tests adapted for Russia
Shtur - for grades 7-9
ASTUR - for applicants and high school students
All test items are based on school materials.
programs and textbooks

ABILITY TESTS

Ability tests are classified:
by types of mental functions - sensory, motor tests
by type of activity - technical and professional
tests, i.e.
corresponding to a particular profession (clerical, artistic and
etc.)
Professional ability tests:
DAT battery of tests of differential abilities
GATB battery of tests general abilities

ACHIEVEMENT TESTS

With their help, they study the success of mastering a specific, limited
certain framework educational material
The test can be used in higher education for:
performance evaluation vocational training, comparisons of different
methods and curricula through
comparing the achievements of groups learning in different ways.
identify gaps in knowledge among young professionals and their
timely completion
Objectivity, ease of use, brevity of the procedure make them suitable for
certification of employees for a category, to assess qualifications.
However, the work of creating such tests is not easy, it requires special knowledge and qualifications.

THE PROBLEM OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN CONNECTION WITH THE SUCCESS OF ADAPTATION IN HIGHER SCHOOL

Because learning is tied to age, then in the future a person,
who shows extraordinary abilities for his
age will be rewarded, which is not entirely fair
The system rewards early development, which can
may or may not be a harbinger of manifestation
abilities in the future

PERSONALITY TESTS

The subject of diagnostics are features
motivation, personality traits, self-attitude,
self-regulation, etc.
R. Cattell's sixteen-factor questionnaire, or 16-PF
a series of questionnaires by G. Aizenck
A. Edwards questionnaire

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

A characteristic feature of all methods of this type is uncertainty, ambiguity of the stimulus
material (for example, drawings) that the subject
must interpret, complete, supplement, etc.
In general, methods of this class are successfully used
in clinical and consulting work

QUESTIONNAIRES AND QUESTIONNAIRES

Tasks are presented in the form of questions or statements
Questionnaires can be used to explore traits
personality, its interests, preferences, attitudes towards
others and self-relationship, self-esteem, motivation, etc.
Any tests that diagnose personality traits are applicable only in
their culture

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS

In differential psychophysiology, features are studied
basic properties nervous system and their manifestations.
Psychophysiological methods differ from others in that they
deprived of an evaluative approach to a person
Currently available blank diagnostic methods
psychophysiological characteristics are aimed at measuring
most studied on this moment properties of the nervous system
as strength-weakness, lability-inertia

PSYCHODIAGNOSTICS IN THE CONTEXT OF SURVEYING GROUPS OF STUDENTS AND TEACHERS OF THE HIGHER SCHOOL

Along with the objective components of the educational situation and outwardly
given criteria for the success of educational and teaching
work can be divided into such subjective components as:
satisfaction with the process and results of their activities
interpersonal understanding
the ability to control one's interactions with other people
established motivational structures
readiness for personal growth

INFLUENCE OF TESTING CONDITIONS ON PERFORMANCE OF ABILITY, INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY TESTS

Feedback was found for college students
between anxiety scores and achievement in
intellectual tests
Also, for different groups of students, there are different
test results based on behavior
experimenter

COMPUTERIZATION OF PSYCHODIAGNOSTIC METHODS

New opportunities predetermined the shift of attitudes in favor of a wide
use of psychological tests, but at the same time led to
illusions that a psychologist is no longer needed, and a teacher or
the student himself can be a psychodiagnostic.
pros
formalization of methods,
greater accuracy of data processing,
release of a teacher or psychologist from routine operations
Minuses
it is impossible to draw conclusions about the trust in the results, without personal involvement
human
the program cannot replace a psychologist with test experience
Can't see cause and effect relationships in responses

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INTRODUCTION

This course work devoted to psychodiagnostics in higher education. The importance of psychodiagnostics cannot be overestimated. Now almost every university or when applying for a job conducts psychological testing. Was it always like this? Or is it a fashion trend that will soon pass? Is there any sense and practical use of psychodiagnostics? Can tests be wrong? We will try to answer all these questions in this work.

Ways and experience in solving psychodiagnostic problems differ significantly in the practice of foreign and Russian higher education. Similar, however, is the very fact that the use of psychodiagnostic tools for solving certain practical problems depends on public opinion and society's attitude to assessing the social significance of these problems, as well as the applicability of psychological grounds for their solution.

Most a prime example influence of social programs and socio-political attitudes in relation to the use of psychological data was a change in attitude towards psychological testing and the so-called "compensatory training programs" in the universities of the USA and Western Europe. Initially, these programs were enthusiastically adopted in the context of public approval of broader goals. social assistance. Their use in testing applicants in higher educational institutions made it possible, in particular, to apply for higher education to people who did not have the opportunity to receive decent training in secondary school. Depending on the identified individual levels of knowledge in a particular area, individual plans training, which made it possible to build on the existing groundwork and compensate for the identified shortcomings in individual systems knowledge. The role of the psychologist was essential at the stages of compiling such individual programs training that brought students from different starting positions to the same high level of knowledge and ensured their intellectual growth. This was achieved on the basis of defining the “zone of proximal development” of the subject (a concept introduced by the psychologist L. S. Vygotsky) and taking into account those individual characteristics that made it possible to direct the student’s cognitive activity in such a way as to compensate for the initial shortcomings of his cognitive sphere.

In the 1970s, first in the United States and then in Western Europe, there was a significant turn of socio-political attitudes “to the right”, and in the field of social policy, other decisions were made by the relevant institutions: if money is spent on the development of compensatory training programs, is it not better redirect them to another use psychological help at the university - for testing at admission to higher educational institutions? Then it will be possible to select as students those people who obviously do not need compensatory programs.

A similar dependence on socio-political attitudes was demonstrated by the change in the attitude of the scientific community towards understanding the role of hereditary factors in intellectual development. This time, in an environment of increasing public opinion and democratization of access to the system higher education for the socially disadvantaged segments of the population, a number of researchers who demonstrated the influence of the factor of hereditary prerequisites on the development of intelligence were forced to defend themselves by accepting a memorandum stating that their psychological and psychogenetic research should not be considered in the context of their alleged racial or biological attitudes.

In Russia in the 20s of the XX century. the first psychodiagnostic studies of intelligence were carried out on student samples, and programs of psychogenetic research were launched. But very soon the very question of the tasks of psychodiagnostics in relation to the problems of higher education was curtailed. At the same time, such a system of admission to higher educational institutions began to take shape, when, due to political attitudes, the criteria for assessing the required level of primary education were deliberately reduced. An analysis of the documents of the first years of Soviet power allows us to trace the change public policy in this area from the elite-class approach to the ideological-theoretical one. In 1924, on the basis of the decision of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), the People's Commissariat of Education adopted the guidelines "On the rules and norms for admission to universities", according to which 50% of working and peasant youth are enrolled in higher educational institutions according to the lists provided by the provincial and regional party and trade union committees . Later, Komsomol organizations received the same right, whose members had to answer not only for their own social background, but also for their position in relation to certain internal party disputes. It was party functionaries, and not teachers or scientists, who worked in the commission created in 1932 by the Politburo to check the programs of elementary, secondary and higher schools.

In 1936, a resolution was adopted essentially prohibiting the use of psychodiagnostic methods in educational practice. Although the prohibition concerned, it would seem, only one of the means of psycho diagnostic work psychologist - the development and use of tests, but in reality the very setting of such tasks as selection into groups based on an assessment of the differentiated severity of certain psychological properties, raising questions about the possibility different levels in the personal or intellectual development of adults, the identification of the most intellectually gifted persons on the basis of psychodiagnostic tests. It is clear that it was not necessary to talk about the experience of using psychodiagnostic methods in the practice of domestic higher education against such a background.

At the same time, certain areas of psychodiagnostic research were relatively lucky and received support. First of all, the problems of analysis should be mentioned here. individual differences at the level of typological properties of the nervous system and understanding (including the psychological dimension) of abilities. In the theoretical development of questions about the role of inclinations, methods for diagnosing general and special abilities human domestic work turned out to be quite well advanced.

Traditional psychodiagnostics and its functions in the education system have been sharply criticized by many leading psychologists, both foreign and domestic (L. S. Vygotsky, K. M. Gurevich, L. Kamin, J. Lawler, J. Naem, S. L. Rubinshtein, N. F. Talyzina, D. B. Elkonin and others).

The greatest claims were made to the diagnosis of intelligence. Most researchers pointed to the vagueness of this concept, noted the limitations of tests in studying the potential of mental development, in particular, due to focusing only on its productive side, which closed access to understanding psychological mechanisms and individual features of the formation of thinking. Traditional tests did not allow building correctional and developmental work, since their content remained unclear, which was based on the experience and intuition of the test authors, and not on scientific ideas about mental development and the role of learning in it.

Nevertheless, the complete abandonment of tests after the aforementioned 1936 decree led, on the whole, to rather negative than positive results. In this regard, it is necessary to note the important role that was once played by the publication in the journal Soviet Pedagogy (1968. - No. 7) prepared by well-known and very authoritative psychologists A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria and A. A. Smirnov "On diagnostic methods psychological research schoolchildren." It explicitly formulated the provision on the possibility of using tests at school: “Among the short psychological tests, or tests, are the so-called psychological tests that were developed in different countries, standardized and tested on a large number of children. Under certain conditions, with an appropriate critical review, such psychological tests can be used for initial orientation in the characteristics of lagging behind children.

We see that, quite cautiously, with reservations, the legitimacy of using tests in the education system is still recognized. New approaches to psychodiagnostics were stimulated, on the one hand, by criticism of its theoretical and methodological positions, and, on the other hand, by the logic of the development of this branch of science.

In the 1970s, publications were published on the results of mass testing of students (from applicants to graduates) in Leningrad University. They were quite justifiably criticized for excessive empiricism, which manifested itself, in particular, in the vagueness of the formulation of the goals and conclusions of studies, where any measured psychological indicators were correlated with each other. But an indirect approach to assessing the achieved relationship between the system of higher education and the factors of intellectual and personal growth was carried out. In particular, it turned out that the most significant shifts in intellectual development can be traced for groups of initially the weakest and average students. For persons occupying the upper third in general in the first years ranking intellectual achievements, i.e. for students with the best starting positions for studying at a university, on the contrary, there were no changes or even deterioration in psychodiagnostic indicators. Simplifying the problem, we can say on the basis of these data that studying at the university did a good job of helping average and weak students and did not contribute to the intellectual growth of the initially stronger ones.

This simplification concerns, for example, the disregard for such factors as age peaks in the speed indicators of intellectual tests (perhaps a group of stronger students found themselves at “their peaks” a little earlier), the relationship of learning not only with the initial potential, but also with the forms of organization of educational activities. etc. However, these are already questions of a specific scientific analysis, solved in the context of covering the entire field of problems in organizing and interpreting the data of a psychodiagnostic study.

In recent decades, there has also been a humanization of work on psychodiagnostics (both research and practical). Now the main goal of psychodiagnostics is to ensure full mental and personal development. Of course, psychodiagnostics does this in ways accessible to it, that is, it seeks to develop methods that would help in the development of the personality, in overcoming difficulties that arise, etc. The main goal of psychodiagnostics is to create conditions for targeted correctional and developmental work, making recommendations, conducting psychotherapeutic measures, etc.

N.F. Talyzina formulated the main functions of psychodiagnostics in education at the present stage as follows: “It is losing its discriminatory purpose, although it retains its prognostic role within certain limits. Its main function should be the function of determining the conditions that are most conducive to the further development of a given person, assistance in the development of training and development programs that take into account the uniqueness of the current state of his cognitive activity» . Thus, the results of psychodiagnostic tests should serve as a basis for resolving questions about the appropriateness and direction of psychological intervention in the processes of human development and learning.

1. PSYCHODIAGNOSTICSASCHAPTERDIFFERENTIALPSYCHOLOGY

Individual differences between people, or interindividualvariabilityinexpressivenesscertainpsychologicalproperties, -mostwideperformanceaboutsubjectdifferentialpsychology.

"Psychodiagnostics is a field of psychological science that develops methods for identifying and measuring the individual psychological characteristics of a person". These features include a wide variety of qualities and properties of the psyche of a particular person. Psychological understanding what acts as a “property” is usually based on one or another theoretical approach, and empirically observed or assumed differences between people at the theoretical level of their analysis are described using psychological constructs. But sometimes researchers leave open question about the theoretical understanding of properties as psychological differences, giving them an operationalist interpretation, which is expressed, for example, in such an understanding of intelligence: "...intelligence is what tests measure." The description of diagnosable differences between people takes into account, as it were, a two-level representation of psychological properties: 1) differences at the level of diagnosed “features”, given in the form of certain indicators fixed by a psychologist, and 2) differences at the level of “latent variables”, described no longer by indicators, but psychological constructs, i.e., at the level of alleged hidden and deeper foundations that determine differences in features. Differential psychology as opposed to general psychology does not aim to search general patterns functioning of certain spheres of mental reality. But it uses general psychological knowledge in theoretical reconstructions of diagnosed properties and in methodological approaches, allowing to substantiate the relationship in the transitions between these two levels of their representation. taskdifferentialpsychologycannamedetection(qualityidentification)anddimensiondifferencesincognitiveorpersonalsphere, characterizingindividualpeculiaritiesof people.

In this regard, the following questions arise: 1) what is being diagnosed, i.e., what psychological properties is diagnosed by a particular psychodiagnostic technique? 2) how is the diagnosis carried out, i.e. how is the task of comparing empirically detected indicators (“signs”) and the supposed hidden deep basis of differences solved? In the context of making a psychological diagnosis, a third question usually arises: what are the patterns of thinking of a psychologist, on the basis of which he proceeds from identifying individual properties to a holistic description of psychological "sympto-complexes" or "individual profiles"?

There are theoretical and practical areas for the development of psychodiagnostics problems. The theoretical work here is aimed at substantiating psychodiagnostic methods as ways to identify interindividual differences or describe intraindividual structures and explain them within the framework of psychological concepts(or psychological constructs). Justification of the relationship between empirically fixed variables (i.e. obtained through observation, questioning, using self-reports, etc.) and latent variables, i.e. supposed underlying grounds for differences in the structures or severity of mental properties, includes an appeal to both psychological theories and statistical models. In these models, "features" act as sample values ​​of a variable, and the assumed statistical model reflects the nature of the distribution of features ( normal distribution or something else).

When developing a psychodiagnostic technique, the concept of a sample has a different, non-statistical meaning. It implies that the researcher selected a group of people whose performance formed the basis for constructing a measuring scale; another name for this group is normative sampling. Usually, people's age, gender, educational qualifications, etc. are indicated. external characteristics in which one sample may differ from another.

A predominantly qualitative or quantitative description of the identified individual differences means a different degree of orientation of psychologists to one of the two sources in the development of psychodiagnostic procedures. The first source is the substantiation of the ways of making a psychological diagnosis using the clinical method (in psychiatry, in medical child psychology). It is characterized by: 1) the use of ideas about an empirically detected property as an external "symptom", requiring the discovery of the "cause" behind it; 2) analysis of relationships between various symptoms, i.e. search for symptom complexes covering different structures of latent variables; 3) use theoretical models, explaining the typological differences between groups of people, i.e., empirically identified types of connections between mental characteristics (whether it be features of intellectual development or the personal sphere), as well as postulating patterns of development of the studied psychological reality.

The second source is psychometrics, or psychological scaling (psychological measurement). This direction developed both in the depths of experimental psychology and in the course of the development of modern statistical procedures in substantiating psychodiagnostic methods as measuring instruments. The psychological dimension as an area of ​​psychological research has an independent goal - the construction and justification of the metrics of psychological scales, through which "psychological objects" can be ordered. The distribution of certain mental properties within a particular sample of people is one example of such "objects". The specificity that measuring procedures have acquired in the framework of solving psychodiagnostic problems can be briefly reduced to an attempt to express the properties of one subject through their correlation with the properties of other people. So, the features of the use of psychometrics in such a field as psychodiagnostics are the construction of measuring scales based on comparing people with each other; indicating a point on such a scale is fixing the position of one subject in relation to others in accordance with the quantitative expression of a psychological property.

Practical tasks of psychodiagnostics can be presented as survey tasks individual person or groups of people. Accordingly, the goals of such surveys as psychodiagnostic practice are closely related to a broader understanding of the tasks of psychological testing.

Depending on the goals of the diagnostic work, the fate of the diagnosis made by the psychologist can be different. This diagnosis can be transferred to another specialist (for example, a teacher, a doctor, etc.), who himself decides on its use in his work. The diagnosis can be accompanied by recommendations for the development or correction of the studied qualities and be intended not only for specialists (teachers, practical psychologists, etc.), but also for the subjects themselves. At the same time, on the basis of the examination, the psychodiagnostic himself can build corrective-developing, consulting or psychotherapeutic work with the subject (this is how a practical psychologist usually works, combining different types psychological activity).

In psychodiagnostics, it is customary to distinguish between methods according to the degree of their formalization - on this basis, two groups of methods can be distinguished: low-formalized and highly formalized. The first includes observations, conversations, analysis of various products of activity. These techniques make it possible to record some of the external behavioral reactions of the subjects in different conditions, as well as such features of the inner world that are difficult to identify in other ways, for example, experiences, feelings, some personal characteristics, etc. The use of slightly formalized methods requires highly qualified diagnostician, since there are often no standards for conducting an examination and interpreting the results. The specialist must rely on his knowledge of human psychology, practical experience, intuition. Conducting such surveys is often a lengthy and laborious process. Considering these features of low-formalized methods, it is desirable to use them in combination with highly formalized methods, which allow obtaining results that are less dependent on the personality of the experimenter himself.

In an effort to improve the reliability and objectivity of the data obtained, psychologists tried to use different techniques, for example, they used special schemes for conducting surveys and processing data, describing in detail the psychological meaning of certain reactions or statements of the subject, etc.

So, the famous Russian psychologist M. Ya. Basov, back in the 20s of the XX century. developed principles for constructing work on observing the behavior of children. First, it is the maximum possible fixation of objective external manifestations; secondly, the observation of a continuous process, and not its individual moments; thirdly, the selectivity of the record, which provides for the registration of only those indicators that are important for a specific task set by the experimenter. M. Ya. Basov offers a detailed scheme for conducting observations, in which the principles formulated by him are implemented.

As an example of an attempt to streamline work with less formalized methods, we can name the D. Stott observation map, which allows you to record various forms of school maladaptation, including its manifestations such as depression, anxiety towards adults, emotional stress, neurotic symptoms, etc. However, even in cases where there are well-developed observation schemes, the most difficult stage is the interpretation of the data, which requires special training of the experimenter, extensive experience in conducting such tests, high professional competence, psychological sense.

Another method from the class of semi-formalized methods is the method of conversation or survey. It allows you to get extensive information about a person’s biography, his experiences, motivation, value orientations, degree of self-confidence, satisfaction with interpersonal relationships in a group, etc. Despite the seeming simplicity, the use of this method in surveys different kind requires special art verbal communication, the ability to arrange the interlocutor for a conversation, knowing what questions to ask, how to determine the degree of sincerity of the respondent, etc. The most common method of conducting a conversation is an interview.

There are two main forms: structured (standardized) and unstructured. The first provides for a pre-designed survey scheme, including overall plan conversations, sequence of questions, options for possible answers, their rather rigid interpretation (steady strategy and tactics).

The interview can also be semi-standardized (a stable strategy and more loose tactics). This form is characterized by the fact that the course of the interview develops spontaneously and is determined by the operational decisions of the interviewer, who has a general program, but without detailing the questions.

As for the scope of the survey, they are extensive. Thus, the interview is often used to study personality traits, both as the main and as an additional method. In the latter case, it serves to conduct either an exploration stage, for example, to clarify the program, research methods, etc., or to verify and deepen the information obtained through questionnaires and other methods. AT practical purposes the interview is used when applying to an educational institution or a job, when resolving questions about the movement and placement of personnel, promotion, etc.

In addition to the diagnostic interview discussed above, aimed at studying personality traits, there is the so-called clinical interview, designed to carry out therapeutic work, helping a person to become aware of his experiences, fears, anxieties, hidden motives of behavior.

And the last group of semi-formalized methods is the analysis of activity products. Among them can be a variety of products, tools, works of art, tape recordings, film and photographic documents, personal letters and memoirs, school essays, diaries, newspapers, magazines, etc. One of the ways to standardize the study of documentary sources is the so-called content analysis (content analysis), which involves the allocation of special units of content and counting the frequency of their use.

The second group, highly formalized psychodiagnostic methods, includes tests, questionnaires and questionnaires, projective techniques and psychophysiological methods. They are distinguished whole line characteristics, such as regulation of the examination procedure (uniformity of instructions, timing, etc.), processing and interpretation of results, standardization (the presence of strictly defined evaluation criteria: norms, standards, etc.), reliability and validity. At the same time, each of the listed four groups of methods is characterized by a certain content, degree of objectivity, reliability and validity, presentation forms, processing methods, etc.

The requirements that must be observed during the test include the unification of instructions, the methods of their presentation (up to the speed and manner of reading instructions), forms, items or equipment used in the examination, test conditions, methods of recording and evaluating results. The diagnostic procedure is built in such a way that no subject has any advantages over others (one cannot give individual explanations, change the time allotted for the examination, etc.).

2 . PSYCHODIAGNOSTICSASPSYCHOLOGICALTESTING

In the psychological literature, there are different approaches to the definition of psychological diagnostics as a special method, characterized by a special type of attitude to psychological reality, goals and methods of inference. In the broadest sense, this term means any type of psychological testing, where the word “test” means only that a person has passed some kind of test, test, and a psychologist can draw a conclusion about his psychological characteristics (cognitive sphere, abilities, personality traits). The methods of organizing such "tests" can be based on the whole variety of the available methodological arsenal of psychology. In any technique used as a diagnostic tool, it is assumed that there is some “stimulus material” or a system of incentive conditions that are implicit for the “tested” subject (subject) within which he will implement certain forms of behavioral, verbal or otherwise presented activity, necessarily fixed in certain indicators.

In a narrower sense, tests do not mean all psychological tests, but only those whose procedures are quite strongly standardized, i.e. the subjects are in certain and identical conditions for all, and data processing is usually formalized and does not depend on the personal or cognitive characteristics of the psychologist himself.

Tests are classified according to several criteria, among which the most significant are the form, content and purpose of psychological testing. According to the form of the tests, they can be individual and group, oral and written, blank, subject, hardware and computer, verbal and non-verbal. Moreover, each test has several constituent parts: a guide for working with the test, a test book with tasks and, if necessary, stimulus material or equipment, an answer sheet (for blank methods), templates for data processing.

The manual provides data on the purpose of testing, the sample for which the test is intended, the results of testing for reliability and validity, how the results are processed and evaluated. Test tasks grouped into subtests (groups of tasks united by one instruction) are placed in a special test book (test books can be used multiple times, since the correct answers are marked on separate forms).

If testing is carried out with one subject, then such tests are called individual, if with several - group. Each type of test has its own advantages and disadvantages. advantage group tests is the possibility of reaching large groups subjects at the same time (up to several hundred people), simplification of the functions of the experimenter (reading instructions, exact observance of time), more uniform conditions for conducting, the possibility of processing data on a computer, etc.

The main disadvantage of group tests is the decrease in the experimenter's ability to achieve mutual understanding with the subjects, to interest them. In addition, group testing makes it difficult to control the functional state of the test subjects, such indicators as anxiety, fatigue, etc. Sometimes, in order to understand the reasons for the low test results of any test subject, an additional individual examination should be carried out. Individual tests are devoid of these shortcomings and allow the psychologist to get as a result not only scores, but also a holistic view of many personal characteristics of the test person (motivation, attitude to intellectual activity, etc.).

The vast majority of the tests available in the psychologist's arsenal are blank, that is, they are presented in the form of written tasks, for which only blanks and a pencil are required. Because of this, in foreign psychodiagnostics, such tests are called "pencil and paper" tests. In subject tests, along with forms, a variety of cards, pictures, cubes, drawings, etc. can be used to complete tasks. Therefore, subject tests require, as a rule, individual presentation.

To conduct hardware tests, special equipment and devices are required; as a rule, these are special technical means for performing tasks or recording results, such as computer devices. However, it is customary to single out computer tests in a separate group, since in recent times this automated type of testing in the form of a dialogue between the subject and the computer is becoming more widespread. It is important to emphasize that this type of testing allows for the analysis of data that is otherwise impossible to obtain. This could be the time to complete each test task, the number of failures or requests for help, etc. Thanks to this, the researcher gets the opportunity to conduct an in-depth diagnosis of the individual characteristics of the subject's thinking, tempo and other characteristics of his activity.

Verbal and non-verbal tests differ in the nature of the stimulus material. In the first case, the subject's activity is carried out in a verbal, verbal-logical form, in the second - the material is presented in the form of pictures, drawings, graphics, etc.

Psychological tests differ from the tests used in the education system as analogues of the forms of pedagogical control over the assimilation of knowledge and skills - tests of achievement or tests of success.

In the practice of higher education, the use of psychological testing meets both the goals of developing psychological knowledge itself and its applied use in the following contexts: improving the quality of education, promoting the mental and personal development of students, developing psychological criteria for the growth of teachers' professionalism, using psychological methods at the stages of selecting applicants or control of learning success, etc. Here, we note that psychodiagnostic data (as the results of a psychological diagnosis) can be used wherever their analysis helps to solve other (non-psychological) practical problems and where their connection with the criteria for successful organization of activities (training) is substantiated. , teaching) or where an independent task is to increase the psychological competence of a person.

So, with a conscious attitude of the teacher to the organization of his communication with students within the framework of pedagogical process, his solution to the problem of matching the level of his own communicative competence with the level of other colleagues - or with a socially dictated "norm" - can be included both in the "contemplative" context of self-knowledge, and in the more applied context of decisions about the development of one's communication skills.

Psychodiagnostic work carried out by means of frontal, or "slice" measurements on groups of students enrolled in different courses, had a more pronounced research orientation. For example, using projective technique Thematic Apperceptive Test (TAT) identified the features of the development of the motivational sphere of students. The development of the test was based on a general psychological concept, or a list of G. Murray's sociogenic needs.

The severity of different components of this type of motivation as "achievement motive" for students of the 2nd and 4th courses made it possible to identify the following trends in their personal development. If in the junior years the features of the diagnosed "achievement motive" corresponded to the idea of ​​it as a latent disposition, meaning the subject's tendency to focus on outwardly high standards of achievement, but taking into account precisely external assessments and formal parameters of success, then in senior years they begin to prevail internally. reasonable estimates and meaningful milestones of achievement.

The results of this study turned out to be useful for the development of indirect psychological recommendations that help a teacher of higher education navigate the systems personal relationships students to success and failure. But sometimes, as was the case with the introduction of the “teacher through the eyes of a student” questionnaire, attempts were made to directly link psychological data about the perception of another person with administrative management. educational process. In essence, the far from proven assumption was used as reliable knowledge that the level of professionalism of the teacher is manifested directly in the subjective assessments of students. This kind of social experiment, which led to changes in the conditions of the teacher's professional activity, in the most primitive form realized the slogan "Psychology for higher education."

A frequently discussed example of administrative regulation of the use of psychodiagnostic data is the coding of results when testing applicants. This is not about the data of preliminary tests in general education disciplines, but about individual characteristics identified with the help of psychological tests that can be misused, for example, as implicitly taken into account criteria in the qualifying competition. The context of the individual's right to keep confidential information about him is also important here. Abroad, different approaches have been adopted to solving the problem of voluntary participation in psychological testing within higher educational institutions. The use of tests (learning ability, intelligence tests or special abilities) in decision-making procedures on the selection of persons at different levels of education can be justified in terms of content, but raise objections due to the possible threat of “psychological discrimination”, i.e. as a violation of equality in the right to education or to participate in certain social programs.

It is clear that any legal or administrative provisions cannot be substantiated by references to the psychodiagnostic means themselves. The creation of psychological services in universities in our country is focused on the principle of not only voluntariness, but also the provision of individual assistance to the “client”, which can be both a student and a teacher.

The difference between psychodiagnostics and other psychological methods is the focus on measuring individual differences between people. But these goals can be achieved only by the actual psychodiagnostic methods that satisfy certain requirements evaluation of their validity, reliability, representativeness. One of the main such requirements is the justification that the psychological scale used to compare individual properties does not change when it is applied to different subjects. This means that when analyzing the results of applying the methodology - obtaining empirical data on normative samples with its help - certain patterns were established in the location of individual indicators in relation to each other. The properties of the resulting "psychological ruler" can differ significantly, and these differences allow us to classify psychological measurements as corresponding to the following scales: classification, order, intervals, ratios. It is also assumed that not only measured psychological signs, but also the values ​​of divisions on the scale itself, obtained by subject-subject comparisons. The psychometric substantiation of psychodiagnostic methods therefore includes data on procedures that control the degree of "extensibility" of the resulting "ruler", i.e. variability in the measurement system itself.

Other psychological methods - psychological observation, psychological experiment, expert opinions- can also provide empirical data on individual differences between individuals. And these data are used in the schemes of setting a psychological diagnosis. But in relation to these methods, other reasoning schemes are implemented that correspond to the logic of testing psychological research hypotheses. What remains common, however, is the desire of psychologists to bring their diagnosis closer to the one that would be made using the most valid and reliable methodological procedures.

Validity psychodiagnostic methodology is a set of indicators reflecting various aspects of assessing its compliance (or adequacy) as a diagnostic procedure with that psychological reality or those psychological constructs that are supposed to be measured. According to the definition of the prominent American testologist A. Anastasi, “test validity is a concept that tells us what the test measures and how well it does it.” Thus, validity indicates whether the technique is suitable for measuring certain qualities, features and how effectively it does this. In the first sense, validity characterizes the measuring instrument itself, and testing this aspect of validity is called theoretical validation. Checking the second aspect of validity is called pragmatic (or practical) validation. Theoretical validity provides information on the extent to which the method measures a theoretically identified trait (for example, mental development, motivation, etc.).

The most common way to determine the theoretical validity of a technique is by convergent validity, i.e. comparing a given technique with authoritative related methods and proving that there are significant links with them. Comparison with methods that have a different theoretical basis, and a statement of the absence of significant relationships with them, is called discriminant validity. If reference methods do not exist, then only the gradual accumulation of various information about the trait under study, the analysis of theoretical premises and experimental data, long experience work with the technique allows you to reveal its psychological meaning.

Another type of validity - pragmatic validity - testing the methodology in terms of its practical significance, efficiency, usefulness. To carry out such a check, as a rule, so-called independent external criteria are used, i.e. indicators of the manifestation of the studied property in life. These may include performance professional achievements, achievements in various activities, subjective assessments (or self-assessments). When selecting an external criterion, it is necessary to observe the principle of its relevance to the trait studied by the method, i.e., there must be a semantic correspondence between the diagnosed property and the vital criterion. If, for example, the methodology measures the features of the development of professionally important qualities, then for the criterion it is necessary to find such an activity or individual operations where these qualities are realized.

As for the values ​​of the coefficients of validity, for various reasons they are always lower than the coefficient of reliability. According to leading psychodiagnostics, a low validity coefficient of the order of 0.20 - 0.30 is recognized, an average - 0.30 - 0.50, high - above 0.60.

The degree of conformity of the empirical data obtained with the help of a diagnostic tool to the construct that describes the putative (latent) psychological variable is defined as the construct validity of the technique.

The degree of compliance with the topics of tasks (the content of "points" in the test) with the sphere of diagnosed mental properties characterizes the meaningful validity of the methodology.

Psychodiagnostic methods can be aimed both at identifying the current level of empirical components, or “signs” that are subsumed under a particular concept (diagnosed latent variable), and at predicting the degree of representation of the identified properties in practical activities or changes in signs in the future.

Current validity in the narrow sense is “establishing the compliance of the results of a validated test with an independent criterion that reflects the state of the quality being studied by the test at the time of the study” . This criterion can be both external, for example, the success of the subject in a certain type of activity or belonging to a particular group of subjects, or psychological, but associated with the use of a different technique.

Prognostic validity characterizes not the degree of compliance at the level of the actually measured mental property, but the possibility of predicting some other - the second variable according to the indicators or "signs" of the severity of the first, actually diagnosed variable.

Retrospective validity is determined on the basis of a criterion that reflects an event or quality state in the past. It may also indicate the predictive capabilities of the technique.

Reliability- a component of the assessment of the properties of a psychodiagnostic technique, reflecting the degree of measurement accuracy and stability of the results in terms of controlling various sources of variability in psychological indicators: the variability of the measured property itself; data variability due to multiple correspondences of a latent property and empirical "signs"; the stability of the scale itself in the context of the procedural components of the methodology; the possibility of obtaining similar results at a different time or susceptibility to changes from other processes and properties (for example, opposition of different items of the questionnaire to the factor of "social desirability" of the answer).

A well-known specialist in the field of psychodiagnostics, K. M. Gurevich, proposes to distinguish three types of reliability: the reliability of the measuring instrument itself, the stability of the trait under study, and constancy, i.e., the independence of the results from the personality of the experimenter. With this in mind, it is necessary to distinguish between indicators that characterize one or another type of reliability, calling them, respectively, the coefficients of reliability, stability or constancy. In this order, the methods should be tested: first, the measuring instrument should be checked, then the measure of stability of the property under study should be identified, and only after that proceed to the criterion of constancy.

The quality of the methodology is determined by how well it is composed, how homogeneous it is, which indicates its focus on the diagnosis of the same property, trait. To check the reliability of the tool in terms of uniformity (or homogeneity), as a rule, the "splitting" method is used. To do this, all tasks of the psychodiagnostic tool are divided into even and odd (by numbering), processed separately, and then the correlation coefficients between these series are calculated. The homogeneity of the technique is evidenced by the absence of a significant difference in the success of solving the selected parts, which is expressed in a fairly high odds correlations - not lower than 0.75 - 0.85. The higher this value, the more homogeneous the technique, the higher its reliability. There are special ways to increase the reliability of the developed method.

To check the stability of the trait under study, a method called "test-retest" is used, which consists in conducting a repeated psychodiagnostic test of the same sample of subjects after a certain period of time, calculating the correlation coefficient between the results of the first and second tests. This coefficient is an indicator of the stability of the trait under study. As a rule, a re-examination is carried out after a few months (but not more than six months). A second test should not be carried out too soon after the first, as there is a danger that the subjects will reproduce their answers from memory. However, this period cannot be too long, since in this case a change, the development of the function under study is possible. The stability coefficient is considered acceptable when its value is not lower than 0.80.

The constancy coefficient is determined by correlating the results of two psychodiagnostic tests conducted on the same sample of subjects under identical conditions, but by different experimenters. It must be at least 0.80.

Thus, the quality of any psychodiagnostic technique depends on the degree of its standardization, reliability and validity. When developing any diagnostic technique, its authors must conduct an appropriate check and report the results obtained in the manual for its use.

One should not confuse the level of psychometric substantiation of the psychodiagnostic technique and the type, or metric, of the constructed psychological scale, reflecting the level of measurement results. Qualitative data corresponding to descriptive or - in best case- the classification parameters of the presentation of diagnosed mental properties will not necessarily indicate a lower reliability of the method than in the case of obtaining quantitative indicators. Qualitative characteristics will allow the subjects to be classified - as examined subjects or classified "objects" - to one group or another; the condition is, however, that all the characteristics of the classification can be fully covered in these intended groups. Quantitative characteristics will allow not only to compare people with each other by their belonging to different groups (or classes of traits), but also to establish the order of their arrangement one after another in terms of the severity of the diagnosed trait ( ordinal scale) or make comparisons, how many units or how many times this or that feature is more or less expressed in one subject compared to another, which allows you to determine the scale of intervals and the scale of relations

Psychodiagnostic tools, the development of which is based on the use of psychometric procedures for assessing reliability and validity, usually assume their support by testing statistical hypotheses about relationships between sample values ​​of variables. That is, they are based on correlationnyan approach, involving research schemes for comparing groups of persons that differ in one or another external criterion (age, gender, professional affiliation, educational qualification), or comparing various indicators obtained for the same persons by different methodological means or in different time(during repeated testing, according to the scheme “before - after” the implementation of some kind of impact, etc.).

The measures of association are the coefficients of covariance and correlation. Statistical hypotheses are formulated as hypotheses about the absence of a connection between the sample values ​​of the variables, about the equality of the coefficients to some value (for example, zero, which is not equivalent to the concept of zero correlation) or among themselves.

When testing correlation hypotheses, the question of which of the two variables affects (or determines) the other remains open. It is this circumstance that limits the possibilities of forecasting, i.e., a reasonable prediction of the values ​​of quantities on one psychological scale according to the measurement data of other (variables). For example, a positive relationship can be found between scores on a test that measures mental age and academic achievement. Both variables are, as it were, equal in this covariance, i.e., deviations from the mean (as a sample indicator of the measure of the central tendency) in two series of indicators are concurrent in magnitude to each other. This is visualized as an elongated point cloud in a scatterplot. In it, the X and Y axes denote values ​​corresponding to two psychological variables, and each point represents a specific subject, characterized simultaneously by two indicators (the level of mental development and academic achievement). But the tasks are essentially different: to predict academic performance in terms of a psychological test and to predict the possible magnitude of mental development, knowing the indicator of academic performance. The solution of each of these tasks assumes that the researcher makes a decision about the direction of the connection, that is, about which indicator is decisive.

For indicators measured on different psychological scales, correlation coefficients adequate to these scales are used. Psychological properties can be measured in the following scales: 1) names, where different elements (psychological indicators) can be assigned to different classes, so the second name of this scale is the classification scale; 2) order, or rank scale; with its help, they determine the order of the elements following each other, but the division on the scale remains unknown, which means that it is impossible to say how much one person differs in this or that property from another; 3) a scale of intervals (for example, intelligence quotient - IQ), based on the use of which it is possible not only to establish in which subject this or that property is more pronounced, but also by how many units it is more pronounced; 4) a ratio scale, which can be used to indicate how many times one measured indicator is greater or less than another. However, there are practically no such scales in the practice of psychodiagnostics. Interindividual differences are described at best by interval scales.

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The main functions of psychodiagnostics in the system of modern higher education are to control the formation necessary knowledge and professionally important qualities, assessment of the characteristics of the mental and personal development of students in the course of training, assessment of the quality of education itself. The use of psychodiagnostic methods for the selection of applicants to certain educational institutions is becoming more widespread. The psychological dictionary gives the following definition of psychodiagnostics: “Psychodiagnostics is a field of psychological science that develops methods for identifying and measuring the individual psychological characteristics of a person.” Psychodiagnostics is aimed at measuring some quality, making a diagnosis on this basis, finding the place that the subject occupies among others by the severity of the studied features. Psychodiagnostic methods are designed to quickly and reliably collect data about the subject to formulate a psychological diagnosis. In recent decades, there has been a humanization of work on psychodiagnostics (both research and practical). Now the main goal of psychodiagnostics is to ensure full mental and personal development. Of course, psychodiagnostics does this in ways accessible to it, that is, it seeks to develop methods that would help in the development of the personality, in overcoming difficulties that arise, etc. The main goal of psychodiagnostics is to create conditions for targeted correctional and developmental work, making recommendations, conducting psychotherapeutic measures, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHODIAGNOSTIC METHODS. LOW FORMALIZED METHODS (OBSERVATION, ANALYSIS OF ACTIVITY PRODUCTS, INTERVIEW, CONVERSATION), THEIR PURPOSE.

The method of observation is the oldest method of psychological diagnostics. With it, you can get a lot of information about a person. At the same time, the researcher does not need the consent of the observed and cooperation with them to conduct the observation. observation as a method includes: the purpose of observations and the scheme of observations. Purpose of observation. Observation can be exploratory and specific, strictly defined. The purpose of exploratory surveillance, which is usually carried out on initial stage development of any problem - get the most Full description all aspects and relations characteristic of this problem, to cover it entirely.

Conversation is a method of collecting primary data based on verbal communication. Conversation as a method of psychodiagnostics has some differences in the form and nature of the organization. One of the most common types of conversation is the interview.

An interview is a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent (interviewee). In form, it happens: - free (conversation without strict detailing of questions, but according to the general program: a harmonious strategy in in general terms, and tactics are free); - standardized (with a detailed development of the entire procedure, including the general plan of the conversation, the sequence of questions, possible answers: persistent strategy and tactics); - partly standardized (strong strategy, and tactics are more free). Depending on the intended purpose, the interviews are divided into diagnostic and clinical. A diagnostic interview is a method of obtaining general information and is aimed at probing various aspects of behavior, personality traits, character, and life in general: finding out interests and inclinations, attitudes towards parents, brothers and sisters, etc.

And the last group is the analysis of products of activity. Among them can be a variety of products, tools, works of art, tape recordings, film and photographic documents, personal letters and memoirs, school essays, diaries, newspapers, magazines, etc. One of the ways to standardize the study of documentary sources is the so-called content -analysis (content analysis), which provides for the allocation of special units of content and the calculation of the frequency of their use.

HIGHLY FORMALIZED METHODS (TESTS, QUESTIONNAIRES, QUESTIONNAIRES,

Plan

1. Psychodiagnostics as a special psychological method.

2. Correlation approach as the basis of psychodiagnostic measurements.

3. Psychological testing.

4. Influence of testing conditions on the performance of ability tests, intellectual and personality tests.

1. Psychodiagnostics as a special psychological method

The word "psychodiagnostics" literally means "making a psychological diagnosis", or making a qualified decision about the current psychological state of a person as a whole or about any individual psychological property.

The term under discussion is ambiguous, and two understandings of it have developed in psychology. One of the definitions of the concept of "psychodiagnostics" refers it to a special area of ​​psychological knowledge concerning the development and use in practice of various psychodiagnostic tools. Psychodiagnostics in this sense is a science in line with which the following general issues:

What is the nature psychological phenomena and the fundamental possibility of their scientific evaluation?

What are the current general scientific grounds for the fundamental cognizability and quantitative assessment of psychological phenomena?

To what extent do currently used means of psychodiagnostics correspond to accepted general scientific, methodological requirements?

What are the main methodological requirements for various means of psychodiagnostics?

What are the grounds for the reliability of the results of practical psychodiagnostics, including the requirements for the conditions for conducting psychodiagnostics, the means of processing the results obtained and the methods of their interpretation?

What are the main procedures for designing and testing the scientific nature of psychodiagnostic methods, including tests?

The second definition of the term "psychodiagnostics" indicates a specific field of activity of a psychologist associated with the practical formulation of a psychological diagnosis. Here, not so much theoretical as purely practical issues related to the organization and conduct of psychodiagnostics are solved. It includes:

Definition professional requirements presented to the psychologist as a psychodiagnostic.

Establishing a list of knowledge, skills and abilities that he must possess in order to successfully cope with his work.

Finding out the minimum practical conditions, the observance of which is a guarantee that the psychologist has really successfully and professionally mastered one or another method of psychodiagnostics.

Development of programs, tools and methods for the practical training of a psychologist in the field of psychodiagnostics, as well as assessing his competence in this area.

Both sets of questions - theoretical and practical - are closely interconnected. In order to be a highly qualified specialist in this field, a psychologist must master well enough both scientific and practical foundations psychodiagnostics. Both separately, i.e. knowledge of only the scientific foundations of the methodology or knowledge of the methodology without understanding its scientific rationale does not guarantee a high level of professionalism in this area. For this reason, in this chapter of the book, we discuss both sets of issues, theoretical and practical, together, without specifying which area they belong to.
In practice, psychodiagnostics is used in a variety of areas of a psychologist's activity: both when he acts as an author or participant in applied psychological and pedagogical experiments, and when he is engaged in psychological counseling or psychological correction. But most often, at least in the work of a practical psychologist, psychodiagnostics appears as a separate, completely independent field of activity. Its goal is to make a psychological diagnosis, i. cash valuation psychological state person.

Accurate psychodiagnostics in any psychological and pedagogical scientific experiment involves a qualified assessment of the degree of development of psychological properties. As a rule, these are the properties whose regular changes are assumed in the hypotheses tested in this experiment. For example, the problem of scientific psychological research may be certain features of human thinking - such that it is claimed that they exist and change according to certain laws or depend in a certain way on various variables. In any of these cases, an accurate psychodiagnostics of the corresponding intellectual properties is required, focused, firstly, on direct proof of their existence, secondly, on demonstrating the postulated patterns of their change, and thirdly, on showing that they really depend on those variables. that appear in the hypothesis.

It is impossible to do without accurate psychodiagnostics and in applied research, since in any experiments of this kind, a sufficiently convincing proof is needed that, as a result of innovations, it is true and in the right direction assessed psychological characteristics change.

A specialist engaged in psychological counseling, before giving any advice to a client, must make the correct diagnosis, assess the essence of the psychological problem that worries the client. In doing so, it relies on the results individual conversations with the client and monitoring him. If psychological counseling is not a one-time act, but a series of meetings and conversations between a psychologist and a client, during which the psychologist does not confine himself to advice, but practically works with the client, helping him solve his problems and at the same time controlling the results of his work, then the task of implementing " input" and "output" psychodiagnostics, i.e. ascertaining the state of affairs at the beginning of the consultation and at the end of work with the client.

Even more urgent than in the process of counseling, psychodiagnostics is in practical psychocorrectional work. The fact is that in this case, not only the psychologist or the experimenter, but also the client himself should be convinced of the effectiveness of the psycho-correctional measures taken. The latter needs to have evidence that, as a result of the work carried out jointly with the psychologist, important positive changes have indeed taken place in his own psychology and behavior. This must be done not only in order to assure the client that he did not waste his time (and money, if the work is paid), but also in order to enhance the psycho-corrective effect of the impact. It is known that faith in success is one of the most important factors in the effectiveness of any therapeutic intervention. Any psycho-corrective session should begin and end with an accurate psycho-diagnostics of the current state of affairs.

In addition to the above areas of scientific and practical psychology, psychodiagnostics is also used in its other branches, for example, in medical psychology, in pathopsychology, in engineering psychology, in the psychology of labor - in a word, wherever an exact knowledge of the degree of development of certain psychological properties of a person is required.
In all the cases described, scientific and practical psychodiagnostics solves a number of tasks typical of it. These include the following:

Establishing the presence of a particular psychological property or behavior in a person.

Determination of the degree of development of this property, its expression in certain quantitative and qualitative indicators.

Description of the diagnosed psychological and behavioral characteristics of a person in cases where this is necessary.

Comparison of the degree of development of the studied properties in different people.

All four of the listed tasks in practical psychodiagnostics are solved either individually or in a complex, depending on the objectives of the survey. Moreover, in almost all cases, with the exception of a qualitative description of the results, knowledge of the methods of quantitative analysis is required, in particular, those mathematical statistics, the elements of which were presented in the second section of the book.

So, psychodiagnostics is a rather complex area of ​​professional activity of a psychologist, requiring special training. The totality of all knowledge, skills and abilities that a diagnostic psychologist must possess is so extensive, and the knowledge, skills and abilities themselves are so complex that psychodiagnostics is considered as a special specialization in the work of a professional psychologist. And indeed, where the training of practical psychologists has been conducted for a long time and successfully, in the USA, for example, it is customary that specialists in this field are trained from among persons with higher psychological, in exceptional cases - pedagogical, education at two-year special faculties of practical psychologists at universities. Graduates of these faculties receive one of the following specializations: psychodiagnostics, psychological counseling and psychocorrection. Only having a diploma of higher specialized education gives them the legal right to engage in practical psychodiagnostics. Note that in this list of specializations, it is no coincidence that psychodiagnostics is in the first place. Not a single specialist psychologist of any profile can do without it, if he deals not only with theory.
The division of specializations in vocational training corresponds to the existing division of labor between practical psychologists. Some of them are mainly engaged in psychodiagnostics, others in psychological counseling, and still others in psychological correction. Only such a fairly clear division of labor and subsequent deep specialization in one's field, including both additional theoretical knowledge and practice, allows one to achieve a high level of professionalism, including in the field of psychodiagnostics, where it is especially needed. Due to errors in psychodiagnostics, most often associated with a lack of professionalism, the results of both experimental and consultative psychocorrective work are nullified.

In this regard, a number of rather strict requirements are imposed on the work of a psychodiagnostic and on the methods of psychodiagnostics used by him. They will be considered in more detail later, and now we will focus on the need to master theoretical and practical knowledge.

The scientific knowledge of a psychodiagnostic includes a thorough acquaintance with those psychological theories on which the psychodiagnostic methods used by him are based and from the standpoint of which the analysis and interpretation of the results obtained are carried out. If, for example, projective personality tests are such methods, then for their competent and professional use it is necessary to be well acquainted with the basics of psychoanalytic personality theory. If these are tests that measure or evaluate a person’s personality traits, then for their professional use it is necessary to know general psychological theory personality trait.

Knowledge of only a particular technique is not enough for professional work in the field of psychodiagnostics, as it can lead to serious psychodiagnostic errors.

Let's turn to the illustration. Notable Minnesota Multifactorial Personality Questionnaire(abbreviated as MMPI) was created, validated and normalized on samples of people with various psychological disorders. In practice, it is most often successfully used specifically for the clinical diagnosis of personality, i.e. to determine how the studied person differs from the norm in medical significance of this word - he is normal or abnormal psychologically, healthy or sick. However, these features and subtleties in the descriptions of this test are most often absent. A professionally untrained person may decide that the test is a general psychological personality test and allows you to assess the level of development of any qualities in a person, including those necessary for classes various types activities. There is a tempting idea of ​​using this test to determine the professional suitability of a person, say, for a managerial position. A group of working managers or applicants for these places is examined using the MMPI test, the obtained indicators are compared with the norms, and if they are at the level of these norms or exceed them, then a conclusion is made about the professional suitability of the person being tested. Everything would be fine if it were not for one detail that is imperceptible to a layman, but very significant for a specialist: the norm here reflects human health condition, and not aptitude, especially for leadership work. And it turns out an incident: any mentally healthy person is recognized as professionally fit for leadership work, and the rest is allegedly not counted.

Perhaps the main requirement that a professional psychodiagnostician must meet is the ability to win over people, inspire their confidence and achieve sincerity in their answers. Without this, as well as without special theoretical knowledge, practical psychodiagnostics at a high level is not feasible. Firstly, because the majority of psychodiagnostic tests are blank methods that include a list of questions addressed to the human mind. And if the subject is not psychologically open and does not trust the psychologist, he will not sincerely answer the relevant questions. If, in addition, he feels an unfriendly attitude towards himself, then he will not answer the relevant questions at all or will offer such answers in order to annoy the experimenter on his part.

The next, no less important requirement is a thorough knowledge of the psychodiagnostic methods themselves and the conditions for their correct application. This requirement is often neglected, not attaching serious importance to a deep acquaintance with the methods and their testing. Often, professional psychologists who start using new tests do not realize that it takes weeks, sometimes months, of hard and continuous work to master them at a professional level.

Among the main requirements that scientifically based methods of psychodiagnostics must meet are validity, reliability, unambiguity and accuracy. These requirements are discussed in the second chapter of the book. Turning to practical use one method or another for psychodiagnostic purposes, the psychologist must have a clear idea of ​​the extent to which the method chosen by him meets the listed criteria. Without such a representation, he will not be able to determine the extent to which he can trust the results obtained with its help.

In addition to the main ones, there are a number of additional requirements for the choice of psychodiagnostic methods.

First, the chosen method should be the simplest of all possible and the least time-consuming of those that allow obtaining the desired result. In this regard, a simple questionnaire technique may be preferable to a complex test.

Secondly, the chosen technique should be understandable and accessible not only for the psychologist, but also for the subject, requiring a minimum of physical and psychological efforts to conduct psychodiagnostics.

Thirdly, the instructions for the methodology should be simple, short and clear enough without additional explanations. The instruction should set the subject up for conscientious, confidential work, excluding the emergence of side motives in him that can negatively affect the results, make them doubtful. For example, it should not contain words that set the subject up for certain answers or hint at one or another assessment of these answers.

Fourthly, the environment and other conditions for conducting psychodiagnostics should not contain extraneous stimuli that distract the subject's attention from the case, change his attitude to psychodiagnostics and turn him from neutral and objective to biased and subjective. As a rule, it is not allowed for anyone else besides the psychodiagnostic and the subject to be present during the psychodiagnostics, music to sound, extraneous voices to be heard, etc.

This course work is devoted to psychodiagnostics in higher education. The importance of psychodiagnostics cannot be overestimated. Now almost every university or when applying for a job conducts psychological testing. Was it always like this? Or is it a fashion trend that will soon pass? Is there any sense and practical use of psychodiagnostics? Can tests be wrong? We will try to answer all these questions in this work.

Ways and experience in solving psychodiagnostic problems differ significantly in the practice of foreign and Russian higher education. Similar, however, is the very fact that the use of psychodiagnostic tools for solving certain practical problems depends on public opinion and society's attitude to assessing the social significance of these problems, as well as the applicability of psychological grounds for their solution.

The most striking example of the influence of social programs and socio-political attitudes in relation to the use of psychological data was the change in attitudes towards psychological testing and the so-called "compensatory training programs" in the universities of the United States and Western Europe. Initially, these programs were enthusiastically accepted in the context of public approval of the broader goals of social assistance. Their use in testing applicants in higher educational institutions made it possible, in particular, to apply for higher education to people who did not have the opportunity to receive decent training in secondary school. Depending on the identified individual levels of knowledge in a particular area, individual training plans were built, which made it possible to rely on existing groundwork and compensate for the identified shortcomings in individual knowledge systems. The role of the psychologist was significant at the stages of drawing up such individual training programs that brought students from different starting positions to the same high level of knowledge and ensured their intellectual growth. This was achieved on the basis of defining the “zone of proximal development” of the subject (a concept introduced by the psychologist L. S. Vygotsky) and taking into account those individual characteristics that made it possible to direct the student’s cognitive activity in such a way as to compensate for the initial shortcomings of his cognitive sphere.

In the 1970s, first in the United States and then in Western Europe, there was a significant turn of socio-political attitudes “to the right”, and in the field of social policy, other decisions were made by the relevant institutions: if money is spent on the development of compensatory training programs, is it not better should they be directed to another type of use of psychological assistance in higher educational institutions - to testing for admission to higher educational institutions? Then it will be possible to select as students those people who obviously do not need compensatory programs.

A similar dependence on socio-political attitudes was demonstrated by the change in the attitude of the scientific community towards understanding the role of hereditary factors in intellectual development. This time, in an environment of strengthening public opinion and democratization of access to the higher education system for socially disadvantaged segments of the population, a number of researchers who demonstrated the influence of the factor of hereditary prerequisites on the development of intelligence were forced to defend themselves, accepting a memorandum stating that their psychological and psychogenetic studies should not be considered in the context of their alleged racial or biological attitudes.

In Russia in the 20s of the XX century. the first psychodiagnostic studies of intelligence were carried out on student samples, and programs of psychogenetic research were launched. But very soon the very question of the tasks of psychodiagnostics in relation to the problems of higher education was curtailed. At the same time, such a system of admission to higher educational institutions began to take shape, when, due to political attitudes, the criteria for assessing the required level of primary education were deliberately reduced. An analysis of the documents of the first years of Soviet power makes it possible to trace the change in state policy in this area from an elitist-class approach to an ideological-theoretical one. In 1924, on the basis of the decision of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), the People's Commissariat of Education adopted the guidelines "On the rules and norms for admission to universities", according to which 50% of working and peasant youth are enrolled in higher educational institutions according to the lists provided by the provincial and regional party and trade union committees . Later, the same right was given to Komsomol organizations, whose members had to answer not only for their social origin, but also for their position in relation to various intra-party disputes. It was party functionaries, and not teachers or scientists, who worked in the commission created in 1932 by the Politburo to check the programs of elementary, secondary and higher schools.

In 1936, a resolution was adopted essentially prohibiting the use of psychodiagnostic methods in educational practice. Although the prohibition concerned, it would seem, only one of the means of psychodiagnostic work of a psychologist - the development and use of tests, but in reality the very setting of such tasks as selection into groups on the basis of an assessment of the differentiated severity of certain psychological properties, raising questions about the possibility different levels in the personal or intellectual development of adults, the identification of the most intellectually gifted persons on the basis of psychodiagnostic tests. It is clear that it was not necessary to talk about the experience of using psychodiagnostic methods in the practice of domestic higher education against such a background.

At the same time, certain areas of psychodiagnostic research were relatively lucky and received support. First of all, here we should name the problems of analyzing individual differences at the level of typological properties of the nervous system and understanding (including psychological measurement) abilities. In the theoretical development of questions about the role of inclinations, methods for diagnosing the general and special abilities of a person, domestic works turned out to be quite well advanced.

Traditional psychodiagnostics and its functions in the education system have been sharply criticized by many leading psychologists, both foreign and domestic (L. S. Vygotsky, K. M. Gurevich, L. Kamin, J. Lawler, J. Naem, S. L. Rubinshtein, N. F. Talyzina, D. B. Elkonin and others).

The greatest claims were made to the diagnosis of intelligence. Most researchers pointed to the vagueness of this concept, noted the limitations of tests in studying the potential of mental development, in particular, due to focusing only on its productive side, which closed access to understanding the psychological mechanisms and individual characteristics of the formation of thinking. Traditional tests did not allow building correctional and developmental work, since their content remained unclear, which was based on the experience and intuition of the test authors, and not on scientific ideas about mental development and the role of learning in it.

Nevertheless, the complete abandonment of tests after the 1936 decree mentioned above led, on the whole, to more negative than positive results. In this regard, it is necessary to note the important role that was once played by the publication in the journal Soviet Pedagogy (1968. - No. 7) prepared by well-known and very authoritative psychologists A. N. Leontiev, A. R. Luria and A. A. Smirnov "On diagnostic methods of psychological research of schoolchildren." It explicitly formulated the provision on the possibility of using tests at school: “Among the short psychological tests, or tests, are the so-called psychological tests that were developed in different countries, standardized and tested on a large number of children. Under certain conditions, with an appropriate critical review, such psychological tests can be used for initial orientation in the characteristics of lagging behind children.

We see that, quite cautiously, with reservations, the legitimacy of using tests in the education system is still recognized. New approaches to psychodiagnostics were stimulated, on the one hand, by criticism of its theoretical and methodological positions, and, on the other hand, by the logic of the development of this branch of science.

In the 1970s, publications were published on the results of mass testing of students (from applicants to graduates) at Leningrad University. They were quite justifiably criticized for excessive empiricism, which manifested itself, in particular, in the vagueness of the formulation of the goals and conclusions of studies, where any measured psychological indicators were correlated with each other. But an indirect approach to assessing the achieved relationship between the system of higher education and the factors of intellectual and personal growth was carried out. In particular, it turned out that the most significant shifts in intellectual development can be traced for groups of initially the weakest and average students. For the first-year students, who occupy the top third in the overall ranking of intellectual achievements, i.e., for students with the best starting positions for studying at a university, on the contrary, there were no changes or even worsening of psychodiagnostic indicators. Simplifying the problem, we can say on the basis of these data that studying at the university did a good job of helping average and weak students and did not contribute to the intellectual growth of the initially stronger ones.

This simplification concerns, for example, the disregard for such factors as age peaks in the speed indicators of intellectual tests (perhaps a group of stronger students found themselves at “their peaks” a little earlier), the relationship of learning not only with the initial potential, but also with the forms of organization of educational activities. etc. However, these are already questions of a specific scientific analysis, solved in the context of covering the entire field of problems in organizing and interpreting the data of a psychodiagnostic study.

In recent decades, there has also been a humanization of work on psychodiagnostics (both research and practical). Now the main goal of psychodiagnostics is to ensure full mental and personal development. Of course, psychodiagnostics does this in ways accessible to it, that is, it seeks to develop methods that would help in the development of the personality, in overcoming difficulties that arise, etc. The main goal of psychodiagnostics is to create conditions for targeted correctional and developmental work, making recommendations, conducting psychotherapeutic measures, etc.

N.F. Talyzina formulated the main functions of psychodiagnostics in education at the present stage as follows: “It is losing its discriminatory purpose, although it retains its prognostic role within certain limits. Its main function should be the function of determining the conditions most favorable for the further development of a given person, assistance in the development of training and development programs that take into account the uniqueness of the current state of his cognitive activity. Thus, the results of psychodiagnostic tests should serve as a basis for resolving questions about the appropriateness and direction of psychological intervention in the processes of human development and learning.