The vocabulary of the language is called. The main features of borrowed words

Vocabulary As has long been well known, people with linguistic flair and taste, if possible, avoid words that are somehow appropriated by official rhetoric, and therefore - mortally infected. But the trouble is that as soon as any words begin

Vocabulary

Big soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what the "Vocabulary of the Language" is in other dictionaries:

The set of words (lexicon) of a given language. The object of study of lexicology and lexicography ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

The set of words (lexicon) of a given language. Object of study of lexicology and lexicography. * * * VOCABULARY OF THE LANGUAGE VOCABULARY OF THE LANGUAGE, the totality of words (lexicon) of a given language. The object of study of lexicology and lexicography ... encyclopedic Dictionary

The whole set of words that make up a language, including its main vocabulary ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

VOCABULARY COMPOSITION OF THE LANGUAGE, VOCABULARY- the whole set of words that make up a language, including its main vocabulary ... Professional education. Vocabulary

vocabulary- The totality of all the words of a particular language, one of the main components of the language, along with the sound and grammatical structure. The constant enrichment of the vocabulary of the language is one of the laws of the historical development of the language as a social phenomenon. ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

Exist., m., use. often Morphology: (no) what? composition, why? composition, (see) what? composition of what? composition, about what? about the composition; pl. what? compositions, (no) what? compositions, why? compositions, (see) what? ingredients, what? compositions, about what? about compositions 1. Composition ... Dictionary Dmitrieva

VOCABULAR, dictionary, dictionary. adj. to the dictionary. Dictionary publishing house. Vocabulary of the Russian language. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

BUT; m. 1. only units. whom what, what. The totality of what parts, objects, people, etc., forming something whole. C. court. C. flotilla. Social with. population. Personal with. (a set of people that make up some kind of institution, enterprise ... encyclopedic Dictionary

vocabulary- see dictionary; oh, oh. With th article. With th publishing house. Words / language composition of the language ... Dictionary of many expressions

Academy of Sciences of the USSR, scientific research institution, founded in Petrograd in 1921 as the Institute of Japhetological Research, since 1922 the Japhetic Institute. In 1930, the Commission of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR became part of it, since 1931 it was called the Institute of Language and ... ... St. Petersburg (encyclopedia)

Books

• Vocabulary Acquisition as Ongoing Improvement, T. B. Nazarova. Vocabulary Acquisition as Ongoing Improvement. Tutorial considers current problems in the study of the vocabulary of modern English and offers an extensive practical material, the mastery of which improves the quality ...
• Vocabulary of modern English at an advanced stage of learning, Nazarova T. This educational publication contains: frequency vocabulary, stable compatibility models, key English-language business terminology with Russian equivalents. Designed to work in…

The vocabulary of the language- all words (lexicon) of any language (including neologisms, dialect vocabulary, jargon, terminology, etc.). The volume and composition of the vocabulary of a language depend on the nature and development of the economic, social, and cultural life of native speakers. The vocabulary of a language is a system organized in a certain way. , where words are combined or contrasted in one or another meaningful relation (synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, lexical fields).

According to the frequency and common use in the vocabulary of the language, frequently used words are distinguished - an active vocabulary (active dictionary) and words that are used rarely or for special purposes (archaisms, neologisms, terminology, etc.) - a passive vocabulary (passive dictionary). The boundaries between the active and passive vocabulary are mobile, in the historical development of the language there is a movement of words from one group to another (cf., for example, the Russians "petition", "servant", "governor", "governor", which moved from active to passive vocabulary) . Words that are in active use by all native speakers over a long history of its development (for example, the names of body parts, natural phenomena, terms of kinship, designations of basic actions, properties, qualities) are called the main lexical (vocabulary) fund of the language, which is subject to change. to the least extent. Identification of the ratio of active and passive stock in vocabulary of the language at a certain stage of its development (usually within several styles, genres, types of speech) frequency dictionaries serve.

All native speakers usually easily isolate words in the flow of speech, they are aware of them as independent, separate language units.

So, the word is a significant, independent unit of the language, the main function of which is the nomination (name). Unlike morphemes, the minimum meaningful units of a language, a word is independently, grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, and it has not only a real, but also a lexical meaning. Unlike a sentence, which has the property of complete communication, a word as such is not communicative, but it is from words that sentences are built. At the same time, the word is always associated with the material nature of the sign, whereby words differ, forming separate units of meaning and sound (or graphic) expression.

The vocabulary of the language is continuously replenished with the development of society according to the word-formation laws of the language as well as through borrowing. In the vocabulary of Russian. The language, which is based on words of common Slavic and native Russian origin, entered at different stages of development words from Scandinavian, Finnish, Turkic, Old Slavonic, Greek, and later from Latin, Romance, Germanic languages. The vocabulary of the German language includes words from Latin, French, Italian, English and some other languages. These layers of borrowed vocabulary in S. s. I. reflect the cultural and historical ties of peoples, being one of the evidence (sometimes the only one) of the contacts of ancient peoples. S. s. I. are fixed (not completely) in explanatory dictionaries.

All words used in a given language form its vocabulary. Among this large circle of lexical units there is a small but distinct circle of words - the main vocabulary fund that unites all root words, the core of the language. The main vocabulary fund is less extensive than the vocabulary of the language; it differs from the vocabulary of the language in that it lives for a very long time, for centuries, and gives the language a basis for the formation of new words.

The main vocabulary fund covers the most necessary words language. To designate the same thing in a language, there may be a number of synonyms that are differently regarded in the vocabulary of the language and not all are included in the main vocabulary. The words of the main vocabulary fund are facts of neutral vocabulary: they can be used with the same meaning in any genre of speech (oral and written language, prose and poetry, drama and feuilleton, etc.) and in any context. It should be noted that with the ambiguity of a word, not all meanings of a given word are a fact of the main vocabulary fund.

Through vocabulary, the language is directly connected with reality and its awareness in society. The vocabulary reflects social, professional, age differences within the language community. Because vocabulary is turned to reality, it is very mobile, greatly changes its composition under the influence of external factors. The emergence of new realities, the disappearance of old ones leads to the appearance or disappearance of the corresponding words, a change in their meanings. That is why the exact number of all words of the language is fundamentally impossible to calculate.

In the dictionary of native speakers, active and passive dictionaries are distinguished. An active vocabulary is those words that a speaker of a given language not only understands, but also uses himself. The words of the main vocabulary fund certainly form the basis active dictionary, but do not exhaust it, because each group of people speaking a given language also has such specific words and expressions that for this group go up in their active dictionary, they use them daily, but are not obligatory as facts of an active dictionary for other groups of people who, in turn, have other words and expressions. Thus, the words of the main vocabulary fund are common for the active dictionary of any population groups, while the specific words will be different for the active dictionary. various groups of people.

Passive vocabulary is those words that the speaker of a given language understands, but does not use himself. Such, for example, are many technical or diplomatic terms, as well as various expressive expressions.

The concepts of active and passive vocabulary are very important when learning foreign language. However, we must not forget that the words that are in the passive can, if necessary, easily turn into an asset, and the cash in the asset can go into a liability.

The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

Vocabulary of the language (lexicon) is the totality of all words in a given language. Vocabulary is also called the totality of the words of the writer, individual person, the composition of the words of any work.

The formation of the composition of the Russian language is a long and complex process. Along with the words that appeared in the language relatively recently, there are a large number of words very ancient, but actively used at the present time.

Lexicology- a section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language. In the course of lexicology, the words of the Russian language are considered from various points vision: the meanings of words are studied, their place in common system language, origin, stylistic coloring.

In terms of origin In the vocabulary of the Russian language, two layers can be distinguished:

• original Russian words;
• borrowed words.

Original Russian words - words that appeared in the Russian language at any stage of its development.

Some original words are inherited by the modern language from the common Slavic language, which existed before the 7th century AD. For example: sun, sky, summer, earth, birch, oak, sparrow, bull, head, hand, heart, white, blue, black, etc.

Part of the original vocabulary originated in Old Russian spoken by the residents Kievan Rus(VII - XIII centuries): tornado, snowfall, squirrel, cat, flower, buckwheat, pea, pepper, guy, uncle, nephew, etc.

From the 14th century the stock of proper Russian words is replenished: grandmother, child, butterfly, canary, chicken, strawberry, cucumber, dandelion, smile, play tricks, get lost, cloudy, dim, purple, etc.

Borrowed (foreign language) words - words that came into Russian from other languages.

The borrowing of words is associated with the expansion of economic and cultural ties between peoples, the emergence of new objects, concepts for which there were no special names in the Russian language.

A special group among the words borrowed by the Russian language are Old Church Slavonicisms. Old Church Slavonicisms - words borrowed from the Old Slavonic language: power, sweet, enemy, equal, youth, etc. Old Church Slavonic (Church Slavonic) is the language of the oldest liturgical books. Borrowing Old Slavonic words contributed to the spread of Christianity in Russia, the influence of the monuments of Old Slavonic writing.

Phonetic features of Old Slavonicisms:

1. 1) combinations ra, la, re, lecorresponding to Russian combinationsoro, olo, ere, barely: hail - city, head - head, shore - coast, captivity - full;
2. 2) initial combinations ra, la,corresponding to Russian combinationsro, lo: equal - even, rook - boat;
3. 3) the initial combination of sounds [ye], corresponding to Russian [o]: one - one, autumn - spring(cf. also surnameYesenin) ;
4. 4) the initial combination of sounds [yu], corresponding to Russian [y]: holy fool - ugly, young man - taken away;
5. 5) initial sound[a], corresponding to Russian [ya]: lamb - lamb, az - I;
6. 6) [railway] and [ sch], corresponding to Russian [zh] and [h]:the leader is the leader, the lighting is a candle.

Word-forming features of Old Slavonicisms:

1. 1) prefixes up-, down-, from-: ignite, fall down, spew;
2. 2) suffixes -ash-, -yashch-, -usch-, -yushch-, -yn(ya), -tv(a), -zn-, -stv(s): seeing, waiting, stronghold, battle, fear, disaster;
3. 3) basics good-, good-, evil-, great-, vanity-: well-being, slander, splendor, ambition, vanity.

In addition to Old Slavonicisms, a significant number of words from other languages ​​​​penetrated into the Russian language. Many of them are no longer perceived by speakers as borrowed. For example, from the German language came the words bow, swede, coat of arms, button, faucet, kitchen, brand, minute, chair, cord, etc., from French - ballet, swimming pool, hammock, shower, chandelier, blizzard, fashion, million, cologne; from English - boxing, wagon, station, sports, express, etc.

The main features of borrowed words.

1. Double consonants in the root of the word: box office, run.
2. Confluence of vowel sounds: oasis, mosaic, adagio, duel.
3. Unstressed sound [o]: radio, cocoa, scherzo.
4. Pronunciation of a solid consonant before [e] (letter "e"): par [te] r, portmo [ne], pyu [re].
5. Letter uh at the root of the word: poet, energy, sir.
6. The combination of the letters YO and LOO: mayonnaise, broth.
7. Invariability of nouns and adjectives: coat, scarf, taxi, kangaroo; run, khaki.

Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of the scope of use

From the point of view of the scope of use, words can be divided into two groups:

• commonly used words
• Words that are limited in use.

The first group includes words, the use of which is not limited either by the territory of distribution or by the type of activity of people. These units form the basis of the vocabulary of the Russian language, they are all understandable and accessible to every native speaker and can be used in a variety of conditions, in all styles of speech without any restrictions: man, white, go, high, etc.

Vocabulary of a limited scope of use is common within a certain area or in a circle of people united by a profession, common interests, social signs. Thus, dialect words, special words - terms and professionalisms, slang words are limited in use.

dialect words(dialectisms)- these are words used only by residents of a particular locality: beetroot (beets), tsibulya (onions), poles (apricots), kochet (rooster), hefty (very); sash (belt), peplum (beautiful), golitsy (mittens), etc. Dialect words are outside literary language, but can be used in works of art for creating speech characteristics characters, descriptions of local color: Cossacks on the native steppe east wind. Loga was covered with snow. Padins and Yaras equalized. There are no roads or paths. (M. Sholokhov). Log - ravine. Padina is a narrow hollow. Yar is a steep, precipitous bank of the river.

Professional words (professionalisms) - words used by people of the same profession. Professionalisms are "unofficial" names of objects or concepts that do not have a strictly scientific character.

For example, in the speech of printers: basement- Bottom part newspaper page, where a separate article is placed, a cap - a headline common to several articles in a newspaper; in the speech of programmers: net- computer network, screw- hard drive, computer storage device, printout - printed data.

Terms - words or combinations of words used to logically exact definition special concepts. Characteristic features of terms:

1. 1) uniqueness,
2. 2) lack of emotionally expressive coloring.

For example, linguistic terms: archaism, affix, morpheme, case, preposition, predicate, declension, numeral, etc.; medical terms: abscess, bronchitis, depression, infection, herbal medicine, electrocardiography, etc.; political science terms: authoritarianism, democracy, ideology, conformity, nation, opposition, faction, etc.

Ways of formation of terms.

1. Borrowing words: algorithm, aria, vacuum, cybernetics, laser, metonymy, conveyor, keel, etc.
2. Formation of words typical word-formation models:

1) adding up the basics: nuclear powered ship, smoke trap, cotyledons;

2) abbreviation (complex abbreviated way): UHF(ultra-violet rays high frequency), power lines(power line), efficiency(coefficient useful action) and etc.;

3) the use of foreign morphemes: biophysics, meteorological center, ultrasound, photosphere, etc.

1. Rethinking the meanings of well-known words: union(Part of speech), root(the main part of the word), scapula, pelvis(body parts), head, stem, pistil(plant parts).

The frequent use of many philosophical, medical, literary and other terms makes them common words: analysis, argument, concept, consciousness, novel, style, center of gravity, etc.

Slang words (slang) - this is a socially limited group of words, located outside the literary language, belonging to some kind of jargon.

Jargon - it's a collection of features colloquial speech people united by common interests, occupations, social status, etc. Jargon can arise in any team. There is jargon of schoolchildren, students, musicians, athletes, army jargon, criminal jargon, etc. The most widespread nowadays youth jargon(also called slang): comp - a computer, run into - threaten, throw- deceive freebie- what is received for free, etc.

Vulgarisms- these are rude words, usually not used educated people in society, a special vocabulary used by people of lower social status: prisoners, drug dealers, homeless people, etc.

Slang are words that are often seen as breaking the rules standard language. These are very expressive, ironic words that serve to designate objects that are spoken of in Everyday life.

It should be noted that some scholars refer jargon to slang, thus not singling them out as independent group, and slang is defined as a special vocabulary used to communicate a group of people with common interests.

In modern Russian, vocabulary is distinguished:

1. 1) book,
2. 2) colloquial,
3. 3) colloquial

Book vocabulary necessary when talking about something important, significant. Such vocabulary is used in the speeches of speakers, in poetic speech where a solemn, pathetic tone is justified. But bookish words are out of place in casual conversation.

colloquial vocabulary is used in everyday communication (at home, at work with friends, in an informal setting). Spoken words cannot be used in a conversation with a person with whom we have an official relationship, or in a formal setting.

colloquial vocabulary (and its variety - reduced) is usually present in the speech of uncultured, illiterate people in purely everyday communication. It is important to know that this or that vocabulary is assigned to a certain style of speech. colloquial vocabulary represents predominantly colloquial style speech. She doesn't break the conventions. literary speech, although it is characterized by a certain freedom in the choice of means. Colloquial vocabulary is opposed to book vocabulary. Book vocabulary is assigned to scientific, newspaper and journalistic and formal business style, usually presented in written forms e

The attachment of words to a certain style of speech is explained by the fact that the meaning of many words, in addition to the main (subject) content, also includes stylistic coloration. However, it should be noted that not all words are distributed among different styles of speech. The Russian language has large group words used in all styles without exception and characteristic of both oral and written forms of speech. Such words form a background against which stylistically fixed vocabulary stands out. They are called stylistically neutral. Compared to such neutral, stylistically uncolored words, other words can be either high style or low style. Thus, Lomonosov's "theory of three calms" is not only historically justified in relation to the Russian literary language of the 18th century, but also contains a very important theoretical grain: styles of speech are correlative, and any style is primarily correlated with neutral, zero.

To expressive vocabulary are treated as separate expressive words and combinations of words (fool, gray gelding, the dog knows him), maybe and cases special use non-expressive words and combinations (on you, how to drink to give).

Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of active and passive stock

The division of the vocabulary of the Russian language into active and passive vocabulary is associated with the frequency of use of lexical units that reflect the development of the language and society.

Active vocabulary make up national words that are constantly used by speakers in all spheres of communication.

Passive vocabulary make up words that do not have widespread in speech:

1) obsolete words,

2) new words (neologisms).

obsolete words are the words that came out of active use: right hand (right hand), ratai(plowman) , hall(castle) , thief(thief) , Victoria(victory). Among obsolete words, archaisms and historicisms are distinguished.

Archaisms - words obsolete after being replaced by more modern ones lexical units. Usually archaisms have synonyms among words modern language: airplane(airplane) , green(very) , finger(finger) , eye(eye) , bedchamber (bedroom) , this(this).

historicisms - words that have become obsolete with the disappearance of the objects they denoted: prince, boyar, policeman, merchant, oprichnik, coachman, carriage, livery. Historicisms do not have synonyms in modern language.

Neologisms - new words not yet included in the active vocabulary: aura(psychological climate), impeachment(deprivation of powers of higher officials), ufology(science that studies anomalous phenomena), charisma(giftedness), electorate(circle of voters), etc. Over time, neologisms can be included in the active vocabulary: computer, floppy disk, video recorder, skateboard.

perform a special aesthetic function author's neologisms - new words, created by poets and writers.

lonely girl in the room

The sounds of the flute excited her ... (I. Severyanin)

It was January, not February,

Some damn Zimar. (A. Voznesensky)

The ratio of active and passive vocabulary of the Russian language in the period of the 80-90s of the XX century is described in the dictionary: Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language of the XX century. Language changes / Ed. G. N. Sklyarevskaya. - St. Petersburg, 1998.

Native and borrowed vocabulary

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has been formed over the centuries. Its vocabulary includes words of different origin and time of occurrence. The main layer is made up of native Russian words. Aboriginal a word is considered that arose in the Russian language according to the models existing in it or passed into it from an older predecessor language. native Russian vocabulary this stage language development I make up 4 layers related to different eras:

1. The Indo-European layer is made up of words that have correspondences in the roots of words in many other Indo-European languages ​​(for example, mother, son, brother, wolf, water, nose). These words are original not only for Russian, but also for many Indo-European languages.
2. The words of the Proto-Slavic layer have correspondences in many Slavic languages and are primordial for them (for example, spring, rain, grass).

Only about two thousand words belong to the Indo-European and Proto-Slavic layers, but they make up 25% of the words of our everyday communication.

1. The Old Russian layer includes words that arose during the period of unity of Kievan Rus and are common to Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages(e.g. uncle, forty, ninety).
2. Actually, the Russian layer combines words that arose after the 14th century, i.e. after the collapse of Kievan Rus (almost all words with suffixes -chik-/-shchik-, -telstvo-, -lka-, -nost-) or changed their meaning during this period (for example, red).

AT various eras penetrated into the Russian vocabulary borrowing from other languages. The reason for borrowings is the language contacts of peoples associated with trade, wars, cultural interaction, etc. Borrowings from Slavic and non-Slavic languages ​​are distinguished.

In various historical periods increased borrowing from different languages. Yes, in connection with Tatar-Mongol yoke in the 14-15 centuries and with cultural and trade contacts of the Slavs and Turkic peoples there were borrowings from Turkic languages ​​(barn, shoe, shed, chest). During the period of transformations of Peter I, words from Dutch and German languages ​​related to navigation, shipbuilding, military affairs (assault, order, company, shipyard, harbor, etc.) In the 18-19 centuries, a large number of words appeared from French, Italian, Spanish and Polish languages, which was primarily associated with the secular nature of the culture of that time (boudoir, bureau, veil; aria, cello; guitar, serenade; monogram). In the 20th century, especially in its second half, the main source of borrowings is English language. At present, the influx of Anglicisms is so great that sometimes there are doubts about their expediency. In different historical periods, including through the mediation of other languages, Russian was penetrated Greekisms(philosophy, geometry, politics, democracy) and Latinisms(republic, dictatorship, student). Most of borrowings from Greek and Latin is included in the international language fund of scientific vocabulary.

In this regard, among the borrowed words, the so-called internationalisms stand out - words, mainly of a terminological nature, formed mainly from Greek and Latin roots, inherent in the same meaning and similar phonetic design to other, including unrelated, languages ​​(biology, communication, democracy, spelling).

Borrowed words denoting the realities of life and life of other countries and peoples are called exoticisms. Their interpretation usually includes an indication of belonging to a particular state or nationality (sari, dukhan, plakhta). When borrowing a word being mastered in Russian: begins to be written in Russian letters, acquires pronunciation and grammatical design characteristic of the Russian language. However, some remain incompletely mastered: they may not change or not fully obey phonetic laws Russian language. foreign words, not mastered by the Russian language, but used in the Russian text, are called barbarism(tete-a-tete, homo sapiens).

We can talk about specific signs of borrowing in Russian: initial [a], [e], a combination of vowels in the root, some suffixes (-ent- from Latin, -os- from Greek, -ing- from English), which in the structure of Russian words are no longer suffixes, but the final part of the root.

The vocabulary of the language- the entire set of words that make up the language, including its main vocabulary. Basic vocabulary- the lexical base of the language, the most stable layer of its vocabulary, which includes, first of all, the primitive, most important and necessary, firmly established in the life of the people and commonly used names of objects, phenomena, processes associated with reality. These are the names of objects and natural phenomena characterized by their stability (water, earth, sun), the names of animals, body parts, plants, tools, labor processes, names associated with everyday life, food items, nationwide terms of kinship, terms associated with craft, names associated with the settlement, names of actions and states, qualities, properties, signs, pronouns, numerals, simple unions, prepositions, etc. OSF character means. Stability, but over time, along with the development of society, undergoes some. changes: part of the words falls out of it, an even greater number of words replenishes it. The enrichment of the OSF occurs due to the appearance of words-names of new realities, forms of production, social relations, etc. A significant role in this is played by word production based on the words of a given language, as well as foreign borrowings. OSF RYa, which has developed in the distant past, is made up of primordially Russian words, to the cat. subsequently, words of a different origin began to be mixed in, which was a natural consequence of the economic, political, cultural relations of the Russian ethnos with other peoples. Active Dictionary- words, cat. a speaker of this language not only understands, but also uses, actively uses. Passive vocabulary - words that are understandable, familiar, but not used by speakers in normal speech communication. OSF RYa: only Russian words (horse, peasant, good, throw), words common to military glory. languages ​​(40, family, squirrel, dog), words common to all SLA-v (head, house, white, throw), words common to SLA-v and languages ​​of other IE groups (I, you, sky)

37. Main types of linguistic dictionaries

Lexicography is a branch of linguistics. deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. All dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic and linguistic. The first thing that catches your eye when comparing them is the differences in the composition of dictionaries, i.e. in alphabetical lists of words explained in a particular dictionary. In the vocabulary of ES - nouns, both common and proper. (names of prominent people, names of countries, cities, rivers); in the dictionaries of drugs - words of different parts of speech. The dissimilarity in the composition of dictionaries is explained by the content differences between ES and LS and, above all, their goals. ES are compiled in order to provide information about the world of things and phenomena: they explain scientific concepts, give biographical information about famous people, talk about cities and countries, significant events. LS contains information about words: their meaning, compatibility with other words, etc.

LS types. Modern lexicography has different types of drugs. Most people are well aware of bilingual dictionaries. They are created for translation and are especially actively used in the study of foreign languages. Monolingual dictionaries are even more diverse. Information about the correct spelling of the word is contained in the spelling ("Russian Spelling Dictionary" edited by Lopatin) dictionaries, about the correct pronunciation and stress - in the orthoepic ("Orthoepic Dictionary of the RY", prepared at the Institute of the Russian Language edited by Avanesov). The origin of the word, its path in the language, all the changes, cat. things happen to him on this path, are described in etymological ("Etymological Dictionary of the Republic of South Ossetia" by Perobrazhensky, 4-volume Dictionary of Fasmer) and historical ("Materials for the Dictionary of the DRY" by Sreznevsky, "Historical and Etymological Dictionary of the RYA" by Cherny) dictionaries. Dictionaries of foreign words are specially devoted to the description of foreign vocabulary. The frequency of language units, their frequency in the text is registered by frequency dictionaries, stable phraseological turns- Phraseological dictionaries (“Phraseological Dictionary of the RY” by Molotkov, “School Phraseological Dictionary” by Zhukov). There are grammatical dictionaries containing information about morphological and syntactic properties words; reverse, in a cat. words are arranged alphabetically by their final letters (this is necessary for linguistic research); terminological, dialectal, dictionaries of the writer's language, dictionaries of speech irregularities and difficulties. There are dictionaries in the cat. separate groups of vocabulary are described: dictionaries of antonyms (“Dictionary of Antonyms of the RL” by Vvedenskaya, Kolesnikov, “School Dictionary of Antonyms of the RL” by Lvov), synonyms (“Dictionary of RL Synonyms” in 2 volumes by Evgenyeva, “A Brief Dictionary of RL Synonyms” by Klyueva), homonyms ( "Dictionary of homonyms of the RY" by Akhmanova, Kolesnikov). This list would be incomplete without two types of dictionaries with the oldest lexicographic tradition. These are explanatory and ideographic dictionaries. The main purpose of both is to describe the meaning of words, to interpret them. But in the explanatory dictionary, words are arranged alphabetically, and in the ideographic dictionary, they are arranged in groups, cat. are distinguished on the basis of some general meanings (human, animal, action, physical properties). Linguistic dictionaries also differ depending on who they are addressed to, who they are intended for. There are academic dictionaries (in the cat. Information about the word is the most complete) and educational, cat. aim to teach a person who masters the language to use the word correctly; dictionaries for general use and reference dictionaries addressed to representatives of certain professions.

Why is punctuation necessary?

Why are rules needed?

Why is language needed?

Pulse in the word.

An important role in the development of the modern Russian literary language is played by the section of orthoepy, which studies the features of stress (“pulse in the word”)

In Russian, stress is not assigned to a specific syllable, as in some European languages. It is heterogeneous, that is, it can fall on any syllable. For example, in the word "guest" (No. 3), the stress falls on the first syllable, in the word "Seryoga" (No. 1) - on the second, in the word "draw" (No. 2) - on the third. Let's take another example. Russian stress is characterized by mobility: it can move in a word from one syllable to another. For example, “it was” (No. 2) - “was” (No. 8). Also, the stress in Russian makes it possible to distinguish words (“zamki” - “castles”), different forms of the same word ("le'sa" - Genitive, singular and "forest" - nominative, plural).

These signs make Russian accent difficult: there is no single universal rule for its formulation. And if you want to master modern standards pronunciation, the best thing is to have pronouncing dictionary on the table and look into it whenever doubt arises.

The role of antonyms in speech.

I agree with Anna Vladimirovna's opinion that antonyms make it possible to oppose various concepts and images, form the linguistic basis of the contrast. (or Antonyms are words with the opposite lexical meaning. The role of antonyms in speech is great.)

For example, in the text of V. Peskov in sentence No. 8 we meet the antonyms “good and bad”. These words make the statement more vivid. Let's take another example. In the passage we find contextual antonyms that express opposite meaning only in this text: “a fairy tale makes one worry, rejoice.” These words show contrasting emotions here.

Thus, if you want to become an educated person, to be able to write and speak correctly, to get a prestigious profession in the future, you must master the norms of the modern Russian literary language. Without knowledge of vocabulary, this is impossible. Knowing and using antonyms is useful, without them our speech is much poorer.

Why do you need spelling?

It is necessary to know the rules of Russian spelling.

Rules are developed not for the sake of accumulation, but to facilitate the process of written communication between people. In Russian, there are cases when to choose correct writing can only be based on the rule. For example, in the word "heart" (No. 5), the letter "d" is not pronounced. In order not to make a mistake in writing this word, you need to know the rule about unpronounceable consonants (heart - heart). (or For example, in the word "forest" we check the vowel "e" in the root with the word "forest". You need to know the rule about the spelling of unstressed vowels in the root of the word.). Let's take another example. If you know the rule about writing prepositions with words, then you will not make mistakes in the words “on the street, to the forest, near him” (No. 5, 8, 21). To correctly write the noun "Serega" (No. 1), knowledge of the rules for the use of capital letters is necessary.

Thus, if you want to become an educated person, to be able to write and speak correctly, to get a prestigious profession in the future, you must master the norms of the modern Russian literary language. Without knowledge of spelling, this is impossible.

"Cunning" sound [j] in different positions.

In the phonetics of the Russian language, the sound [j] occupies a special position. It is consonant, sonorous, soft unpaired. It manifests itself in different positions in different ways, so it can be called "cunning".

Firstly, it has the clearest sound before stressed vowels at the beginning, end, middle of a word (“apples” [ya] - No. 23; in my [ye] - No. 30, etc.), while both sounds are indicated by one letter (e, e, u, i). Secondly, the sound [j] can be expressed with a single letter y (and short). For example, in the word "come" (No. 4), "hostess" (No. 7).

Thus, the sound [j] in words occupies different positions and is denoted different letters. Without knowledge of phonetics, it is impossible to understand this.

The role of archaic words in speech

Archaic words in speech play an important role, it is useful and interesting to study their meaning.

Old words help to understand what our classics wrote about. Firstly, outdated words help the author to recreate the image of ancient Moscow: “crown”, “on the forehead”, “lords” (No. 9), “light” (No. 8). Secondly, they give solemnity to the text: “for” (No. 1), “looks”, “it is inscribed” (No. 4).

Thus, the role of archaic words in speech is important, acquaintance with them enriches our vocabulary.

qualifying words

Often in texts different styles there are clarifying members of the sentence. They perform different functions.

It is difficult to imagine A. Pristavkin's text without clarifying terms. First, they help the author to clarify the meaning of the expression. For example, in sentence No. 26, the clarifying member “without clothes” is separated by commas. Secondly, with their help, the reader can imagine the depicted in more detail, they give expressiveness to the text. For example, in sentence No. 27, the clarifying member “without blood” helps the author create the image of Lyusenka.

Thus, qualifying terms in texts of different styles perform important features. It is useful and interesting to study them.

"Talking" suffixes and prefixes in the text

Words are formed mainly with the help of suffixes and prefixes, which can "tell" a lot about the word.

For example, the suffix -l- in the verb "knew how" (No. 3) tells us that the action takes place in the past tense, and in the words "asterisks" and "carnations" (No. 9), diminutive suffixes say that (the text ) the phrase is given a special meaning by the author. With the help of suffixes, the names of persons are formed according to their occupation, profession, and place of residence (“artist” - No. 5).

Interesting fixtures. Let's compare two words by lexical meaning and composition: run and run away. In composition, they differ only in prefixes. The prefix adds the meaning of approach to the word, and the prefix u - the meaning of removal.

Thus, “speaking” suffixes and prefixes are interesting to study, because they help to see the structure of the word and, in general, correctly understand its lexical meaning.

"Insidiousness" of adverbial turnover.

A gerund may have dependent words. Together with them, it forms participial turnover, about the "cunning" of which it is useful for everyone to know.

To avoid mistakes, when constructing sentences with a participial turnover, an immutable rule should be observed: the participle must refer to the same subject as the verb - predicate. For example, in sentence No. 23, both the “put” action and the “scatter” action have one performer. Therefore, syntactic norms are not violated. The difficulty also lies in the fact that the adverbial turnover can be used not only in two-part, but also in one-part impersonal offer where there is no subject. An example is the following sentence: "Having considered the plan of the speech, it is necessary to write the theses." You also need to be aware that you cannot use the participial turnover in passive constructions, because in them the subject does not coincide with the producer of the action. The sentence “Using a phraseological dictionary, first read introductory article» is grammatically incorrect.

If you want to master syntactic norms modern literary language, you need to study the rules for constructing a sentence with adverbial phrases and remember about its "deceit".

Word tree.

(Derivational nest).

One-root words can be represented as a tree of words.

To find the root of a word, you need to find related words. Finding a root means highlighting the most important thing in a word, understanding its meaning, remembering a whole group of words that make up a word-formation nest.

So in the text of E. Grishkovets there are words with the same root, formed from the same stem with the help of different suffixes (“owners” - No. 6, “hostess” - No. 7, “owner” - No. 15). Let's take another example. The verbs “come” (No. 4) and “goes” (No. 7) are also “branches of the same tree”.

People who are attentive to language like to establish family relationships between words. This helps to understand the meanings of words more deeply and thereby replenish your vocabulary.

Infinitive

Each verb has its own initial form, which is called the infinitive. He answers the question what to do? (“draw” - No. 2) or what to do? (“to be able” - No. 25).

The infinitive is an invariable form of the verb: it does not indicate time, or number, or person, it only names the action.

In a sentence, the infinitive can be any part of the sentence. This is what makes him interesting. But how to avoid mistakes when defining it? syntactic role? The point is the following. If both the conjugated part and the infinitive denote one action, then this will be a predicate, but if these verb forms denote actions different persons, then the infinitive will become another member of the sentence. For example, in sentence No. 2 "He knew how to draw" = "he knew how, he drew." But in the 19th sentence, the situation is different. "Parents forced him to study" = "parents forced him, he studied." Therefore, in the second sentence, the infinitive is part of the predicate, and in 19 it is an addition.

Thus, if you want to know everything about the verb, you must first learn the infinitive.

Nowhere without a dictionary

“A dictionary is the whole universe in alphabetical order,” said the famous French writer Anatole France. Therefore, without a dictionary - nowhere!

The rich and varied vocabulary of the Russian language is collected in dictionaries that must be used skillfully. For example, in order not to make a mistake in the spelling of the word "draw" (No. 2), you need to refer to the spelling dictionary, and the meaning of the word "atmosphere" (No. 12) can be found in the explanatory dictionary.

If you want to become an educated person, have a broad outlook, and in the future get a prestigious profession, often turn to spelling, phraseological dictionaries, to dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms. They will help you master the norms of the modern literary language.

Language - spiritual wealth people. But wealth remains inaccessible to a person if he has not fully mastered his native speech.

What's in a name?

Study morphology - interesting activity. “There is nothing in life and in our minds that could not be conveyed by the Russian word,” said K. G. Paustovsky.

These words are primarily related to nouns, since in Russian there are 40 nouns for every 100 words. It is known that the noun is the bread of the language. But what is in this name and why is their role so great?

Firstly, nouns give names to all objects: living beings (Seryoga - sentence No.), natural phenomena (thunderstorm - sentence No.), phenomena of social life (rally - sentence No.), a sign as an object (blue - sentence No.), action as a subject (running - sentence No.). Secondly, with the help of nouns, you can draw a picture of nature, a portrait of a person, because very often they also carry an emotional assessment (loafer - sentence No. 3, worker - sentence No. 4).

Many secrets will be revealed to those who study the noun from the point of view of its morphological features.

Why are cases needed?

Learning cases is an interesting activity.

There are six cases in Russian. Each of them has its own name and answers a specific question. All cases, except for the nominative, are called indirect. By cases, some parts of speech change: nouns, adjectives, pronouns, participles and numerals. If you do not know their case endings, then you can make mistakes in the spelling of words. Take the noun "guest". The letter e is written at the end, because the word is used in instrumental. Sentences are made using case endings. For example, in sentence No. 31 (Without TV, music, gluttony.) It is the endings that make the sentence understandable to the reader.

So, it is very important to know cases. Moreover, it is in case endings concluded grammatical meaning the words.

Polite words.

Polite words are necessary and useful for every person to know.

Language is the spiritual wealth of the people. But wealth remains inaccessible to a person if he has not fully mastered his native speech. The use of "polite" words speaks of a person's upbringing. Among people it is customary to greet, greet and thank each other. So the heroes of E. Grishkovets say to each other “good afternoon”, “hello”, “thank you”, “please”. The use of such words speaks of high culture person. " kind word and the cat is pleased, ”says a folk proverb.

If you want to treat yourself well, learn to be kind to the people around you. And you can't do without polite words!

Why is punctuation necessary?

Punctuation is a branch of the science of language that studies punctuation marks. It is impossible to do without dots, commas, dashes, colons in a letter.

For example, a dot at the end of sentence #1 and Exclamation point at the end of 19 sentences complete them in writing. It is a sign of completion and separation. Let's take another example. Inside sentence No. 23, with the help of commas, the adverbial phrase “beautifully scattered several apples, tangerines, nuts on it” is highlighted, and in sentence No. 33, with the help of a comma, the author separates the parts of the compound sentence.

Thus, if you want to learn how to write correctly and speak correctly, you need to know punctuation rules because they help to correctly understand the meaning of what is written.

Why are rules needed?

Good writing is a sign educated person. To write correctly, you need to know spelling and punctuation rules.

In Russian, there are cases when you can choose the correct spelling only based on the rule. For example, in the word "heart" (No. 5), the letter "d" is not pronounced. In order not to make a mistake in writing this word, you need to know the rule about unpronounceable consonants (heart - heart). It is difficult to imagine the story of E. Grishkovets without punctuation marks, arranged according to certain rules, they help the writer to accurately and clearly express thoughts and feelings, and the reader to understand them. For example, inside sentence No. 23, with the help of commas, the adverbial turnover “beautifully scattered several apples, tangerines, nuts on it” is highlighted, and in sentence No. 33, with the help of a comma, the author separates parts of a compound sentence.

Thus, if you want to learn how to write correctly and speak correctly, you need to know punctuation and spelling rules because they help to correctly understand the meaning of what is written.

Why is language needed?

From the early childhood and to a very old age, a person's life is connected with language. With the help of language, we study the experience of generations, acquire knowledge, transmit our thoughts, feelings, communicate with each other.

So the heroes of E. Grishkovets would not be able to communicate (No. 28, 29) if they did not speak the same language. Also, they would not have learned anything about the traditions of the holiday. New Year(No. 14, 22, 23, 24, 31), if they did not understand each other.

Thus, the role of language is enormous. It is necessary for a person as a means of communication, thinking and knowledge of the surrounding world.

How is the vocabulary of the Russian language replenished?

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly updated. This process takes place in different ways.

The Russian people have long entered into political, commercial, scientific and cultural ties with other peoples. At the same time, the Russian language was enriched with words from other languages. These words called new things for the Russian people, customs, concepts. So in the text of E. Grishkov there are borrowed words “idea”, “atmosphere”.

The vocabulary of the language is closely connected with the life of society. The development of science and technology, literature and art, changes in everyday life cause the emergence of new words, which are called neologisms. The emergence of professionalism is associated with the same phenomenon. For example, the words "computer" (No. 1), "tripod" (No. 11).

Thus, the vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished. Word formation is one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. New words are constantly being formed. This is due to changes in society.