Settlement of the Khazars. Modern Khazars - the people of the Crimean Karaites

Story Khazar Khaganate, the largest and strongest state of Eastern Europe in the VIII-IX centuries, still raises many questions. The Kaganate was a polyconfessional state in which Jewish, Muslim, pagan and Christian communities existed on an equal footing. Perhaps this was also due to the multi-ethnic composition of Khazaria, whose population was a motley mixture of different ethnic groups. Ugrians, Turks, Iranian-speaking Alans - they were both the conquerors of these territories and the vanquished. These and other questions are answered by the book of the orientalist Novoseltsev "The Khazar Khaganate".

The publishing house "Lomonosov" published a book by the famous orientalist Anatoly Novoseltsev "Khazar Khaganate". Novoseltsev (1933-1995) is known as the largest domestic orientalist, including one of the best researchers of the Khazars.

In the book "Khazar Khaganate" he considers the versions of the origin of this ethnic group, the structure of their state and how it influenced the history of Eastern Europe.

Novoseltsev, in particular, cites the opinions of foreign and domestic historians and archaeologists. For example, the historian Grushevsky noted the role of Khazaria (until the 10th century) as a barrier to Europe from the new nomadic Asian hordes, rightly considering the Khazar state in the 8th-9th centuries the strongest state in Eastern Europe. And the American historian Dunlop believed that the Khazar state existed until the 13th century (although its defeat by the Rus at the end of the 10th century greatly weakened and fragmented the Khaganate).

The idea of the Hungarian historian Bart that Khazaria was a trading state (and not nomadic or semi-nomadic) is interesting. His observation is noteworthy that almost all the settlements of the kaganate were located in river basins. This, by the way, is a common feature for Eastern Europe of that time, including Russia.

One of the sections of Novoseltsev's book deals with the question ethnic background Khazar. As you know, the kaganate was a polyconfessional state in which Judaic, Muslim, pagan and Christian communities existed on an equal footing. Perhaps this was also due to the multi-ethnic composition of Khazaria, whose population was a motley mixture of different ethnic groups. With the permission of the Lomonosov publishing house, we publish an excerpt from the book by Anatoly Novoseltsev, which tells about the ethnic composition of Khazaria.

“Since the 4th century, along with the tribes of the Hunnic Union, a stream of Finno-Ugric and proto-Turkic tribes poured into Eastern Europe from Siberia and more remote regions (Altai, Mongolia). They found in the steppe regions of Eastern Europe a predominantly Iranian (Sarmatian) population, with whom they entered into ethnic contacts. Throughout the IV-IX centuries in this part of Europe there was a mixture, mutual influence of three ethnic groups: Iranian, Ugric and Turkic. In the end, the latter prevailed, but it happened rather late.

The nomads of the Hunnic association first of all occupied lands suitable for cattle breeding. However, their predecessors - Alan, Roksolan, etc. - they could not, and did not want to completely drive them out of these lands and for some time wandered along with them or next to them. In the Eastern Ciscaucasia there were just such lands suitable for cattle breeding, and the nomads of the Hunnic association rushed here immediately after the defeat of their main enemies - the Alans. Alans suffered in this fight big damage, but survived in the North Caucasus, though mainly in its central part, and their closest relatives, the Massagets-Maskuts, are in the coastal strip of modern Dagestan and neighboring regions of present-day Azerbaijan. It was here, obviously, that there was an intensive synthesis of local Iranians (and possibly Caucasians) with newcomers, who in this area were called Huns for quite a long time, perhaps because the Hunnic element was very influential among them.

However, it was not the Huns who played the main role in the ethnogenesis of the Khazars, but first of all the tribe of the Savirs - those same Savirs (Sabirs), whose name, according to al-Mas'udi, the Turks called the Khazars.

For the first time, Sabirs-Savirs appear in sources for Eastern Europe in connection with the events of 516/517, when, having passed the Caspian Gates, they invaded Armenia and further into Asia Minor. Modern researchers unanimously consider them to be from Western Siberia.

It is possible with great reason to believe that the Finno-Ugric tribes of the south of Siberia were called Savirs, and, perhaps, the very name Siberia goes back to them. It seems that this was a significant tribal association of the south of Western Siberia. However, the advance of the Turkic hordes from the east pressed the Savirs and forced them to leave their ancestral territory in groups. So the Savirs, together with the Huns or later, under the pressure of some enemies, crossed into Eastern Europe and, finding themselves in the North Caucasus, came into contact with the multi-ethnic local population. They were part of various tribal associations and sometimes led them.

In the period from approximately the second decade to the 70s of the 6th century, Byzantine authors especially often mention the Savirs in this area, primarily Procopius of Caesarea, as well as Agathius. As a rule, the Savirs were in alliance with Byzantium and fought against Iran, and this is evidence that they lived near the famous fortifications of Chokly-Chora (Derbent), which, just in the first half of the 6th century, were re-fortified and took on a form that has survived to our days. days.

And then the Savirs somehow immediately disappear from almost all sources about the North Caucasus, although the memory of them was preserved in the Khazar traditions set forth by Tsar Joseph. At the same time, in the "Armenian Geography" Savirs are present among the tribes of Asian Sarmatia east of the Khons (Huns), Chungars and Mends (?) to the Tald River, which separates the Asian Sarmatians from the country of the Apakhtarks. This news is contained in the section "Ashkharatsuytsa", which gives the impression of a complex combination of sources from different times. There is a lot of obscurity here, including the ethnonyms "Chungars" and "Mend"; it is not easy to identify the Tald River (perhaps it is Tobol). But the word “Apakhtark” can be explained from the Middle Persian language as “northern”, and therefore it is possible to assume that this part of the text goes back to non-preserved versions of the Sasanian geography, which the author of “Ashkharatsuyts” undoubtedly enjoyed. And then this news is related to the VI century. True, the continuation of this text again looks strange, because it says that these apakhtark (plural) are Turkestans, their king (“tagovar”) is a khakan, and a khatun is the wife of a khakan. This part is clearly artificially "fastened" to the previous one and could appear in connection with the Turkic Khaganate, whose inhabitants were "northern" residents in relation to Iran.

It is quite possible that it was the Turkic Khaganate that was responsible for the death of the Savir Union. Probably, the resettlement of a part of the Savirs in Transcaucasia is connected with this event, about which the Byzantine historian of the VI century Menander Protector speaks. These, obviously, are the very “Sabartoyaspaloi” about whose departure to Persia Konstantin Porphyrogenitus writes, although he mistakenly connects their resettlement with the events of the 9th century (the war between the “Turks” and the Pechenegs).

The fact that Constantine Porphyrogenitus is mistaken is not difficult to prove. Ibn al-Fakih, who wrote at the beginning of the 10th century, mentions Savir as as-Sawardiya. Al-Mas'udi places siyavurdiyya along the Kura River below Tiflis, indicating that they are a branch of the Armenians. The Armenian historian of the first half of the 10th century, Iovannes Draskhanakertsi, places sevordik (plural, singular - sevordi) near the city of Ganja. If the Sevardians were Armenianized in the first half of the 10th century, as V.F. Minorsky believes, then this could not have happened during the life of two or three generations, so their resettlement in Transcaucasia took place long before the 9th century, most likely in the 6th-7th centuries .

The collapse of the Savir Union was, apparently, a notable event in the history of Eastern Europe at that time, and only the limitedness of our sources does not allow us to determine its extent. After that, the Savirs, in addition to Transcaucasia, appear under the name Savar in the Middle Volga region, where the Volga Bulgaria arose.

But some part of the Savirs remained in the Eastern Ciscaucasia, when a stream of Turkic tribes poured in here. Among them could be the Turkic tribe Xhosa, known from Chinese sources. Researchers associate the ethnonym "Khazars" with him, although other options can be assumed. Perhaps it was this Turkic tribe that, during the second half of the 6th century and later, assimilated the remnants of the Savirs in Ciscaucasia, as well as some others. local tribes, as a result of which the Khazar ethnos was formed.

Among these assimilated tribes there was undoubtedly a part (northern) of the Muskuts, as well as some other tribes, in particular the Basils (Barsilii), Balanjar, etc. Balanjar are mentioned in Primorsky Dagestan in Arabic sources, and for the beginning of the 10th century - in Volga region (in the form of baranjars). The city of Balanjar is associated with this ethnonym, which is obviously identical to Varachan. As for the basils, it is worth dwelling on them separately, although it is possible that basils and balanjar are one and the same.

(Khazar coin)

Basils are mentioned several times by Movses Khorenatsi in the sections of his history related to the semi-legendary presentation of the activities of the ancient Armenian kings (Valarshak, Khosrov and Trdat III), and once they act together with the Khazars, which, of course, is unrealistic for the II-III centuries. This information does not lend itself to precise commentary, it only indicates that in Armenia in the 5th-6th centuries the Basil tribe was known. In "Ashkharatsuyts" a strong people of basils ("amranaibaslatsazgn") is placed on the river Atil, obviously, in its lower reaches.

But remember that Michael the Syrian calls Barsilia the country of the Alans. From this it can be assumed that initially the Barsilii (Basils) were an Alanian (Iranian) tribe, which was then Turkified and merged with the Khazars in the Eastern Ciscaucasia, and with the Bulgars in the Western Ciscaucasia. The latter is confirmed by the information of Ibn Ruste and Gardizi about the Bulgar tribe (in the text of Ibn Rust "sinf" - "kind, category", in Gardizi "gorukh" - "group") barsula (in Gardizi - darsula). In total, these authors have three groups (kinds) of Bulgars: Barsula, Esgal (Askal) and Blkar, that is, Bulgars proper. If we compare this with the division of the Volga Bulgars by Ibn Fadlan, then we will find a curious thing. Ibn Fadlan, apart from the Bulgars proper, names the Askal tribe, but does not mention the Barsilians. On the other hand, he has the genus al-baranjar, and this, perhaps, confirms the identity of the Turkicized basils (barsils) and balanjars.

Sources give conflicting information about ethnic background Khazar. Often they are ranked among the Turks, but the very use of the ethnonym "Turks" was not always definite until the 11th century. Of course, in Central Asia, and in the caliphate of the 9th-10th centuries, the Turks were well known, from which the guard of the caliphs was formed. But it is one thing to know “one’s own” Turks, and another thing to understand the diversity of ethnic groups that literally walked in the vast steppe spaces of Eurasia. Among these hordes, the Turks in IX-X centuries undoubtedly prevailed, absorbing not only the remnants of the Iranians, but also the Ugrians. The latter were part of political associations in which the Turks played the main role, and when the same Ugric peoples broke away from them, the name of the Turks could remain with them for some time, as was the case with the Hungarians in the first half of the 10th century.

In general, the writers of that time clearly saw the fluidity of the steppe population and its continuity. For example, Menander Protector wrote that the Turks were formerly called Saks. In this statement of his, as in the stubborn naming of the North Caucasian nomads by the Armenian sources as the Huns or the Arab sources of the Khazars in the 8th century as Turks, one must see not only a tribute to historical tradition, but also an awareness of the fact that the Huns or Turks who previously lived in the North Caucasus did not disappear, but merged with the same Khazars and therefore could be identified with them. During the period when the Turks became dominant ethnic element in the steppes from Altai to the Don (IX-X centuries), Muslim authors often included Finno-Ugric peoples, and sometimes even Slavs.

(Reconstruction of the capital of Khazaria - the city of Itil)

But some Arab writers of the 9th-10th centuries still separated the Khazars from the Turks. The Khazar language, as proved by linguists, is Turkic, but together with Bulgar it belonged to a separate group, quite different from other Turkic languages, the most common in the 9th-10th centuries (Oguz, Kimak, Kypchak, etc.), well known in the Muslim world . This, obviously, explains the seemingly strange fact that Muslim authors give conflicting data about the Khazar language. In the 11th century, when Mahmud of Kashgar compiled his famous Dictionary of the Turkic Language, the Khazar language was already disappearing, and the scientist did not record its vocabulary. But Mahmud uses the language of the Bulgars in his lexicon, and this is a solid proof of belonging to the Turkic family and the Khazar language, the closest relative of the Bulgar language. Differences between them, of course, existed, but with our current level of knowledge, they are elusive.

As they say, "Prophetic Oleg is going to take revenge on the unreasonable Khazars." Were they really below the Slavs in terms of development? What do we know about this people?

Let's get answers to these questions together.

The Mystery of the Disappeared People

Thanks to references in written sources of the period Kievan Rus, we know that Prince Svyatoslav destroyed the main cities of the Khazar Khaganate.

Sarkel, Semender and Itil were destroyed, and the position of the state was undermined. After the 12th century, nothing is said about them at all. Last existing information testifies that they were captured and subjugated by the Mongols.

Until that time - from the 7th century - Khazaria is spoken of in Arabic, Persian, Christian sources. Her kings have a huge impact in the territories North Caucasus and the Caspian steppes near the mouth of the Volga. Many neighbors paid tribute to the Khazars.

Until now, this people is shrouded in mystery, and many information does not converge. Researchers struggle to navigate through the national specifics of eyewitness accounts.

The Arabs have one measure of distance and time, the Turks have completely different ones, add here the Byzantine, Jewish, Slavic and Khazar concepts proper. City names are often given in one paragraph in an Islamic manner, in another in Hebrew or Turkic. That is, it is quite possible that there were more or less cities, since it has not yet been possible to fully compare the ethnonyms. As well as discovering the remains of all major settlements.

Judging by the correspondence, it turns out the most complete confusion and nonsense. In the descriptions of the king, the cities are huge, 500 kilometers each, and the provinces are tiny. Perhaps, again, this is a feature of the nomadic measure of distances. The Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsians counted the journey in days, and distinguished the length of the road in the mountains and on the plain.
How was it really? Let's understand step by step.

Origin hypotheses

In the middle of the 7th century, in the expanses of flat Dagestan, in the Eastern Ciscaucasia, a hitherto unknown, but very strong people appeared - the Khazars. Who is it?

They call themselves "Kazars". The word, according to most researchers, comes from the common Turkic root "kaz", denoting the process of "nomadism". That is, they can call themselves simply nomads.

Other theories concern Persian ("Khazar" - "thousand"), Latin (Caesar) and Turkic ("enslave") languages. In fact, it is not known for certain, so we add this question to the list of open ones.

The origin of the people themselves is also shrouded in mystery. Today, most consider it still Turkic. What tribes claim to be the progenitors?

According to the first theory, these are the heirs of the Akatsir tribe, one part of the once great empire of the Huns.

The second option is that they are considered settlers from Khorasan.
These hypotheses have little evidence.

But the next two are quite strong and are confirmed by some facts. The only question is which sources are more accurate.

So, the third theory refers the Khazars to the descendants of the Uighurs. The Chinese in their chronicles mention them as "the people of Ko-sa". During the collapse of the Hun empire, taking advantage of the weakening of the Avars, part of the Oguzes went to the west. The self-names of the groups are translated as "10 tribes", "30 tribes", "white tribes", and so on.

Were there Khazars among them? Who can confirm this? It is believed that this people was among them.

In the process of resettlement, they find themselves in the Northern Caspian and Kuban. Later, with the growth of influence, they settled in the Crimea and near the mouth of the Volga.

With the advent of cities, crafts develop. Jewelers, blacksmiths, potters, tanners and other craftsmen form the basis for domestic trade.

The nobility and the ruling elite, as well as the army, lived off robberies and tribute from conquered neighbors.

In addition, a significant source of income was duties and taxes on goods that were transported through the territory of the khanate. In view of the fact that the history of the Khazars is inextricably linked with the East-West crossroads, they simply could not help but take advantage of the opportunities.

The route from China to Europe was in the hands of the Khaganate, and navigation along the Volga and the northern part of the Caspian Sea was under state control. Derbent has become a wall separating two warring religions - Orthodoxy and Islam. That gave an unprecedented opportunity for the emergence of intermediary trade.

In addition, Khazaria became the largest transshipment point in the slave trade. The captive northerners were perfectly bought up by the Persians and Arabs. Girls are like concubines for harems and servants, men are like warriors, houseworkers and for other hard work.

Also, the state in the 10-11 centuries minted its own coin. Although it was an imitation of Arab money, a remarkable point is that in the inscription "Muhammad - the prophet", on the Khazar coins, there was the name "Moses".

Culture and religion

Researchers obtain the main information about the people from original written sources. With nomadic tribes such as the Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsy, things are more complicated. An ordered set of any documents simply does not exist.
And scattered inscriptions of a religious or everyday nature do not carry a large semantic load. From them receive only grains of information.

How much do we learn about the culture of the tribe from the inscription on the pot "made by Joseph"? Here it will be possible to understand only that pottery and some linguistic traditions were widespread, for example, the belonging of names to different peoples. Although this is not entirely true. This vessel could simply be bought and brought, for example, from the same Byzantium or Khorezm.

In fact, only one is known. The “unreasonable Khazars” included several nationalities and tribes who spoke Slavic, Arabic, Turkic and Jewish dialects. The elite of the state communicated and kept documentation in Hebrew, and ordinary people used runic writing, which leads to the hypothesis of its Turkic roots.

Modern researchers believe that the closest existing language to the Khazar language is Chuvash.

Religions in the state were also different. However, by the era of the decline of the Khaganate, Judaism became more and more dominant and dominant. The history of the Khazars is fundamentally connected with him. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the "peaceful cohabitation of faiths" came to an end.

Even disorder began among the Jewish and Muslim quarters of large cities. But in this case, the followers of the Prophet Muhammad were smashed.

We can hardly judge the state of things in the lower classes of society due to the lack of any sources, except for a few brief references. But more on that later.

Khazar documents

Stunning sources about the state of affairs in the state, its history and structure came to us thanks to one Spanish Jew. Cordoba courtier, named Hasdai ibn Shafrut, wrote a letter to the king of the Khazars with a request to tell about the kaganate.

Such an act was caused by his surprise. Being himself a Jew, and highly educated, he knew about the absent-mindedness of his fellow tribesmen. And here merchants coming from the east talk about the existence of a centralized, powerful and highly developed state dominated by Judaism.

Since diplomacy was also among the duties of Hasdai, he, as an ambassador, turned to the kagan for truthful information.

He did get an answer though. Moreover, he wrote (rather dictated) it himself personally “Melech Joseph, son of Aaron”, the Khagan of the Khazar Empire.

In the letter, he says a lot interesting information. The greeting states that his ancestors had diplomatic ties with the Umayyads. Then he tells about the history and way of the state.

According to him, the biblical Yaphet, the son of Noah, is the ancestor of the Khazars. The king also tells the legend about the adoption of Judaism as the state religion. According to her, it was decided to replace the paganism that the Khazars used to profess. Who could do it the best way? Of course the priests. A Christian, a Muslim and a Jew were invited. The latter turned out to be the most eloquent and out-argued the others.

According to the second version (not from the letter), the test for the priests consisted in deciphering unknown scrolls, which, by a "lucky chance", turned out to be the Torah.
Further, the kagan tells about the geography of his country, its main cities and the way of life of the people. They spend spring and summer in nomad camps, and return to settlements during the cold season.

The letter ends with a boastful remark about the position of the Khazar Khaganate as the main deterrent that saves Muslims from the invasion of northern barbarians. Russia and the Khazars, it turns out, were very hostile in the 10th century, which led to the death

Where did the whole people go?

And yet, the Russian princes, such as Svyatoslav, Oleg the Prophet, could not destroy the whole people to the root. The Khazars had to stay and assimilate with the invaders or neighbors.

In addition, the mercenary army of the kaganate was also not small, since the state was forced to maintain peace in all the occupied territories and confront the Arabs and the Slavs.

To date, the most plausible version is the following. The empire owes its disappearance to a combination of several circumstances.

First, the rise in the level of the Caspian Sea. More than half of the country was at the bottom of the reservoir. Pastures and vineyards, dwellings and other things simply ceased to exist.

Thus, crowded natural disaster, people began to flee and move to the north and west, where they faced opposition from their neighbors. So the Kyiv princes had the opportunity to "take revenge on the unreasonable Khazars." The reason was a long time ago - the withdrawal of people into slavery, duties on

The third reason, which served as a control shot, was the confusion in the conquered tribes. They sensed the weakness of the position of the oppressors and revolted. The provinces were gradually lost one by one.

As a sum of all these factors, the weakened state fell as a result of the Russian campaign, which destroyed three main cities, including the capital. The prince's name was Svyatoslav. The Khazars could not oppose worthy opponents to the northern pressure. Mercenaries don't always fight to the end. Your life is more precious.

The most plausible version of who the surviving descendants are is as follows. In the course of assimilation, the Khazars merged with the Kalmyks, and today they are part of this people.

References in literature

In view of the small amount of surviving information, works about the Khazars are divided into several groups.

The first is historical documents or religious controversy.
The second is fiction based on the search for the missing country.
The third is pseudo-historical works.

Main characters- kagan (often as a separate character), king or bek Joseph, Shafrut, Svyatoslav and Oleg.

The main theme is the legend of the adoption of Judaism and the relationship between such peoples as the Slavs and the Khazars.

War with the Arabs

In total, historians distinguish two armed conflicts in the 7th-8th centuries. The first war lasted about ten years, the second - more than twenty-five.

The confrontation was a kaganate with three caliphates, which are in the process historical development changed each other.

In 642, the first conflict was provoked by the Arabs. They invaded through the Caucasus into the territory of the Khazar Khaganate. Several images on vessels have been preserved from this period. Thanks to them, we can understand what the Khazars were like. Appearance, weapons, armor.

After ten years of unsystematic skirmishes and local conflicts, the Muslims decided on a massive attack, during which they suffered a crushing defeat at Belenjer.

The second war was longer and more prepared. It began in the early decades of the eighth century, and continued until 737. During this military conflict, the Khazar troops reached the walls of Mosul. But in response, the Arab troops captured Semender and the headquarters of the kagan.

Such clashes continued until the 9th century. After that, peace was concluded in view of strengthening the positions of Christian states. The border passed behind the wall of Derbent, which was Khazar. Everything to the south belonged to the Arabs.

Russia and the Khazars

The Kyiv prince Svyatoslav defeated the Khazars. Who will deny it? However, the fact reflects only the end of the relationship. What happened during the couple of centuries preceding the conquest?

The Slavs in the annals are mentioned by separate tribes (Radimichi, Vyatichi and others), which were subordinate to the Khazar Khaganate until they were captured by the Prophetic Oleg.

It is said that he imposed a lighter tribute on them with the only condition that they would not pay the Khazars now. This turn of events undoubtedly appropriate reaction empire. But the war is not mentioned in any source. We can guess about it only by the fact that peace was concluded and the Rus, Khazars and Pechenegs went on joint campaigns.

This people had such an interesting and difficult fate.

The Khazars (Hebrew כוזרים‎ (Kuzarim), Arabic خزر‎‎ (Khazar), Greek Χαζαροι (Khazars), other Russian Kozare, lat. Gazari, Cosri) are a Turkic-speaking nomadic people. Became known in the Eastern Ciscaucasia (plain Dagestan) shortly after the Hun invasion. It was formed as a result of the interaction of three ethnic components: the local Iranian-speaking population, as well as the alien Ugric and Turkic tribes. The Khazar language is extinct. Khazar were called Black and, less often, Sea of Azov(at that time, the positions of the Khazars in the Crimea were very strong). Also, the name of the Khazars in the Middle Eastern languages \u200b\u200bis called the Caspian Sea - see Khazar Sea. On land, the name "Khazaria" remained for the longest time behind the Crimea (in Byzantine and Italian sources until the 16th century). According to some researchers (B.N. Zakhoder), the Khazar ethnos had a dualistic basis, uniting two main tribes - white and black Khazars (Kalis-Khazars and Kara-Khazars). Moreover, the white Khazars were tall, light-eyed and fair-haired, while the black Khazars were short and dark-haired. Proponents of another point of view (M. I. Artamonov, A. P. Novoseltsev) consider this division not ethnic, but social and point to a more complex organization. AT close connection with the Khazar tribal union were Barsils, Savirs, Balanjars, etc. Later they were partially assimilated. The closest to the Khazars were the Barsils, paired with whom they are often mentioned in initial period history, and the country of Bersilia appears in the sources as the starting point from which the Khazar expansion in Europe begins. The Khazars are the descendants of the Akatsir Hun tribe, known in Europe since the 5th century (A.V. Gadlo, O. Pritsak). The Khazars are of Uighur origin, from the Central Asian people of Ko-sa, mentioned in Chinese sources. (D. Dunlop) (see the main article Uighur theory of the origin of the Khazars). The Khazars are descendants of the Hephthalites who migrated to the Caucasus from Khorasan (Eastern Iran) (D. Ludwig). The Khazars come from a tribal union formed by the Ogurs, Savirs and, at the final stage, the Altai Turks. (P. Golden, M. I. Artamonov, A. P. Novoseltsev). Until the 7th century, the Khazars occupied a subordinate position in successive nomadic empires. In the 560s. turned out to be part of the Turkic Khaganate, after the collapse of the latter in the middle of the 7th century they created own state - The Khazar Khaganate (650-969), which became one of the most enduring nomadic associations in the region. Initially inhabiting the area north of Derbent within the present-day lowland Dagestan, the Khazars began to settle in controlled regions: in the Crimea, on the Don, and especially in the Lower Volga region, where the capital of the state was moved in the 8th century. Several groups of Khazars as a result of long wars against Iran and the Arab Caliphate were forcibly resettled in Transcaucasia. Later, many high-ranking ghouls of the Abbasid Caliphate had Khazar origin. It is also known about the existence of the Khazar garrison in Constantinople and the Khazar-Jewish community in Kyiv (the Kozary tract exists in Kyiv to this day). In the first half of the 9th century, three Khazar clans, called Kavars, left the country due to political strife and joined the Hungarians, with whom they came to Pannonia and subsequently assimilated. After the fall of the Khazar Khaganate in the second half of the 10th century, the Khazars dissolved in the Polovtsian environment. Some part of the ethnic Khazars who professed Judaism, in all likelihood, joined the Central European Jewish communities. Some representatives of the Turkic-speaking communities - Karaites and Krymchaks, as well as Iranian-speaking Mountain Jews consider themselves descendants of the Khazars. Khazar roots may have Kumyks. A new enemy appeared among the Khazars with the formation of Kievan Rus. The question of the so-called Russian Khaganate, which was first mentioned in the sources under 839, is not clear enough. The title of kagan was later borne by the princes of Kyiv, and his reign in the ninth century is usually regarded as a claim to equality with the Khazars. Be that as it may, the Varangian squads that penetrated into Eastern Europe began to successfully challenge the hegemony of the Khazars over the Slavic tribes. The meadows (864), northerners (884) and Radimichi (885) were freed from the Khazars. Responding to the challenges that arose, the Khazars, with the help of Byzantium, built a series of fortresses on the northeastern borders. OK. In 834, the kagan and the bek turned to the emperor Theophilus with a request to help in the construction of the Sarkel fortress. The fortress is located on the left bank of the Don and became the main stronghold of the Khazars in the region. In addition to Sarkel, as evidenced by archaeological data, a network of similar fortifications was created along the tributaries of the Don. In con. IX - 1st floor. 10th century The Khazar Khaganate weakened, but still continued to be an influential state thanks to a trained army and skillful diplomacy. The rulers pursued a policy of maneuvering between three major forces: Byzantium (which had lost interest in allied relations), nomads and Russia. In con. 9th century in the reign of Tsar Benjamin, a coalition organized by Byzantium, consisting of Pechenegs, Black Bulgars and several other nomadic tribes, came out against Khazaria. The Khazars defeated it with the support of the Alans. Under the next king, Aaron, Byzantium managed to destroy the Khazar-Alan alliance, and now the Khazars defeated the Alans with the help of one of the nomadic leaders. The Alanian king was captured, but received with honor. He gave his daughter to Aaron's son, Joseph.

Neighboring peoples wrote a lot about the Khazars, but they themselves left practically no information about themselves. How unexpectedly the Khazars appeared on historical stage just as suddenly they left her.

God knows where

For the first time about the Khazars in the 5th century, the Armenian historian Moses Khorensky wrote that “the crowds of Khazars and Basils, united, crossed the Kura and scattered on this side.” The mention of the Kura River, apparently, says that the Khazars came to Transcaucasia from the territory of Iran. The Arab chronicler Yakubi confirms this, noting that “the Khazars again took possession of everything that the Persians had taken from them and kept in their hands until the Romans drove them out and installed a king over four Armenias.”
Until the 7th century, the Khazars behaved rather modestly, being part of various nomadic empires - for the longest time in the Turkic Khaganate. But by the middle of the century, they had grown stronger and bolder enough to create their own state - the Khazar Khaganate, which was destined to exist for more than three centuries.

ghost state

The Byzantine and Arabic chronicles describe in all colors the greatness of Itil, the beauty of Semender and the power of Belenjer. True, one gets the feeling that the chroniclers reflected only the rumor about the Khazar Khaganate. So, the anonymous author, as if retelling a legend, answers the Byzantine dignitary that there is such a country called "al-Khazar", which is separated from Constantinople by 15 days of travel, "but between them and us there are many peoples, and the name of their king is Joseph."
Attempts by archaeologists to establish what the mysterious “Khazaria” was actively began to be undertaken in the 20-30s of the XX century. But all to no avail. The Khazar fortress Sarkel (Belaya Vezha) turned out to be the easiest to find, since its location was known relatively accurately. Professor Mikhail Artamonov managed to excavate Sarkel, but he could not find traces of the Khazars. “The archaeological culture of the Khazars proper is still unknown,” the professor stated sadly and suggested continuing the search in the lower reaches of the Volga.

Russian Atlantis

Continuing Artamonov's research, Lev Gumilyov conducts his search for "Khazaria" on the unflooded islets of the Volga delta, but the list of finds attributed to the Khazar culture is small. Moreover, he never managed to find the legendary Itil.
Then Gumilyov changes his strategy and conducts underwater reconnaissance near the part of the Derbent wall, which goes into the Caspian. What he discovered strikes him: where the sea is now splashing, people lived and needed drinking water! Even the medieval Italian geographer Marina Sanuto noted that “the Caspian Sea arrives from year to year, and many good cities already flooded."
Gumilyov concludes that the Khazar state should be sought under the thickness of sea water and sediments of the Volga delta. However, the attack was not only from the side of the sea: a drought was approaching Khazaria from land, which completed what the Caspian had begun.

Scattering

What nature failed to do was carried out by the Russian-Varangian squads, which finally destroyed the once powerful Khazar Khaganate and dispersed its multinational composition around the world. Some of the refugees after the victorious campaign of Svyatoslav in 964 were met in Georgia by the Arab traveler Ibn Haukal.
Modern researcher Stepan Golovin notes a very wide geography of Khazar settlement. In his opinion, “the Khazars of the delta mixed with the Mongols, and the Jews partly hid in the mountains of Dagestan, partly moved back to Persia. Alans Christians survived in the mountains of Ossetia, while the Turkic Christian Khazars, in search of fellow believers, moved to the Don.
Some studies show that the Christian Khazars, having merged with the Don co-religionists, subsequently began to be called "roamers", and later Cossacks. However, more credible are the conclusions according to which the bulk of the Khazars became part of the Volga Bulgaria.
The Arab geographer of the 10th century Istakhri claims that "the language of the Bulgars is similar to the language of the Khazars". These close ethnic groups are united by the fact that they were the first to create their own states on the ruins of the Turkic Khaganate, which were headed by Turkic dynasties. But fate decreed that at first the Khazars subjugated the Bulgars to their influence, and then they themselves joined the new state.

Unexpected descendants

At the moment, there are many versions about the peoples-descendants of the Khazars. According to some, these are Eastern European Jews, others call the Crimean Karaites. But the difficulty is that we do not know what the Khazar language was: a few runic inscriptions have not yet been deciphered.

Writer Arthur Koestler supports the idea that the Khazar Jews, having moved after the fall of the Khaganate to Eastern Europe became the core of the world Jewish diaspora. In his opinion, this confirms the fact that the descendants of the “Thirteenth Tribe” (as the writer called the Khazar Jews), being of non-Semitic origin, ethnically and culturally have little in common with the modern Jews of Israel.

Publicist Alexander Polyukh, in an attempt to identify the Khazar descendants, took a completely unusual path. It is based on scientific conclusions, according to which the blood type corresponds to the way of life of the people and determines the ethnic group. Thus, Russians and Belarusians, like most Europeans, in his opinion, more than 90% have blood type I (O), and ethnic Ukrainians are 40% carriers of group III (B).
Polyukh writes that group III(C) serves as a sign of peoples who led a nomadic lifestyle (where he also includes the Khazars), in which it approaches 100% of the population.

Further, the writer reinforces his conclusions with new archaeological finds of Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Valentin Yanin, who confirms that Kyiv at the time of its capture by the Novgorodians (IX century) was not a Slavic city, which is also evidenced by "birch bark letters".
Also, according to Polyukh, the conquest of Kyiv and the defeat of the Khazars, carried out by Oleg, suspiciously coincide in terms of timing. Here he makes a sensational conclusion: Kyiv is the possible capital of the Khazar Khaganate, and ethnic Ukrainians are the direct descendants of the Khazars.

Latest finds

However, sensational conclusions may be premature. In the early 2000s, 40 kilometers south of Astrakhan, Russian archaeologists discovered “Khazar traces” during excavations of the medieval city of Saksin. A series of radiocarbon analyzes dates the cultural layer to the 9th century, the heyday of the Khazar Khaganate. As soon as the settlement was outlined, its area was determined - two square kilometers. What major city besides Itil was built by the Khazars in the Volga Delta?
Of course, it is too early to rush to conclusions, however, already now the pillars of Khazarology M. Artamonov and G. Fedorov-Davydov are almost sure that the capital of the Khazar Khaganate has been found. As for the Khazars, most likely they simply dissolved in the ethnic culture of neighboring peoples without leaving direct descendants behind them.

(A. Polyak, A. Rona-Tash),

to the Turkic verb with the meaning "oppress", "oppress" (L. Bazin).

Origin

According to some researchers (B.N. Zakhoder), the Khazar ethnos had a dualistic basis, uniting two main tribes - white and black Khazars (Kalis-Khazars and Kara-Khazars). Proponents of a different point of view (M. I. Artamonov, A. P. Novoseltsev) consider this division not ethnic, but social and point to a more complex organization. Barsils, Savirs, Balanjars and others were in close connection with the Khazar tribal union. Later they were partially assimilated. The closest to the Khazars were the Barsils, in a pair with whom they are often mentioned in the initial period of history, and the country of Bersilia acts in the sources as the starting point from which the Khazar expansion in Europe begins.

Regarding the origin of the Khazars and their ancestral home, the following hypotheses have been put forward:

The Khazars are descendants of the Hun tribe Akatsir, known in Europe since the 5th century (A.V. Gadlo, O. Pritsak).
The Khazars are of Uighur origin, from the Central Asian people of Ko-sa, mentioned in Chinese sources. (D. Dunlop) (see the main article Uighur theory of the origin of the Khazars).
The Khazars are descendants of the Hephthalites who migrated to the Caucasus from Khorasan (Eastern Iran) (D. Ludwig).
The Khazars are descended from a tribal union formed by the Oghurs, Savirs and, at the final stage, the Altai Turks. (P. Golden, M. I. Artamonov, A. P. Novoseltsev, D. Nemeth).

The latter point of view (in various variations) occupies a dominant position in Russian and Ukrainian science.

Territory of settlement, political expansion

Until the 7th century, the Khazars occupied a subordinate position in successive nomadic empires. In the 560s, they became part of the Turkic Khaganate, after the collapse of the latter in the middle of the 7th century, they created their own state - the Khazar Khaganate (-), which became one of the most durable nomadic associations in this region.

Initially inhabiting the area north of Derbent within present-day lowland Dagestan, the Khazars began to settle in controlled regions: in the Crimea, on the Don, and especially in the Lower Volga region, where the capital of the state was moved in the 8th century. Several groups of Khazars as a result of long wars against Iran and the Arab Caliphate were forcibly resettled in Transcaucasia. Later, many high-ranking ghouls of the Abbasid Caliphate were of Khazar origin. It is also known about the existence of the Khazar garrison in Constantinople and the Khazar-Jewish community in Kyiv (the Kozary tract exists in Kyiv to this day). In the first half of the 9th century, three Khazar clans, called Kavars, left the country due to political strife and joined the Hungarians, with whom they came to Pannonia and subsequently assimilated.

Culture, religion and social system

The social organization as a whole did not differ from similar ethno-political formations of nomads, but progressively evolved as statehood was established. Initially, elected rulers gave way to a hereditary dynasty of khagans, which in turn gave way to a diarchy of khagan and bek. By the 10th century nomadic image The life of the Khazars switched to semi-nomadic, spending winter time in cities.

Religious beliefs consisted of common Turkic pagan rituals, feature which was the worship of the god Tengri and the deification of the kagan. Thanks to the geographical position and the religiously tolerant policy of the government, Christianity and Islam intensively penetrated into the Khazar environment. In the VIII-IX centuries. part of the Khazars led by ruling family converted to Judaism.

The Saltov-Mayak archaeological culture is considered common for the Khazar Khaganate, but the monuments that are firmly connected with the Khazars proper have not yet been identified.

Extinction, possible descendants

Some part of the ethnic Khazars who professed Judaism, in all likelihood, joined the Central European Jewish communities. Some representatives of the Turkic-speaking Jewish peoples - Karaites and Krymchaks, as well as Iranian-speaking Mountain Jews consider themselves descendants of the Khazars. Some Turkic-speaking peoples of the North Caucasus may have Khazar roots.

The problem of the descendants of the Khazars is the subject of various theories and speculations in popular literature.

Gallery of archaeological finds (Saltovo-Mayak culture)


Women's jewelry, VIII-IX centuries		Details of a men's belt set, VIII-IX centuries		Dishes

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Notes

Literature

Artamonov M.I./ Ed. and with note. L. N. Gumilyova. - L .: Publishing House of the State. Hermitage, 1962. - 523 p.
Zakhoder B.N. Gorgan and the Volga region in the IX-X centuries]. - M .: Nauka, 1962. - 279 p.
Ivik O., Klyuchnikov V. Khazars / Oleg Ivik, Vladimir Klyuchnikov. - M .: Lomonosov, 2013. - 336 p. - (History. Geography. Ethnography). - 1500 copies. - ISBN 978-5-91678-148-9.(in trans.)
Koestler A. The Thirteenth Tribe: The Fall of the Khazar Empire and Its Legacy. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2001. - 320 p. - (Barbaricum). - 3000 copies. - ISBN 5-8071-0076-X.(in trans.)
Novoseltsev A.P.. - M .: Nauka, 1990. - 264 p. - ISBN 5-02-009552-4.
Petrukhin V. , Flerov V. Judaism in Khazaria according to archeology // History of the Jewish people in Russia. From antiquity to early modern times. Volume 1 - M .: Bridges of Culture / Gesharim, 2010. - S. 149-161.
Pletneva S. A./ Rev. ed. B. A. Rybakov. - M .: Nauka, 1976. - 96 p. - (Popular science series). - 120,000 copies.

Links

audio. Archaeologist, Doctor of History Sciences Magomedov M. G. about Proto-Bulgarians and Khazars.
Petrukhin V. Ya.// Jewish magazine. 2007.





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An excerpt characterizing the Khazars

Kutuzov with his retinue was returning to the city. The commander-in-chief signaled that the people should continue to walk freely, and his face and all the faces of his retinue expressed pleasure at the sound of the song, at the sight of the dancing soldier and the merrily and briskly marching soldiers of the company. In the second row, from the right flank, from which the carriage overtook the companies, a blue-eyed soldier, Dolokhov, involuntarily caught the eye, who walked especially briskly and gracefully to the beat of the song and looked at the faces of the passers-by with such an expression as if he pitied everyone who did not go at this time with a company. A hussar cornet from Kutuzov's retinue, mimicking the regimental commander, lagged behind the carriage and drove up to Dolokhov.
The hussar cornet Zherkov at one time in St. Petersburg belonged to that violent society led by Dolokhov. Zherkov met Dolokhov abroad as a soldier, but did not consider it necessary to recognize him. Now, after Kutuzov's conversation with the demoted one, he turned to him with the joy of an old friend:
- Dear friend, how are you? - he said at the sound of the song, equalizing the step of his horse with the step of the company.
- I am like? - answered Dolokhov coldly, - as you can see.
The lively song attached particular importance to the tone of cheeky gaiety with which Zherkov spoke, and the deliberate coldness of Dolokhov's answers.
- So, how do you get along with the authorities? Zherkov asked.
Nothing, good people. How did you get into the headquarters?
- Seconded, I'm on duty.
They were silent.
“I let the falcon out of my right sleeve,” said the song, involuntarily arousing a cheerful, cheerful feeling. Their conversation would probably have been different if they had not spoken at the sound of a song.
- What is true, the Austrians were beaten? Dolokhov asked.
“The devil knows, they say.
“I am glad,” Dolokhov answered briefly and clearly, as the song demanded.
- Well, come to us when in the evening, the pharaoh will pawn, - said Zherkov.
Or do you have a lot of money?
- Come.
- It is forbidden. He gave a vow. I don't drink or play until it's done.
Well, before the first thing...
- You'll see it there.
Again they were silent.
“Come in, if you need anything, everyone at headquarters will help…” said Zherkov.
Dolokhov chuckled.
“You better not worry. What I need, I won't ask, I'll take it myself.
"Yeah, well, I'm so...
- Well, so am I.
- Goodbye.
- Be healthy…
... and high and far,
On the home side...
Zherkov touched his horse with his spurs, which three times, getting excited, kicked, not knowing where to start, coped and galloped, overtaking the company and catching up with the carriage, also in time with the song.

Returning from the review, Kutuzov, accompanied by the Austrian general, went to his office and, calling the adjutant, ordered to give himself some papers relating to the state of the incoming troops, and letters received from Archduke Ferdinand, who commanded the advanced army. Prince Andrei Bolkonsky with the required papers entered the office of the commander in chief. In front of the plan laid out on the table sat Kutuzov and an Austrian member of the Hofkriegsrat.
“Ah ...” said Kutuzov, looking back at Bolkonsky, as if by this word inviting the adjutant to wait, and continued the conversation begun in French.
“I only say one thing, General,” Kutuzov said with a pleasant elegance of expression and intonation, forcing one to listen to every leisurely spoken word. It was evident that Kutuzov listened to himself with pleasure. - I only say one thing, General, that if the matter depended on my personal desire, then the will of His Majesty Emperor Franz would have been fulfilled long ago. I would have joined the Archduke long ago. And believe my honor, that for me personally to transfer the higher command of the army more than I am to a knowledgeable and skillful general, such as Austria is so plentiful, and to lay down all this heavy responsibility for me personally would be a joy. But circumstances are stronger than us, General.
And Kutuzov smiled with an expression as if he were saying: “You have every right not to believe me, and even I don’t care whether you believe me or not, but you have no reason to tell me this. And that's the whole point."
The Austrian general looked dissatisfied, but could not answer Kutuzov in the same tone.
“On the contrary,” he said in a grouchy and angry tone, so contrary to the flattering meaning of the words spoken, “on the contrary, Your Excellency’s participation in the common cause is highly valued by His Majesty; but we believe that a real slowdown deprives the glorious Russian troops and their commanders of those laurels that they are accustomed to reap in battles, ”he finished the apparently prepared phrase.
Kutuzov bowed without changing his smile.
- And I am so convinced and, based on the last letter that His Highness Archduke Ferdinand honored me, I assume that the Austrian troops, under the command of such a skilled assistant as General Mack, have now already won a decisive victory and no longer need our help, - Kutuzov said.
The general frowned. Although there was no positive news about the defeat of the Austrians, there were too many circumstances confirming the general unfavorable rumors; and therefore Kutuzov's assumption about the victory of the Austrians was very similar to a mockery. But Kutuzov smiled meekly, still with the same expression that said that he had the right to assume this. Indeed, the last letter he received from Mack's army informed him of the victory and the most advantageous strategic position of the army.
“Give me this letter here,” said Kutuzov, turning to Prince Andrei. - Here you are, if you want to see it. - And Kutuzov, with a mocking smile on the ends of his lips, read the following passage from the letter of Archduke Ferdinand from the German-Austrian general: “Wir haben vollkommen zusammengehaltene Krafte, nahe an 70,000 Mann, um den Feind, wenn er den Lech passirte, angreifen und schlagen zu konnen. Wir konnen, da wir Meister von Ulm sind, den Vortheil, auch von beiden Uferien der Donau Meister zu bleiben, nicht verlieren; mithin auch jeden Augenblick, wenn der Feind den Lech nicht passirte, die Donau ubersetzen, uns auf seine Communikations Linie werfen, die Donau unterhalb repassiren und dem Feinde, wenn er sich gegen unsere treue Allirte mit ganzer Macht wenden wollte, seine Absicht alabald vereitelien. Wir werden auf solche Weise den Zeitpunkt, wo die Kaiserlich Ruseische Armee ausgerustet sein wird, muthig entgegenharren, und sodann leicht gemeinschaftlich die Moglichkeit finden, dem Feinde das Schicksal zuzubereiten, so er verdient.” [We have a fully concentrated force, about 70,000 people, so that we can attack and defeat the enemy if he crosses the Lech. Since we already own Ulm, we can retain the advantage of commanding both banks of the Danube, therefore, every minute, if the enemy does not cross the Lech, cross the Danube, rush to his communication line, cross the Danube lower and the enemy, if he decides to turn all his strength on our faithful allies, to prevent his intention from being fulfilled. Thus, we will cheerfully look forward to the time when the imperial Russian army completely prepared, and then together we can easily find an opportunity to prepare the fate of the enemy, which he deserves.
Kutuzov sighed heavily, having finished this period, and carefully and affectionately looked at the member of the Hofkriegsrat.
“But you know, Your Excellency, the wise rule of assuming the worst,” said the Austrian general, apparently wanting to end the jokes and get down to business.
He glanced involuntarily at the adjutant.
“Excuse me, General,” Kutuzov interrupted him and also turned to Prince Andrei. - That's what, my dear, you take all the reports from our scouts from Kozlovsky. Here are two letters from Count Nostitz, here is a letter from His Highness Archduke Ferdinand, here's another,” he said, handing him some papers. - And from all this cleanly, on French, compose a memorandum, a note, for the visibility of all the news that we had about the actions of the Austrian army. Well, then, and present to his Excellency.
Prince Andrei bowed his head as a sign that he understood from the first words not only what was said, but also what Kutuzov would like to tell him. He collected the papers, and, giving a general bow, quietly walking along the carpet, went out into the waiting room.
Despite the fact that not much time has passed since Prince Andrei left Russia, he has changed a lot during this time. In the expression of his face, in his movements, in his gait, there was almost no noticeable former pretense, fatigue and laziness; he had the appearance of a man who has no time to think about the impression he makes on others, and is busy with pleasant and interesting business. His face expressed more satisfaction with himself and those around him; his smile and look were more cheerful and attractive.
Kutuzov, whom he caught up with back in Poland, received him very affectionately, promised him not to forget him, distinguished him from other adjutants, took him with him to Vienna and gave him more serious assignments. From Vienna, Kutuzov wrote to his old comrade, the father of Prince Andrei:
“Your son,” he wrote, “gives hope to be an officer who excels in his studies, firmness and diligence. I consider myself fortunate to have such a subordinate at hand.”
At Kutuzov's headquarters, among his comrades, and in the army in general, Prince Andrei, as well as in St. Petersburg society, had two completely opposite reputations.
Some, a minority, recognized Prince Andrei as something special from themselves and from all other people, expected great success from him, listened to him, admired him and imitated him; and with these people, Prince Andrei was simple and pleasant. Others, the majority, did not like Prince Andrei, they considered him an inflated, cold and unpleasant person. But with these people, Prince Andrei knew how to position himself in such a way that he was respected and even feared.
Coming out of Kutuzov's office into the waiting room, Prince Andrei with papers approached his comrade, adjutant on duty Kozlovsky, who was sitting by the window with a book.
- Well, what, prince? Kozlovsky asked.
- Ordered to draw up a note, why not let's go forward.
- And why?
Prince Andrew shrugged his shoulders.
- No word from Mac? Kozlovsky asked.
- Not.
- If it were true that he was defeated, then the news would come.
“Probably,” said Prince Andrei and went to the exit door; but at the same time, slamming the door to meet him, a tall, obviously newcomer, Austrian general in a frock coat, with his head tied with a black handkerchief and with the Order of Maria Theresa around his neck, quickly entered the waiting room. Prince Andrew stopped.
- General Anshef Kutuzov? - quickly said the visiting general with a sharp German accent, looking around on both sides and without stopping walking to the door of the office.
“The general is busy,” said Kozlovsky, hurriedly approaching the unknown general and blocking his way from the door. - How would you like to report?
The unknown general looked contemptuously down at the short Kozlovsky, as if surprised that he might not be known.
“The general chief is busy,” Kozlovsky repeated calmly.
The general's face frowned, his lips twitched and trembled. He took out a notebook, quickly drew something with a pencil, tore out a piece of paper, gave it away, went with quick steps to the window, threw his body on a chair and looked around at those in the room, as if asking: why are they looking at him? Then the general raised his head, stretched out his neck, as if intending to say something, but immediately, as if carelessly starting to hum to himself, made a strange sound, which was immediately stopped. The door of the office opened, and Kutuzov appeared on the threshold. The general with his head bandaged, as if running away from danger, bent over, with large, quick steps of thin legs, approached Kutuzov.
- Vous voyez le malheureux Mack, [You see the unfortunate Mack.] - he said in a broken voice.
The face of Kutuzov, who was standing in the doorway of the office, remained completely motionless for several moments. Then, like a wave, a wrinkle ran over his face, his forehead smoothed out; he bowed his head respectfully, closed his eyes, silently let Mack pass him, and closed the door behind him.