Linguistic terms and their meaning. Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

This dictionary of terms used in standard school courses of the Russian language is a thesaurus-type dictionary, or ideographic. Originally by the term thesaurus as a rule, dictionaries were designated, which gave an idea of ​​the lexical system of any language with maximum completeness. Maximum - both in the sense that they included all the words of a given language, and in the sense that these words were accompanied by examples of their use in texts. A thesaurus is, by definition, an open-ended dictionary, which is why the following naming was used for it: thesaurus translated from ancient Greek means ‘treasure, treasury’ , that is, a complete collection of information about all the words of a particular language.

Currently thesaurus called a dictionary, which does not have to be represented all vocabulary of the given language, but in it all words are grouped by subject headings. The position of a lexical unit of a language (word or phrase) in the thesaurus is determined by its meaning in that language. And, accordingly, knowledge of the types and systems of semantic relations that given word, allows us to judge its meaning.

AT separate works(and not only philological) thesaurus is understood quite broadly: it is interpreted as some representation and description of a system of knowledge about reality, which either an individual information carrier or some group of such carriers has.

Linguistic literature also uses the term ideographic dictionary(from Greek idéa ‘concept, idea, image’ and gráphō ‘I am writing’). This is a dictionary in which words are not arranged in alphabetical order, but on the basis of their semantic proximity. In such a dictionary, each word occupies a certain cell of some pre-built classification of concepts, although within the framework of a particular semantic group, words can go one after another and alphabetically. The main purpose of an ideographic dictionary is to give a semantic picture of the environment of a particular concept and a picture of the entire vocabulary of a given language as a whole. Dictionaries of this kind do not come from the word as a unit of language, but from the concept expressed by this word.

Inside the ideographic dictionaries, we can distinguish:

. ideological dictionaries based on the logical classification of the conceptual space of the language;

. analog, or associative dictionaries based on psychological associations of those objects and phenomena of non-linguistic reality that are named by the central word;

. thematic dictionaries where words are grouped according to certain topics;

. picture dictionaries in which the meanings of thematically grouped words are revealed through the given pictures and other kinds of visual illustrations.

We offer an option ideological ideographic dictionary, or thesaurus dictionary in modern understanding this word. This dictionary-thesaurus contains linguistic terminology used in the school course of the Russian language.

Today, in secondary schools, there are several lines of textbooks and educational kits "Russian language" recommended by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for secondary schools.

In all sets, the educational material is structured by levels from phonetics to syntax, including sections on spelling, punctuation and speech development. At the same time, there are certain discrepancies in the presentation of the theory (in particular, there are no unified approach to transcription, allocation of parts of speech, description of phrases and types of subordinate clauses, etc.), there is no uniform order of sections and topics, there is obvious inconsistency in the terminology used. All this creates tangible difficulties both for the student (especially when moving from one school to another), and in the formation of requirements for applicants to a liberal arts university.

It is known that in a number of schools the Russian language is studied according to alternative and experimental curricula, which offer a significantly modified course. In addition, an introduction to secondary USE school contributed to the fact that most of the time in the Russian language lessons is now devoted to training and consolidating the spelling and punctuation skills necessary to complete test items. A Russian teacher has practically no opportunity within the framework of school curriculum fully and deeply present the Russian language as a complex, hierarchically organized system with its own internal logic.

The main objectives of this dictionary are the systematization, unification, description and interpretation of modern school linguistic terminology, which is common to all(or for the vast majority) school textbooks and manuals on the Russian language. But in some cases, we prefer a more in-depth look at a particular section of the course, when this contributes to the creation of a coherent and logically consistent picture and a more detailed development of individual groups of concepts.

Thesaurus-type dictionaries help to structure, classify and model concepts and relationships related to a particular scientific field. A harmonious terminological system is a kind of model of knowledge in a particular field of science, reflecting its internal logic. It, as a rule, has a complex organization and is a multi-level system, and individual terms not only enter the system of concepts of the corresponding branch of knowledge, but also structure it in a certain way. This is what we see relevance and practical value proposed school vocabulary.

This work is the first experience of integrating and systematizing the basic composition of linguistic concepts and terms used in secondary schools, but we would like to note that when working on this dictionary, we tried to follow the tradition established in the 1980s-1990s. Head of the Department of General and Comparative-Historical Linguistics, Faculty of Philology, Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov Academician Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky, who rightly considered the teaching of the native language to be the most important part of applied linguistics.

In the 1990s, under the leadership of Yuri Vladimirovich Rozhdestvensky, a preliminary version of the thesaurus dictionary of school education terms "Knowledge of Knowledge" was conceptually developed and compiled, which he was engaged in until his death. Such a system of concepts, built on the principle “from the general to the particular”, was seen by him as a systematized set of information of various kinds necessary for a schoolchild and a school teacher - from mathematical and biological concepts to exercises in physical culture. This kind of dictionary-thesaurus seemed to Yu.V. Rozhdestvensky to be the main book of both a schoolchild and a school teacher.

Unfortunately, during the life of Yu.V. Glossary of terms (General education thesaurus): Morality. Moral. Ethics. Moscow: Flinta, Nauka, 2002; Rozhdestvensky Yu.V. Glossary of terms (General education thesaurus): Society. Semiotics. Economy. Culture. Education. M.: Flinta, Nauka, 2002. Our project, of course, arose as a tribute to the memory of Yuri Vladimirovich.

Separately, we consider it necessary to stipulate the following. It is impossible to reduce linguistic terminology in general and school terminology in particular to a common denominator. In linguistics and in the school practice of teaching linguistic disciplines (Russian, foreign languages ​​and, in some schools, classical ancient languages ​​and the foundations of linguistics), there is a variety of approaches and concepts, and therefore a variety of terms and concepts behind them. Special attention we point out that:

the proposed definitions of terms are not considered by the authors as some kind of alternative to those definitions that are presented in existing dictionaries, encyclopedias and textbooks;

because this dictionary is not encyclopedic, examples given in a number of dictionary entries (in particular, on various uses certain forms of the verb or different types of dictionaries in the "Lexicography" section) do not claim to be complete and are not considered by the authors as all-encompassing and exhaustive.

Formally, work on the text of the dictionary was distributed as follows. I.I. Bogatyreva wrote the following parts: "The main sections of the science of language", "Morfemics", "Word formation" and "Lexicology" (in full), as well as parts of the section "Morphology" (starting from the article "Declination" to the end of the first subsection and within the subsection "Parts of Speech" - from its beginning to the article "Compound Numbers" inclusive) and the first part of the "Syntax" section (from its beginning to the article "Proper Direct Speech" inclusive). O.A. Voloshina wrote the following parts: “ General issues”, “Phonetics”, “Writing” and “Lexicography” (in full), as well as parts of the section “Morphology” (from the beginning of the section to the article “Case” inclusive and within the subsection “Parts of speech” - from the article “Pronominal words” to its end) and the second part of the section "Syntax" (starting from the article "Sentence" to the end of the section).

In conclusion, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our reviewers A.A. Volkov, O.V. Nikitin, N.A. Borisenko for their attentive and friendly reading of this dictionary and for their valuable constructive comments. We are grateful to M.Yu. Sidorova, whose critical remarks helped us eliminate some shortcomings that were in handwritten version text. Separate words of gratitude and appreciation go to the editorial board of the Russky Yazyk newspaper of the September 1 Publishing House represented by L.A. Gonchar and E.A. Ivanova, without whose participation and support it would be difficult for us to imagine writing this text.

All terms in the dictionary are divided into groups depending on the thematic sections of the school course of the Russian language in which this concept is used. The dictionary has the following structure:

The main sections of the science of language

General issues

Phonetics

Morphemics

word formation

Morphology

Syntax

Lexicology

Lexicography.

These sections basically correspond to the levels of the language structure. The terms are collected in nests according to their meaning and are grouped around the basic concept with which they are most often associated by genus-species or cause-and-effect relationships. Nests, in turn, are combined into subsections, and so on.

At the beginning of each part, a list of terms included in it is given, without interpretation: so that you can see the logic of their succession to each other and the relationships they enter into. After that, interpretations of the same terms given in the same order are offered. Combining an ideographic dictionary with an explanatory one helps to develop optimal interpretations of the meanings of words. After all, the semantic content of the term is better and more fully revealed by determining its place in the structure of the concepts of the corresponding field of knowledge.

To find the desired term in the dictionary, you need to refer to the Alphabetical Index, which is a list of terms in alphabetical order indicating the page on which the definition of the term you are looking for is given.

The title word of the dictionary entry is given in bold, while for borrowed terms their etymology is given in brackets. The dictionary entry contains the definition of the term and a detailed explanation of the corresponding linguistic concept.

Many dictionary entries are provided with examples. As examples, individual words, phrases and whole sentences (often - quotes from works of fiction) are given, clearly illustrating various aspects of the characterized linguistic phenomenon. All illustrations are in italics. If it is necessary to highlight a single word, morpheme or sound in the quoted text, bold italic is used.

In a dictionary entry devoted to the interpretation of a term, there are often references to other dictionary entries, since each term does not appear in isolation, but is closely related to other terms in the same conceptual area. Such references are given in bold type and enclosed in brackets.

Readers' attention should be drawn to the fact that almost all terms from the first section are presented in subsequent sections of the dictionary, but in their other meanings, since they are used in scientific and educational literature to refer to both a certain section of linguistics and one or another subsystem of the language itself. , For example:

Morphemics 1- a section of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationship to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Morphemics 2- part of the language system, which is a set of morphemes isolated in words, their types and the technique of connecting with each other within the word.

The tables, diagrams and figures used in the text of the dictionary help to illustrate the explained phenomena in a compact and visual way.

For the convenience of readers, the minimum number of generally accepted abbreviations is used, which are easily deciphered and widely used in any scientific and educational literature.

The main sections of the science of language

Phonetics(from Greek phōnētikós - sound, voice) - a section of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a language. The subject of phonetics is made up of such material language units as speech sounds, syllables, word stress, and phrasal intonation.

Since the sound matter of a language can be studied from different angles, it is customary to distinguish between acoustic, articulatory, perceptual and functional phonetics.

acoustic phonetics explores the sounds of human speech as physical phenomena and describes their characteristics such as height (depending on the frequency of vibrations), loudness or strength (depending on the amplitude), duration and timbre of the sound. Articulatory phonetics deals with anatomy and physiology speech apparatus human, describes which organs of speech are involved in the pronunciation of certain types of sounds. Perceptual phonetics studies the features of perception and analysis of speech sounds by the human organ of hearing - the ear. functional phonetics (phonology) considers sound phenomena as elements of the language system that serve to form morphemes, words and sentences.

We can also distinguish descriptive, historical and comparative phonetics. Thing descriptive phonetics - features and general conditions for the formation of sounds characteristic of a given language in certain period its existence (most often the phonetic structure of the modern language is taken), the patterns of changes in sounds in the flow of speech, general principles division of the sound stream into sounds, syllables and larger pronunciation units. historical phonetics traces the development of the sound structure of a language over a long period of time (sometimes since the appearance of a given language). Comparative phonetics compares the sound structure of the native language with other languages, which allows not only to better see and learn the features of a foreign language, but also to understand the patterns of the native.

Orthoepy(Greek orthoépeia, from orthós - correct and épos - speech) - a section of phonetics dealing with pronunciation norms, their justification and establishment.

The concept of orthoepy includes both the pronunciation of individual sounds, including taking into account the specific conditions for their implementation, and the sound design of whole words or statements. For example, for the Russian language, the place of stress associated with the formation of grammatical forms is of great importance.

The orthoepic norms of the Russian language developed in their most important features in the first half of the 17th century. as the norms of the Moscow dialect, which over time began to acquire the character of national norms. They were finally formed in the second half of the 19th century, although in some cases there were fluctuations. Modern pronunciation norms of the Russian literary language include both features of Moscow and Leningrad (Petersburg) pronunciation.

The orthoepic norm, unlike the orthographic one, does not always affirm only one of the pronunciation options as the only correct one, rejecting the other as erroneous. In some cases, the coexistence of several equal options is allowed, where, as a rule, one is leading or more desirable. So, the correct pronunciation is considered to be e[zh'zh '], in and[zh’zh ’]at, after [zh’zh’]e with a soft long sound [zh '], and e[lj], in and[lzh]at, after [lzh]e- with a solid long; right before[zh'zh '] and and before[wait'] and, ba[s '] ein and ba[s]ane, [a door and [a door, P[o]esia and P[a]ezia.

Orthoepic norms are established by linguists - specialists in the field of phonetics, who take into account a variety of factors: prevalence pronunciation option, its compliance with the objective laws of language development, connection with tradition, etc.

Graphic arts(Greek graphikḗ, from gráphō - I write, I draw) - a section of the science of writing that determines the inventory of signs used in a given writing system (these signs are commonly called graphemes), and the rules and methods for designating sound units in writing.

The graphic system of Russian writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet and is arranged quite rationally: the number of phonemes in the Russian language is insignificant more number letters of the Russian alphabet. In 1928, N.F. Yakovlev derived and substantiated the mathematical formula for constructing the most convenient and economical alphabet, and Russian graphics almost correspond to this formula.

The rationality of Russian graphics is primarily due to its syllabic principle, which manifests itself in the transfer of soft consonants and the phoneme j "yot" in writing.

It should be understood that both graphics and spelling are related to the rules for using graphemes, but in different ways. Graphics studies and formulates the rules for the correspondence of letters to phonemes only in cases where the choice of a letter is determined only by the sound environment (or sound context) and prescribes the use of certain letters, regardless of which words they are part of. Orthography is a system of rules for writing significant units of a given language.

Spelling(Greek orthographía, from orthós - correct and gráphō - I write) - a branch of the science of language that deals with spelling norms and prescribes the choice of one of the spelling options allowed by graphics.

The central section of spelling establishes a set of rules and principles for designating speech sounds with letters in writing. Modern Russian orthography uses several principles: morphological, phonetic and traditional.

Other sections of spelling establish rules for the continuous, separate or hyphenated spelling of words and their parts; determine the rules for transferring parts of words from one line to another (taking into account both syllabic division and the morphemic structure of the word); formulate rules for the use of capital letters and lowercase letters, as well as the design of graphic abbreviations. Separately, the principles for the transmission of borrowed words (mainly proper names) are determined. Usually, either the transcription method of spelling is used, or the transliteration method, i.e. foreign words are written taking into account their pronunciation or letter by letter, taking into account their spelling, by means of another alphabet.

The theory of Russian spelling and the definition of the principles of its construction dates back to the works of V.K. Trediakovsky and M.V. Lomonosov (mid-18th century). In the history of Russian writing, there were two reforms (1708-1710 and 1917-1918), which contributed both to streamlining the alphabet and improving spelling rules. But the historical changes that are constantly taking place in the language, the enrichment of its vocabulary require regular work to improve the set of spelling rules. To do this, in 1904, the Spelling Commission was created at the Imperial Academy of Sciences. Today, the Spelling Commission works at the Institute of the Russian Language. VV Vinogradov RAS, both theoretical linguists and practicing teachers take part in it.

Lexicology(from the Greek lexikós - related to the word and lógos - teaching) is a branch of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of the language, or vocabulary.

The main tasks of lexicology are:

Definition of a word as a unit of vocabulary;

The study of words in their relation to non-linguistic reality;

Analysis of the semantic structure of the word;

Definition and description of the main types of lexical units;

Characteristics of the lexico-semantic system of the language, that is, the identification of the internal organization of lexical units and the analysis of their connections and relationships;

The history of the formation of vocabulary, the laws of its functioning and the analysis of trends in the development of the modern lexical system of the language;

Principles of functional-stylistic classification of words.

Lexicology also explores ways to replenish and develop the vocabulary, based both on the use of the internal resources of a given language, and on attracting resources from outside (borrowings from other languages).

It is possible to single out historical, comparative and applied lexicology. historical lexicology studies the history of words, including in connection with the history of the concepts referred to by these words, changes in various groups words - both in the literary language and in dialects, processes in the semantic structure of words, etc. Comparative Lexicology studies the vocabulary of different languages, and both individual words and groups of words, or semantic fields (for example, kinship terms, color terms) can be compared. To the sphere applied Lexicology includes lexicography, culture of speech, linguistic pedagogy, theory and practice of translation.

Phraseology(from Greek phrásis - expression and lógos - word, doctrine) - a section of linguistics that studies the semantic, morphological-syntactic and stylistic features of phraseological units in their state of the art and historical development.

The main tasks of phraseology are:

Study of sign nature phraseological units language;

Establishing the specifics of words and their meanings, implemented as part of phraseological units;

Definition syntactic roles phraseological units and features of their functioning in speech;

The study of the formation of new meanings of words based on the phraseological context;

Determination of the systemic nature of the phraseological composition and, in connection with this, the description of synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy and variability of phraseological units.

The most important problem of phraseology is the delimitation of phraseological units from combinations of words that are formed, but not reproduced in speech, and the determination on this basis of the features of phraseological unit. The issue of including communicative units such as proverbs, sayings and combinations formed according to the standard model with the associated meaning of words (such as fall into a rage evil takes).

Phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline arose in Russian linguistics in the 40-50s. 20th century

Etymology(Greek etymología from étymon - truth and lógos - word, doctrine) - a branch of linguistics dealing with the study of the origin of words and the reconstruction of the lexical system of the language of the most ancient (including pre-literate) period.

Etymology as a scientific discipline originated in Ancient Greece, and in antiquity the goal of etymological analysis was to search for and determine the original, original, or "true" meanings of words. At the present stage of development of linguistics, the subject of etymology is to find out at what time, in what language, according to what word-formation model and with what meaning a particular word appeared, and then - to determine the phonetic and semantic changes that occurred with this word in the history of the language and thus predetermining its present appearance.

To clarify the origin of words and restore their history, etymology must take into account the data of a number of scientific disciplines - both philological proper (comparative historical linguistics, dialectology, semasiology, onomastics), and other humanitarian and social (logic, history, archeology, ethnography).

Lexicography(from the Greek lexikós - related to the word and gráphō - I write) - a section of linguistics that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries and studying them.

It is customary to distinguish between theoretical and practical lexicography. Thing theoretical lexicography - the whole complex of problems associated with the development of the macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, the volume and nature of the dictionary, the principles of the arrangement of material in the dictionary) and the microstructure of the dictionary (the structure of the dictionary entry, types dictionary definitions and interpretations, the presence of different types of information about the word, types of language and other illustrations, etc.). Practical lexicography performs extremely important social functions, since it ensures the normalization of the language, teaching the language (both native and foreign), makes interlingual communication possible.

Lexicography represents a word in the totality of all its properties, gives us an idea of ​​its semantic structure, grammatical and stylistic features of individual lexical units, and therefore the dictionary is not only an indispensable guide to the language, but also the most important tool scientific research. Moreover, modern linguistics seeks to embody in a dictionary form different aspects of existing knowledge about the language, therefore, not only words, but also other language units - morphemes, phraseological units, phrases, quotations become the object of description of lexicography.

Morphemics(from Greek morphḗ - form) - a section of linguistics that studies the structural features of morphemes, their relationship to each other and to the word as a whole, the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Subject descriptive Morphemics is the consideration of the following questions:

Phonological structure of different types of morphemes;

Various morphonological processes occurring at the junctions of morphemes, or morphemic sutures;

Rules for the compatibility of morphemes with each other and the restrictions imposed in the language on these combinations;

Conditions for varying morphemes in speech;

Semantic properties of morphemes;

Numerous types of relations between roots and affixes - synonymous, homonymous, antonymous, etc.;

Determination of criteria for the classification of morphemes and the establishment of different types of morphemes;

Systematization of words according to their morphemic composition, as well as the development of principles and procedures for morphemic analysis;

The study of the morphemic composition of various parts of speech, as well as different categories of words within a particular part of speech.

Descriptive morpheme is opposed to historical, which studies the features of the formation and development of the system of morphemes of the native language, the sources of the emergence of new morphemes in the language, the ways of mastering borrowed morphemes and their interaction with native Russian morphemes.

Morphemics is equally closely connected with both word formation and morphology. Previously, it was included in the composition of word-formation disciplines. But lately it has been singled out as independent section sciences about language with a special object of study - a morpheme.

word formation- a section of linguistics that studies the ways and means of creating words, the rules and techniques for their production, the structure of derivatives and compound words - both formal and meaningful.

Word formation solves the following tasks:

Establishes and describes the main patterns of derived (or motivated) words;

Offers their classification;

Studies word-formation series and nests, word-formation (or derivational) processes, meanings and categories;

Determines the principles of the device of the word-formation system as a whole.

The word-building structure of derivative words and the whole system of word-building means of a particular language changes over time. Therefore, it is customary to distinguish between synchronous and diachronic word formation. synchronous, or descriptive, word formation studies the motivational relationships between words that coexist in the same historical period of a given language, without taking into account the etymological situation. diachronic, or historical, word formation studies the history of the emergence of individual words, the development and historical changes in their structure, changes in formal and semantic relationships between related words.

The specificity of the subject of word formation in the structure of the language is due to the peculiarities of the derivational meanings themselves and the external means of their expression. This section of linguistics describes all the affixes presented in the words of the language, associating them with certain word-formation types - productive and unproductive. So, according to L.V. Shcherba, it considers both “how words are made” (i.e., the structure of words already existing in the language), and “how words are made” (i.e., the potential for creating new words). The word-formation types themselves are studied from different angles: derivational affixes, grammatical and semantic characteristics of derivatives and generating words are taken into account, morphonological phenomena at the junctions of morphemes in a motivated word (alternation of sounds, truncation of stems, superimposition of morphs on each other, change in the place of stress, etc.), stylistic characteristics and the sphere of functioning of new words.

Morphology(from Greek morphḗ - form and lógos - teaching) - a section of grammar, the main object of which is the grammatical properties of words and their significant parts (morphemes). Morphology, understood as “the grammatical doctrine of the word” (V.V. Vinogradov), together with syntax, which is the “grammatical doctrine of the sentence,” constitutes grammar.

Borders descriptive morphology is understood in different concepts in different ways. It may include:

The doctrine of the structure of the word (i.e. morphemic);

Information on word formation;

The doctrine of inflection, various paradigms and inflectional types that exist in the language;

The doctrine of grammatical meanings and the use of different grammatical forms and categories in texts (or grammatical semantics);

The doctrine of parts of speech;

morphological typology.

historical morphology deals

Description of changes occurring in the structure of the word

The study of changes in both the formal and content side of individual morphemes,

The study of the composition of grammatical categories and grammatical meanings in the history of the language.

Syntax(from Greek sýntaxis - construction, order) - a branch of linguistics that studies the processes of generation and the structure of coherent speech and includes two main parts: the doctrine of the phrase and the doctrine of the sentence. In a number of works, syntax, which studies the semantic side of speech, is opposed to phonetics and morphology, which are mostly concerned with the plan of expression of a language system.

Thing descriptive syntax are the following problems:

Functioning in speech of various lexical and grammatical classes of words;

Compatibility and sequence of words when they are included in larger syntactic units;

Definition and consideration of different types syntactic connection;

General properties and grammatical features of phrases and sentences;

Internal structure of syntactic units;

Classification of syntactic units of the language;

The changes that a sentence undergoes when it is incorporated into a larger unit of speech - into text, i.e. rules for adapting the sentence to the context and to the speech situation;

Syntactic typology.

Historical Syntax deals with the study of the general patterns of development of individual syntactic units and changes relating to the entire syntactic structure of the language.

Punctuation(cf. lat. punctuatio from lat. punctum - point) - a branch of linguistics that studies and describes the system of punctuation marks and the rules for their staging in written speech.

In the history of Russian punctuation, there are three main approaches to understanding its foundations and purpose - logical (or semantic), syntactic and intonation. Theorists logical directions were F.I. Buslaev, A.B. Shapiro and others, proceeding from the position that for greater clarity in the presentation of thoughts in writing, it is customary to separate words and whole sentences with punctuation marks, that is, stop signs. syntactic the direction of the theory of Russian punctuation, which goes back primarily to the works of J.K. Grot, has become widespread in teaching practice. Its representatives proceed from the fact that punctuation marks are primarily designed to make the syntactic structure of speech visual, to highlight individual sentences and their parts. The representatives intonation theories (L.V. Shcherba, A.M. Peshkovsky and others) believe that punctuation marks are intended to indicate the rhythm and melody of a phrase, the pace of speech, pauses, etc., i.e. what intonation does in spoken language, punctuation does in written speech.

Language- a naturally developing sign system that serves as the main means of communication between people.

Everyone language sign(like any other sign of the semiotic system) has a conceptual content (meaning) and a formal expression (sound). Thus, on the one hand, the language reflects a set of concepts, ideas about the world, characteristic of the language community, divides the surrounding reality and represents it by means of language. In the system of meanings expressed by it, the language captures the experience of the entire collective, the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it. On the other hand, language is realized, materially embodied in sounding speech. With the advent of writing, the language receives a new means of material expression - written texts. It is only thanks to the presence of spoken speech and written texts that we can form an idea of ​​the internal organization of language, of a language system that is not given to us in direct observation.

Language is an organized, strictly ordered, multilevel system, all elements of which are interconnected and interdependent. Each level of the language structure is characterized by an independent language unit that performs a special function in the language. Traditionally, linguistic units include a phoneme, a morpheme, a word, and a sentence.

A language is a fairly stable system in which a change in a single language unit inevitably entails a change in the entire language system as a whole. A rapid change in the language would not allow it to perform a communicative function, to serve as a means of communication between people. Nevertheless, the language is constantly changing its sound structure, lexical composition, even grammatical categories and syntactic constructions. The most sensitive to various changes are sounds and words, the grammar of the language is more stable, a significant change in it leads to a change language type. The sound and meaning of a word can change significantly over a short period of time. For example, the word fish, in addition to the main meaning, it can acquire new meanings, various shades, being used in a new context that is not characteristic of it: calling a person fish, we point to his emotional coldness, restraint, lethargy.

Possessing internal integrity and unity, language at the same time is a multifunctional system. The main function of language is to serve as a means of human communication, in addition, language is a socially significant form of reflection of the surrounding reality, as well as a means of obtaining new information about the world.

Language is a social phenomenon, it belongs to the whole society as a whole, and not to an individual. It is customary to distinguish between several forms of the existence of language in society:

. idiolect- the individual language of a particular person;

. dialect- a set of close idiolects, which are characterized by internal unity and are united on the basis of a territorial sign;

. language- this is, as a rule, a set of dialects that may differ from each other to one degree or another. The principle of combining different dialects into a single language depends not only on the actual linguistic (structural), but also on social parameters (linguistic self-awareness of speakers, the presence of a single script, the social prestige of dialects, etc.).

The highest form of existence of the language is the literary language, which is characterized by the creation of a norm and the presence of a fairly wide range of functional styles.

Literary language- one of the main forms of existence of the language, which is characterized by consistent codification (establishment of the norm), conscious cultivation of the norm, binding norms for all speakers and high social prestige.

Literary language serves various communication spheres, serves to express very different content and solve many communicative tasks. The literary language is used in the field of public administration, journalism, science, literature, as well as in oral presentations and in some forms of colloquial speech. In a situation of easy communication, there are elements of a conversational style that do not violate the norms of the literary language.

Literary language is a bookish language associated with literacy, with a special, bookish norm. It is based on an artificial norm and is opposed to a living spoken language. Any norm is associated with learning, it is taught, imposed on the individual by society. Assimilation of the norm demonstrates belonging to a particular society, it is a sign of society.

The structure of the literary language depends on the composition of the functional styles included in it (official business, ecclesiastical, scientific, newspaper and journalistic, etc.). During the period of formation and strengthening of statehood, it becomes necessary to form an official business style, and with the accumulation and development scientific knowledge- scientific style, etc. There are special language tools that serve different communicative spheres. In order for all members of society to equally understand the language (for example, official documents), there is a consolidation, standardization of language means. There is a strict, official version of the literary language, serving the official business and scientific sphere.

The formation of a literary language is a national and historical phenomenon. The main processes of the formation of the literary language are associated with the development of culture, with the history of society. The features of the formation of the national literary language depend on the sample texts that the literary language is guided by in its development.

For example, the functions of the Russian literary language until the 18th century were performed by the Church Slavonic language. After the reforms of Peter the Great, the Russian literary language began to move closer to popular colloquial speech. However, the centuries-old orientation towards the Church Slavonic book and written culture has led to many characteristics Russian literary language.

Thus, the literary language is a normalized, bookish language, directly related to cultural tradition, designed to fit linguistic activity into the general plan of cultural, that is, socially valuable behavior.

Dialects(from the Greek. diálektos - conversation, dialect, dialect) - varieties of the national language, opposed to the literary language, serving as a means of communication in speech groups, allocated on a geographical (territorial) basis. A territorial dialect is a means of communication for the population of a historically established region, characterized by specific ethnographic features.

Modern dialects are the result of centuries of development. Throughout history, in connection with the change in territorial associations, fragmentation, unification, and regrouping of dialects take place. Sometimes on the border related languages it is extremely difficult to determine the belonging of local dialects to one or another language. The decisive factor here is ethnic: when referring a dialect to a particular language, the self-consciousness of the speakers of the dialect is taken into account.

Dialects are characterized by phonetic, lexical, syntactic features that are revealed when comparing dialects with each other, as well as with the literary language. For example, a bright dialectal feature - clatter (two affricates [ts] and [h '] of the literary language do not differ, pronounced as [ts]) - characterizes the Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Pskov and some other dialects. Some dialects of the Oryol, Kursk, Tambov and Bryansk regions tend to pronounce [s] instead of the affricate [ts]: Kurisa on the street yaiso demolished. Another teaser marks the choking (the affricates [ts] and [h’] are pronounced like [h’]): Sheep ran past our porch.

Dialect differences can be small, so that speakers of different dialects can easily understand each other, or they can be quite significant.

Under the influence of the literary language, dialects lose their most significant differences from it, unify, lose their independence, partially enriching the literary language with some of their features.

Speech- the process of speaking, taking place in time, carried out in sound or written form.

Speech is usually characterized by contrasting it with language (as private versus general). Speech is understood as a material embodiment, the use of a language system in the process of communication. Speech is concrete and unique, as opposed to abstract and reproducible language. Speech is subjective, since it is a kind of free creative activity of the individual. Speech always has an author who expresses his thoughts and emotions. Individual character is the most important feature of speech. speech behavior is an essential characteristic of a person.

Speech is material, it consists of articulated signs perceived by the senses (hearing, sight). Oral speech is characterized by tempo, duration, timbre features, degree of loudness, articulatory clarity, accent, etc.

Speech is variable, allows elements of disordered and random. Speech can be characterized through an indication of the psychological state of the speaker, his attitude to the interlocutor, to the subject of the message.

Speech is linear: it unfolds in time and is realized in space. Speech is contextually and situationally conditioned.

The result of speech is text. It is one or more sentences bound friend with a friend, arranged in a certain sequence and united into a single whole by a common theme. Between sentences in the text, different semantic relations: opposition, explanation, goal, condition. To connect sentences in the text, special syntactic means can be used: parallelism (several sentences have same structure in terms of the order of sentence members), ellipsis (omission of a text element that can be restored in a given context), etc.

Speech as one of the forms of human activity is of interest not only to philologists, but also to philosophers, psychologists, speech therapists, sociologists, specialists in the theory of communication and information. The role of speech in the formation of consciousness and manifestations of the subconscious is studied, the processes of development of children's speech, the mechanisms of speech formation, the occurrence of speech errors and various speech disorders are studied.

Thus, speech is the realization of a language, which only through it can fulfill its main function - to serve as a means of communication between people.

Speech styles(from Latin stilus, stylus - a pointed stick for writing, writing style) - systems of linguistic means within the literary language, delimited by the conditions and tasks of communication.

Usually, five styles of speech are distinguished: four bookish - scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic - and colloquial style. Sometimes different styles of the literary language can differ significantly from each other, but in some languages ​​they turn out to be quite homogeneous: stylistic differences have not yet been developed and consolidated. The depth and certainty of the stylistic differentiation of envy from the "age" of the language.

Each style is characterized by certain language means: special words, special combinations words (formulas, clichés), word forms, features of syntactic constructions, etc. Speech styles are realized in certain forms, or types of texts, called speech genres.

scientific style- one of the book styles that is used in scientific works, textbooks, oral presentations on scientific topics (lectures, reports at conferences, etc.). In addition, the scientific style can be used in popular science works, the purpose of which is to acquaint a wide audience with curious scientific facts and theories.

The scientific style is used in a formal setting, characterized by logic, consistency, objectivity. The task of the scientific style is to communicate information, to explain a scientific theory by providing a system of evidence.

The scientific style is characterized by the indispensable use of appropriate scientific terminology. The term, in contrast to the word of the common language, accurately and quite fully reflects scientific concept. In scientific texts, there are usually no means of figurative and emotional presentation, exclamatory and interrogative sentences, hints, appeals, etc. If a rhetorical question is used in a scientific speech, then an immediate reaction from the audience is hardly expected. As a rule, the author himself is going to answer this question in the course of further presentation of the material.

The scientific style is characterized by the use of complex syntactic constructions, participial and adverbial phrases. Frequent quotations and references to others scientific works- also bright feature scientific style.

AT scientific papers it is very important to structure the text, consistently present the theory, presenting all the necessary evidence, and draw a reasonable conclusion, therefore, the texts use various pointers to the sequence of presentation, cause-and-effect relationships: firstly, therefore, so, let us now turn to ... etc.

In addition, special linguistic means used in scientific texts help to perceive the author's scientific research as quite objective, removing the pronounced authorial principle. For example, in scientific speech, personal pronouns of the first and second person are almost never used, but constructions without a subject are often used (such as It is known that…). Impersonal constructions also create the effect of the author's detachment, the ability to refer to previous studies. The scientific style is characterized by the use of stamps, standard turns that organize the course of scientific reasoning.

Formal business style- one of the book styles that serves the scope of business relations. This style is typical for business papers: laws, documents, resolutions, orders, protocols, etc.

The task of the official business style is to regulate business relationship: convey information, order, issue instructions, conclusions, etc. The official business style is characterized by accuracy, unambiguity, standardization and the obligation to build a text according to a model. Often, when drawing up a document, such a sample is attached, sometimes special forms are prepared for writing official papers. Thus, the main feature official document- a standard form, thanks to which it is easy to find the necessary information in the document: to whom the paper is addressed, from whom it is, from what date, what exactly is stated in the document.

In order for what is written to be accepted as an official document, it is necessary to follow strict rules for formatting the text, including the standard set of language tools. When compiling a document, it is necessary to put down the exact date, indicate the full surname, name and patronymic (often passport data) of the persons who appear in the official document.

For an official business style, it is typical to use standard turns - clichés: please provide, after the deadline, in in due course etc. Elements of colloquial style, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, familiar address are inappropriate in the document.

In the language of the document, personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person are almost not used, which also makes the language of the document official, official. The business style does not allow the author to express his emotions, personal point of view on the issue. The syntax of the document is distinguished by a large number of subordinate clauses, heavy and intricate constructions, unnatural in colloquial speech.

Journalistic style- one of the book styles that is used in social and journalistic activities, in the media, in newspapers, in a situation of public speaking.

The purpose of this style is to influence mass consciousness, the desire to impose on the audience their vision of the situation. The characteristic features of the journalistic style are figurativeness, emotionality, appraisal, appeal. In public speaking, various means of artistic expression are often used: epithets, hyperbole, comparisons, metaphors, " idioms". Elements of a language game, puns, appeals to the audience, appeals, interrogative and exclamatory sentences, rhetorical questions are also used. In the speech of the speaker, always emotionally colored, tense, a personal assessment of the situation sounds, therefore, first-person pronouns of both numbers are often used as linguistic means.

Thus, in the journalistic style, linguistic means are used that allow you to influence emotional condition audience, to form listeners' attitude to individual events and to the world as a whole.

Art style - functional style of speech, which is used in works of fiction and refers to book styles.

The purpose of this style is to draw artistic image, express author's attitude to the depicted, to influence the feelings and imagination of the reader. The language here performs not so much a communicative as an aesthetic function, it forms a special figurative world using special expressive means. These include trails(metaphors, metonyms, epithets, hyperboles, litotes, comparisons, etc.) and figures of speech(anaphora, gradation, inversion, rhetorical question, parallelism, etc.).

For example, metaphor is a means of artistic expression, when using which the name of one object is used to name another on the basis of similarity. : The garden is burning red rowan bonfire (S.A. Yesenin). Or litote - a figurative expression, which consists in underestimating the size of an object or the significance of the depicted phenomenon: Your spitz, lovely spitz, no more thimble (A.S. Griboedov) and others.

AT poetic work the means of rhythmic organization of the text are used - rhythm and rhymes.

A storm covers the sky with mist,

Whirlwinds of snow twisting,

Like a beast, she will howl

It will cry like a child.

That on a dilapidated roof

Suddenly the straw will rustle,

Like a belated traveler

It will knock on our window(A.S. Pushkin).

In the language of fiction, in addition to the artistic style, elements of other styles, mostly colloquial, can be used. The use of colloquial speech does not violate the norms of the literary language (unlike vernacular, which is outside literary norm). In a work of art, colloquial speech is "literaryized", the elements of colloquial style - expressive, expressive - against the background of neutral and bookish means of the literary language are marked as elements of a reduced stylistic coloring. In the speech of the characters, clericalisms, occasionalisms, dialect words and even profanity are possible. The purpose of this deliberate violation of the norms of the literary language is mainly the speech characteristics of the characters.

Conversational style - functional style of speech, which is opposed to book styles and is used in a situation of casual conversation, more often in an informal setting. The main form of existence is oral, but the colloquial style can also be implemented in writing (notes, private letters, fixing the speech of characters, etc.).

Conversational style characterizes the usual, relaxed oral speech of people who speak a literary language. The task of colloquial speech is communication, exchange of news, opinions and impressions of loved ones in an informal setting.

The general properties of conversational style are manifested in the specific characteristics of colloquial speech: informality, unpreparedness, spontaneity, linear character, leading to both economy and redundancy of speech means. With an accelerated rate of speech, phenomena of increased reduction of unstressed vowels, simplification of consonant groups are observed.

Speech uses colloquial and colloquial vocabulary, expressive and evaluative vocabulary, first person pronouns, particles, interjections and address. The speaker seeks to express his personal opinion, to make speech figurative, lively.

In colloquial speech, participles and adverbial phrases, complex syntactic constructions. The technique of dismembering the syntactic whole is often observed, interrupted structures, repetitions, contractions, and union-free composition are used. The conversational style is characterized by a free word order, which is associated with the possibility of logical selection of words by intonation.

The colloquial style differs sharply from the book style in the rules for the arrangement of words and parts of a sentence. The words of one phrase in colloquial speech can be separated by other words: Need to today of bread buy fresh . It happens that the members of the main and subordinate clauses are intertwined with each other: You doctor saw, when he came? etc.

Genres of speech- a set of texts united by the same use of stylistic means of the language. A group of speech genres is combined into a certain functional style.

The scientific style has the following speech genres: article, monograph, textbook, abstract, abstract, review, lecture, scientific report, etc.

The speech genres of the official business style include: law, decree, protocol of interrogation, certificate, statement, order, etc.

In the journalistic style, such speech genres as an article, interview, essay, reportage, etc.

The genres of artistic style are novel, short story, poem, poem, etc.

The speech genres of colloquial speech include story, dialogue, family conversation, etc.

© All rights reserved Abbreviation- a way of forming nouns by shortening words or phraseological units consisting of an adjective and a noun (cf. special from specialist, unskilled from unsatisfactory, tanks from whiskers, gas mask from gas mask, demi-season from demi-season coat etc.).

Ablative- the deferred (or original) case existing in some languages, equivalent to our genitive case with prepositions from, from, from. In the language, it coincided with the genitive, and some of its forms were lost, while others were preserved as forms of the genitive case.

Agentive value- the meaning of the actor.

Akanye. Akan in the narrow sense means the coincidence of the sounds o and a in the pre-stressed syllable in one sound [ʌ], acoustically close to the stressed a. The development of akanya in the Russian language is reflected in the written monuments from the 14th century. In cases where the spelling followed the pronunciation, the place of the etymological o in orthography sometimes appeared "illegal" a (see. lurid, kalach, ferry etc.).

Anthroponyms- names, patronymics and surnames.

Aorist- species-temporal verb form in Indo-European languages, used to designate a past action as such, as instantaneous, i.e., regardless of its development or completeness of completion, the limit.

Argo- conditional expressions and words used by any isolated social or professional group, its conditional language.

Morphological and syntactic way of word formation- the emergence of new words as a result of the transition of lexical units or their forms from one part of speech to another (see. tailor, idol, essence, combustible, almost etc.).

prosthetic sound- a new consonant sound formed at the beginning of a word before vowels to facilitate pronunciation. Such sounds in Slavic languages were consonants in and j. The sound in developed before ъ, s, o (see. yell, eight, get used to etc.), and j - before b, e, ě (yat), a (see ulcer, lamb, etc.).

Rederivation- a method of word formation, with the help of which new words are created in the same way as with suffixation and prefixation, but in the direction perceived as the opposite (cf. umbrella - from an umbrella, a flask - from a flask, scare - from scare, etc. ).

reduplication- the same as .

Actually Russian. Actually Russian words are called words known only in Russian. In the overwhelming majority of cases, these are words that arose in the Russian language during the era of the separate existence of the three East Slavic languages ​​(mainly in the period from the 15th century to the present).

Complication- the transformation of a word that had a non-derivative basis into a structural unit of a derivative character (see umbrella, flask, etc.).

Ellipsis- omission of an element of a statement that is easily restored in a given context or situation.

enantiosemy- development in the word of opposite meanings (see. probably, honor, notorious etc.).

Enclitic form- not full, but a short form of personal and reflexive pronouns in some oblique cases.

Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms

Muallif: R. Nabiyeva

Yaratilgan : Angren, 2005 yil

Category: Linguistics

Bolim: Terminology

university: Toshkent viloyati davlat pedagogy institute

faculty: Horizhiy tillar

department: Uzbekistonda Democrat Jamiyat Kurish Nazariyasi va Amalieti Hamda Falsafa

Elektron fail tour: RAR

Concise Dictionary linguistic terms is addressed to students of philologists of the Russian - Tajik department of pedagogical universities; it is based on many years teaching activities authors.

The advantage of this dictionary is its emphasis on the most commonly used terms that reflect the problems of the entire course. Many dictionary entries not only provide references to the source language, but also reveal the main features of the phenomena denoted by a particular term, illustrated by appropriate examples.

The methodological manual contributes to the most effective assimilation of educational material by students, the expansion of the linguistic and general educational horizons of the future teacher of literature

Preface

The "Concise Dictionary of Linguistic Terms" is compiled as an educational and teaching dictionary, which is necessary in a student audience with Russian-Tajik languages ​​of instruction. It is intended for students studying in the specialties "Foreign Languages", "Russian Language and Literature", " Native language and literature.

About building a dictionary.

1. 
   The dictionary covers only the most commonly used terms of the disciplines of the general linguistic cycle.
2. 
   Words - terms are arranged in alphabetical order.
3. 
   Each term, together with the material related to it, forms a dictionary entry.

Dictionary entries are not only brief definitions of linguistic terms, but also a fairly detailed interpretation of them with illustrations from trusted sources.

It is well known that the compilation of such dictionaries is a difficult and painstaking task, therefore, some omissions are possible in the proposed dictionary.

Abbreviation is a compound word made up of initial elements: department store, university, UN.

Agglutination- mechanical attachment of standard unambiguous affixes to invariable stems or roots: bola - bolalar - bolalar ha; id(ti) – id and- go those .

Accommodation- partial adaptation of articulations of adjacent consonant and vowel sounds: carried [n'os], row [r'at], what, was.

Active vocabulary- part of the vocabulary of the language, actively using in all spheres of society.

Allomoforms- identical in meaning variant of the morpheme, this particular manifestation of the phoneme: friend - friend - friend -; English [-z], [-s], [-iz]- as indicators of the plural of nouns.

Allophones- a group of sounds in which a given phoneme is realized, a specific manifestation of a phoneme: she caught a catfish herself [sma pimal sma].

Altai family- a macrofamily of languages ​​that unites, on the basis of the alleged genetic coexistence, the Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchurian groups of languages ​​and the isolated Korean and Japanese languages.

alphabet letters- a trophic system in which a separate sign conveys a separate sound.

Amorphous languages- isolating languages, which are characterized by the absence of forms of inflection and form formation, root languages; these include the languages ​​of the Sino-Tibetan family: gao shan - high mountains”, shan gao “high mountains”, hao ren - “good person”, ren hao - “a person loves me”, xiu hao - “do good”, hao dagwih - “very expensive”.

Analytic form of the word – complex shape words formed by a combination of an official and a significant word: stronger, the best.

Analogy- the process of assimilation of some elements of the language to others related to it, but more common and productive.

Antonyms- words belonging to the same part of speech, having opposite, but correlative meanings with each other: young - old, day - night.

Argo(French Argot. "jargon") - the secret language of a socially limited group of the population that opposes itself to other people: thieves' slang, student slang, school slang.

Argotisms- words that are socially limited in their use, being emotionally expressive equivalents of stylistically neutral words of the literary language: cut off - “do not pass the exam”, tail - “failed exam”, memorize - “learn”.

Archaisms- outdated name of existing realities; obsolete words, replaced in modern language by synonyms: catch - "hunt", bosom - "chest", neck - "neck".

Assimilation- likening sounds to each other within a word or phrase: bone - bones [bones], little book - book [knishk], high - highest [high], deceit - [mman].

affixes- service morphemes that modify the meaning of the root or express the relationship between words in a phrase and sentence.

Affixation- 1. creation of a new word by attaching certain affixes to the generating base (or word); 2. a way of expressing grammatical meanings with the help of affixes.

Affiliating languages- languages ​​in the grammatical structure of which affixes play an important role.

affixoid- affixes that occupy an intermediate position between root and service morphemes, by origin go to independent roots and words: linguistics, literary criticism, geography, airlines, airmail.

affricates- (lat. Affricata "lapped") sounds in which the bow opens gradually, while the gap phase follows the bow: [h], [y].

B

Lateral consonants- (lateral) sounds formed by the passage of air along the sides of the bow of the tip of the tongue with teeth or alveoli, as well as the middle part of the tongue with a hard palate: [l], [l '].

AT

Morpheme Valency- the ability of a morpheme to combine with other morphemes. Multivalent (multivalent) and univalent (univalent ): for verbs, but groom, glass beads, popadya.

Options– 1. phonemes in weak position, non-discrimination positions: shaft - ox, but [vly]. 2. word forms that differ in external form, but have the same grammatical meaning: waters oh- water oyu .

Variations- shades of the phoneme in a strong position in terms of positional conditioning: five [p'at '], knead [m'at '].

Explosive consonants- sounds in which the bow formed by the lips, tongue and palate, tongue and teeth, opens instantly: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].

internal flexion- a way of expressing grammatical meanings, consisting in sound change root: English foot- leg, feet "legs", lock - lock, die - die.

Internal word form- semantic and structural motivation of the word by another word, on the basis of which it arose: fly agaric, blueberry, boletus, five hundred, forester, shoemaker.

Excerpt- finding the organs of speech at the time of sound production, the articulatory phase after the excursion, but preceding the recursion.

Haplology- simplification of the syllabic structure of a word due to the loss of one of two identical syllables immediately following one another: military commander vm . military leader, banner-bearer vm . standard-bearer, mineralogy vm. mineralogy.

Genealogical classification of languages- classification of languages ​​based on linguistic affinity: Indo-European, Turkic, Semitic and other languages.

Geographic classification– determination of the area of ​​a language (or dialect) taking into account the boundaries of its linguistic features.

Verb- a significant part of speech, combining in its composition words denoting an action or state.

Vowels- speech sounds consisting only of voice: [and], [y], [e], [o], [a].

dialect- a set of idiolects characteristic of a territorially limited group of people.

Grammar category- a set of homogeneous grammatical forms opposed to each other: the category of the species is the opposition (opposition) of the imperfect species to the perfect one; the category of number is the opposition of singular and plural.

Grammatical form- material form of expression of grammatical meaning.

grammatical meaning- abstract linguistic content of a grammatical unit that has a regular expression in the language; "This is an abstraction of features and relationships" (A.A. Reformatsky).

grammeme- unit of grammatical meaning.

grammar field- association of words based on common grammatical meaning: the field of time, the field of modality, the field of pledge.

Two-part sentences- a two-term syntactic complex in which two main members (subject and predicate) or a group of the subject and a group of the predicate are formally expressed.

The delimitative function of the phoneme- (lat. limities "border, line") the function of denoting the boundary between two consecutive units (morphemes, words).

Denotation- an object or phenomenon of extralinguistic reality, which must be called by some word.

Denotative meaning of the word- the ratio of a phonetic word to a specific designated object, the object of speech.

Deetymologization- loss process internal form when a previously motivated word becomes unmotivated: story

Dialect- a set of dialects united by intrastructural linguistic unity.

Dialectisms- words belonging to the dialects of a particular language.

diachrony- the dynamics of the language, the development of the language in time, the study of the language in the process of development.

Dissimilation- articulatory distribution of sounds: ice hole.

Distant sound changes- a change in sounds that are at some distance from each other.

Disreza- throwing out an unpronounceable sound from a word: heart [with "erts], reed [trsn" ik].

Addition- a minor member of the sentence, expressing the objective meaning: read a book satisfied with success.

Trembling consonants- vibrants: [p], [p "].

Back lingual consonants- sounds formed by the convergence of the back of the tongue with the soft palate: [k], [g], [x].

The law of ascending sonority- the arrangement of sounds in the composition of the syllable from the least sonorous to the most sonorous: in-yes, good-bro, co-style.

Laws of language development- internal laws of language development: the law of an open syllable, the law of economy of speech efforts (blueberries, the law of stunning final voiced consonants, the law of outgoing sonority.

Closed syllable- a syllable ending in a non-syllable sound:

cliff, wolf.

Voiced consonants- sounds, during the articulation of which the vocal cords are tense and are in a state of oscillation.

The sound of speech- the minimum unit of the speech chain as a result of articulation.

Significant words- words that have an independent lexical meaning, able to function as members of a sentence, structurally designed, having their own stress : motherland, capital, first, calmly.

Meaning of affixes- derivational (word-forming) and relational (word-changing): boot > shoemaker > shoemaker - a, shoe-nick-u.

Meaning of the word- a product of human mental activity, expressing the relation of the fact of language to the extralinguistic fact, the relation of the word to the designated object.

Indo-European family- one of the largest and most studied families of Eurasian languages.

Interfix- service morpheme, standing between the bases compound word or between the roots and the suffix, which serves to connect them into a single whole: house-o-build.

Intonation- a set of rhythmic and melodic components of speech, serving as a means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally - expressive coloring statements.

historicisms- obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of objects or phenomena of objective reality: boyar, steward, altyn.

Historical alternation of sounds- alternation, not due to phonetic position from the point of view of modern phonetic system given language: spirit / soul, cart / drive.

Qualitative reduction- weakened pronunciation of a sound in a weak position due to a reduction in its duration : locomotive [parvos].

Cyrillic- the Slavic alphabet, created by the Slavic first teachers Cyril (Konstantin) and his brother Methodius.

Morpheme classification- highlighting them in the composition of the word in place, function, degree of reproducibility.

Language classification- distribution of languages ​​into groups based on certain characteristics in accordance with the principles underlying the study: genealogical (genetic), typological (morphological), geographical (areal).

Book vocabulary- words, stylistically limited, belonging to book styles of speech.

Koine- a language that serves as a means of inter-dialect communication, which arose on the basis of one common dialect: Ancient Greek Koine (Attic dialect), Old Russian Koine (Polyan dialect).

quantitative reduction- reduction of the duration of the sound depending on its position in relation to the stress. Hand-hand-mitten [hand], [hand], [mitten].

Combinatorial changes of sounds - phonetic processes conditioned by the interaction of sounds in the speech stream: assimilation, dissimilation, accommodation, haplology, dieresis, prosthesis, epenthesis, metathesis.

Communicative units of language- sentences that communicate about something, expressing and shaping thoughts, feelings, expression of will, carrying out communication between people.

Conversion- morphological and syntactic way of forming words by moving from one part of speech to another: substantiation, adjectivation, adverbialization, pronominalization.

Contact sound changes- interaction of adjacent sounds : fairy tale - [sk].

Root- morpheme of the common part related words expressing and predetermining lexical meaning the words.

Correlation- correspondence of phonemes in place and method of formation and their opposition in one DP (deafness-voicedness, hardness-softness ): , .

Criteria for distinguishing between homonymy and polysemy- 1. polysemy has a common seme, homonymy does not; 2. homonymy is characterized by a divergence of word-formation series; 3. homonymy is characterized by different compatibility; 4. homonymy is characterized by the absence of synonymous relations.

Labialized vowels- rounded, during the formation of which the lips approach each other, reducing the outlet opening and lengthening the oral resonator.

lexeme- a unit of the content plan, the sound shell of the word, is opposed to the sememe - its content.

Lexicology- a branch of the science of language that studies the word and vocabulary of the language as a whole.

Lexico-semantic group- a set of words of one part of speech with intralinguistic connections based on interdependent and interrelated elements of meaning related to one part of speech of LSG words with the meaning of time or space.

Lexico-semantic system- a set of linguistic elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity, unity.

Lexico-syntactic way of word formation- creation of a new word by merging into one unit of a combination of words: that hour > immediately, this day > today.

Lincos (
Literary language- the highest supra-dialect form of the language, normalized and having a wide range of functional styles.

logical stress- transfer of stress from the last in the syntagma to any other in order to enhance the semantic load : I today I will go home; weather beautiful.

Melody of speech- the main component of intonation, carried out by raising and lowering the voice in a phrase, organizes a phrase, dividing it into syntagmas and rhythmic groups, linking its parts.

Pronoun- part of speech indicating an object, sign, quantity, but not naming them; substitution words forming a parallel system.

Metathesis- permutation of sounds or syllables in the word: cheesecake
Metaphor- figurative meaning based on similarity in the most different features: color, shape, quality: silver frost, golden man, wave crest.

Metonymy- figurative meaning based on spatial or temporal contiguity: " No. She silver- on the gold ate". A.S. Griboedov. "Read willingly Apuleia, a Cicero did not read. "A.S. Pushkin.

Polysemy of a word(or polysemy) - the presence of several interconnected meanings in the same word: OS field: 1. treeless plain; 2. cultivated land for crops; 3. large playground; 4. a clean line along the edge of a sheet in a book.

morph- the limiting unit, distinguished at the morphemic level, but not possessing the property of regular reproducibility: currant -, small -, eng. huckle - highlighted in the words currant, raspberry, huckleberry.

Morpheme- the minimum meaningful part of a word that is not divided into smaller units of the same level : green - oval - th, yellow - oval - th.

Morpheme operation- 1. suprasegmental morpheme: stress: pour - pour, legs - legs; 2. meaningful alternation : torn - tear, naked - naked; 3. suppletivism: the formation of grammatical forms from different bases: child - children, take - take, man - people.

Morphological grammatical categories- expressions of grammatical meanings by lexico-grammatical classes - significant parts of speech: CC of aspect, voice, tense, mood (verb), CC of gender, number, case (name).

Morphological way of word formation- creation of new words by combining morphemes according to the rules existing in the language: young - awn, son - approx.

Morphology- a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical properties of words, their inflection (paradigmatics of words), as well as ways of expressing abstract grammatical meanings, develops a doctrine of parts of speech.

Morphonology- a branch of linguistics that studies the phoneme as an element in the construction of a morpheme, the connection between phonology and morphology.

Moscowphonological school- determines the phoneme based on the morpheme; phoneme - a structural component of a morpheme, the identity of the morpheme determines the boundaries and volume of the phoneme: forests and fox, catfish and sama, where unstressed vowels, despite the identity of their sound, represent different phonemes.

word motivation- semantic and structural motivation by another word, on the basis of which it arose: fly agaric, blueberry, boletus, twenty.

Soft consonants(or palatal) - sounds, during the formation of which there is an additional rise in the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate and the movement of the entire mass of the tongue forward : [b"], [c"], [d"], [t"], [l"], [r"], [n"], [m"].

Adverb- a lexical and grammatical class of unchangeable words denoting a sign of a feature, action or object: very good man, run fast, eggs soft-boiled.

Folk etymology- arbitrary interpretation of the etymon of the word due to sound coincidences, false associations: gulvar vm. boulevard, melkoscope vm. microscope.

Neutral vocabulary- words emotionally neutral, expressively uncolored: water, earth, summer, wind, thunderstorm, distant, play, run.

Unlabialized vowels- unrounded vowels formed without the participation of the work of the lips: [and], [e], [a], [s].

Neologisms- new words denoting a new reality (object or concept), which have appeared in the language recently, retaining a shade of freshness and unusualness, which are included in the passive vocabulary : sponsor, video clip, fax, voucher, computer, display.

fixed accent- constant stress, tied to the same morpheme of different word forms of the word : book, book, book.

Non-positional interleaving- alternations not determined by the phonetic position of the sound in the word ( historical alternations): drives - driving [d "/td"], face - face - face.

Nominative units- language units (words, phrases) that serve to designate objects, concepts, ideas.

Norm- the traditionally established system of rules for the use of language means, which are recognized by society as mandatory.

Nasal vowels- sounds, during the formation of which the soft palate is lowered, the air passes into the nasal cavity: nasal vowels in Polish, Portuguese, French.

Nasal consonants- sounds, during the formation of which the soft palate is lowered and opens the passage of air into the nasal cavity: [m], [m "], [n], [n"].

Zero morpheme- a morpheme that is not materially expressed, but has a grammatical meaning : house - Oh, to the house - a, house - y, carried - Oh, but carried - l - a, carried - l - and. Revealed in paradigms by opposition, positively expressed morphemes.

Circumstance- a secondary member of the sentence, extending and explaining the members of the sentence with the meaning of the action or feature, or the sentence as a whole, and indicating where, when, under what circumstances the action is performed, indicating the condition, reason, purpose of its implementation, as well as the measure, degree and way of showing it: stay too long until late.

General subject relatedness- the relation of the concept of a word to a whole class of denotations that have common features: table denotes any table, regardless of the number of legs, material, purpose.

General linguistics- study of the general laws of organization, development and functioning of languages.

Common vocabulary- words known and used by all native speakers, regardless of their place of residence, profession, lifestyle.

One-part sentences- one-component sentences that have a gradation depending on whether the main member of the sentence belongs to one or another part of speech: verbal (impersonal, infinitive, definitely personal, indefinitely personal, generalized personal) and subjective (nominative).

Occasionalisms- words created by authors for certain stylistic purposes lose their expressiveness out of contexts and are incomprehensible to a native speaker: kyukhelbekerno, ogoncharovan, melancholy (Pushkin); hulk, multipath, hammery, sickle (Mayakovsky).

homographs words that have the same spelling but have different sounds and meanings: road - road, already - already, flour - flour, castle - castle.

homonymy- sound coincidence of units of different meanings : key "spring" and key "tool", marriage "flaw" and marriage "marriage".

omafins words that sound the same but have different spellings : fruit - raft, code - cat.

homoforms- partial homonyms, coinciding only in a number of grammatical forms: fist "clenched hand" and a fist "wealthy peasant" there is no coincidence in the form of wines. p. units and many others. numbers.

Definition- a minor member of the sentence, extending and explaining any member of the sentence with an objective meaning and denoting a sign, quality or property of an object: earth strap, loose shirt.

stem- the part of the word form that remains if the ending and the formative affix are taken away from it, and with which the lexical meaning of this word is associated: cows-a, milk-o.

Basic lexical meaning- meaning directly related to the reflection of the phenomena of objective reality, it is primary, stylistically neutral value the words : book, notebook.

Basic units of the grammatical structure of the language is a morpheme, word, phrase, sentence.

open syllable- syllables ending in a syllabic sound: ma-ma, mo-lo-ko.

Negative sentences- proposals in which the content of the proposal is affirmed as unrealistic.

Paradigm- 1. a set of grammatical forms of the word: house- im.p., Houses- r.p., home- date. etc. 2. set of invariants and variants language units in paradigmatic terms.

Paronyms- consonant single-root words belonging to the same part of speech, having structural similarities, but differing in their meaning: present - provide, adviser - adviser, put on (hat) - dress (child).

Passive vocabulary- words that have gone out of use or are going out of use, but for the most part understandable to a native speaker, archaisms and historicisms : arshin, broadcast, kiss, verb, boyar, steward, altyn, etc.

Front lingual consonants- sounds, in the formation of which the front part and the tip of the tongue work : [t], [d], [l], [r] and etc.

Transitivity of parts of speech- the transition of words from one part of speech to another due to conversion: canteen, worker, students, workers(substantivation), summer, evening, morning(adverbialization), etc. .

Perceptual function of the phoneme- the function of bringing the sounds of speech to perception, it makes it possible to perceive and identify the sounds of speech and their combinations with the organ of hearing, contributing to the identification of the same words and morphemes: breast[sad "t"] and milk mushrooms[load "d" and] identification of the root due to the perceptive function and the generality of the meaning.

Petersburg (Leningrad) phonological school- determines the phoneme on the basis of the phonetic criterion of identity according to the physiological and acoustic characteristics: in words grass and Houses for both words in the first pre-stressed syllable, a phoneme is distinguished , but in words pond and rod in word end position phoneme .

Movable stress- stress that can move in different word forms of the same word, it is not tied to one morpheme : water, water, water etc.

Subject - main member sentences indicating the logical subject to which the predicate belongs: The sun hid behind the mountain.

Vowel rise- the degree of elevation of the tongue, the degree of its vertical displacement: lower lift, middle lift, upper lift [a]- lower under., [e], [o],- cf. under., [and], [s], [y]- top rise.

Positional changes in sounds- changes in sounds due to their position in the word, which leads to reduction: cow - [krv], gardens, but garden - [sat].

Positional alternations of sounds- alternations due to phonetic position, phonetic laws operating in the language: water - water alternation [o / ], oaks - oak - [b / n].

Position- the condition for the implementation of the phoneme in speech, its position in the word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole: a strong position when the phoneme reveals its differential features. For vowels, this is the position under stress: arch, hand, for consonants before all vowels: tom - house, before sonorants : splash - shine etc.

Polysemy or polysemy of a word- the presence of the same word of several interconnected meanings: board "construction material", board "class equipment" etc.

Polysynthetic languages- languages ​​in which, within the same word, different affixes can convey a whole range of grammatical meanings: Chukchi myt - cupre - gyn - rit - yr - kyn, "we save the nets."

Complete offers- sentences that have all the structurally necessary members (subject and predicate): Cloudy riverbanks.

Full homonyms- coincidence of members of the homonymous series in all grammatical forms: beam "crossbar" and beam "ravine".

Full synonyms (or absolute)- synonyms that completely coincide in their meanings and use, or differ in slight shades: linguistics - linguistics, cold - frost, headless - brainless.

concept- this is a thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality by fixing their properties and relationships.

Postfix- a morpheme standing behind inflection, serving to form new words (someone, anything) or new word forms ( let's go, go).

parent language- the language is the basis of the historical community of related languages: the Proto-Indo-European language, the Proto-Slavic language, the Proto-Iranian language, etc.

Offer- a syntactic construction representing a grammatically organized compound of words (or a word) that has semantic and intonational completeness.

Prefix- the morpheme before the root serves to form new words (grandfather-great-grandfather) or word forms ( amusing - amusing).

Prefixoid- an affixoid used in the function of prefixes and taking its place in the word: airlines, introspection.

word signs- uniformity or integrity, separability, free reproducibility in speech, semantic valence, non-two-stress.

Adjective- a part of speech that combines in its composition words with the meaning of an attribute (property) of an object. "There is no adjective without a noun" (L.V. Shcherba). Young month.

adjoining- a type of subordinating syntactic connection, in which the dependent word, without inflection forms, adjoins the main : go up, go down.

Progressive combinatorial changes in sounds- occur in the direction from the previous to the next under the influence of the articulation of the previous sound on the pronunciation of the next : Russian dial . Vanka, Vanka, English . dog > dogs.

Productive affix is an affix that is widely used to form new words or new word forms: suf. - Nick with the meaning "room for someone": cowshed, poultry house, pigsty.

Proclitic- these are unstressed service words adjacent to the shock ones in front: on business, in the mountains.

colloquial vocabulary- part of the national vocabulary, characterized by a specific expressive and stylistic coloring: grab, forsyth, slut and etc.

Prosthesis- the appearance of an additional sound at the absolute beginning of a word, substitution: eight eastern.

Professionalisms- words that make up the belonging of speech to a particular professional group: galley, cook, flask - in the speech of sailors; hat, basement, stripe - in the speech of journalists.

Colloquial vocabulary- words used in casual speech, in the styles of fiction and journalism to achieve artistic expressiveness: nonsense, hard worker, reader, lanky, nimble, get out, chatter, yeah, bam, well etc

Colloquial and literary vocabulary- words that do not violate the norms of literary use: window, earthling, good fellow, poor fellow, talker, which differ from neutral vocabulary by their specific expressive and stylistic coloring: neutral not true, colloquial and literary nonsense, lies, nonsense etc.

The distinctive function of the phoneme- a distinctive function, thanks to which the phoneme serves for phonetic recognition and semantic identification of words and morphemes : volume - house - catfish - com.

Regressive combinatorial changes- phonetic processes directed back to the beginning of the word, from the next to the previous : sew [shshty"], all [ "s" e "].

Reduction- change in the sound characteristics of vowels or consonants in a weak position: frost [m dew], convoy [bos].

reduplication- a way of expressing grammatical meanings as a result of doubling or repeating a root or word: rus . white - white, barely talking, arm. gund "regiment", gund-gund "shelves", Indonesian. api "the fire", api-api "matches".

recursion- the phase of articulation of sounds, when the organs of pronunciation relax and move to a neutral position or to the articulation of the next sound.

Rhythm of speech- regular repetition of shock and unstressed, long and short words, serves as the basis for the aesthetic organization of the artistic network - poetic and prosaic.

family tree- the principles of the genealogical classification of languages, according to which each common language (proto-language) broke up into two or more languages, from which new languages ​​arose. So, the Proto-Slavic language gave three branches: Proto-Western Slavic, Proto-South Slavic, Orthodox-Slavic.

Language kinship- the material proximity of two or more languages, manifested in the sound similarity of language units different levels: blg . vrana pls. wrona, rus. crow.

Vowel series- the basis for the classification of vowel sounds in the process of shifting the tongue to the front or back of the oral cavity: front row [and, uh], middle row [and, a], back row [OU].

free stress- stress is not fixed, which can fall on any syllable of the word: milk, crow, raven, vegetables.

Associated stress- fixed stress, tied to a specific syllable in a word (in French - on the last, in Polish - on the penultimate, in Czech - on the first).

Sema- minimum limiting units of the content plan, an elementary semantic component. Yes, the word uncle includes five semes: 1. male; 2. relative; 3. precedence; 4. discrepancy in one generation; 5. lateral relationship.

Semantic trapezoid- a schematic representation of the ratio of the components of the word: the top of the trapezoid is the concept and meaning, and the base is the subject and the phonetic shell of the word.

Semantic neologism- words in which a new concept is conveyed by words already existing in the language: walrus "winter swimmer", bomber "prolific striker", truck "cargo spaceship" , disk "gramophone".

Semantic synonyms- words that shade different sides of an object or phenomenon: break - crush - crush.

Semantic triangle- a schematic representation of the components of the word: the phonetic shell of the word, the concept.

semantic field- a set of linguistic units united by a common meaning and representing the subject, conceptual or functional similarity of the designated phenomena; relationship field: father, mother, brother, son, daughter, grandfather, grandmother, aunt, uncle etc .

Semasiology- the science of the meanings of words and phrases.

Sememe- the unit of the content plan, the content of the lexeme, is opposed to the lexeme; the totality of semes forms the meaning of a word.

language family- a set of related languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat arose from one ancestor - the parent language: Indo-European, Turkic, etc.

The significative function of the phoneme- meaningful function: that one is here.

The significative meaning of the word- the relation of a word to a concept, denoted by the word concept: concept table - "kinds of furniture".

Strong position- the position of distinguishing phonemes, when it reveals the greatest number of differential features: nose, but nasal [n'svoi].

Synharmonism- uniform vocal design of the word, when the root vowel in formants corresponds to the same vowel sound: balalar, but uyler in kaz., odalar "rooms", but server "Houses" in Turkish.

Synecdoche- transfer of the name on the basis of quantity: part instead of the whole and vice versa: herd of ten.

Syncope- loss of sounds within the word: wire [provk], hustle [sutk].

Synonymic series- a set of synonyms headed by a dominant - a stylistically neutral word: idler, loafer, loafer, loafer.

Synonyms- words that are different in sound, but close in meaning, belonging to the same part of speech and having completely or partially identical meanings: fear - terror.

Syntagmatic relations in vocabulary- linear relationships between combined words as defined and defining: gold ring, child's pen etc.

Syntagmatic stress- more strong highlight stressed syllable of the last word in the syntagma: the weather is terrible.

Synthetic form of the word- a word from a stem and a formative affix: carry-ty, carry-ouch-th.

Synthetic languages- languages ​​of synthetic grammatical structure, when lexical and grammatical meanings are combined within one word: desk, cards, parte etc.

Syntactic level- a section of linguistics that describes the processes of generating speech: ways to combine words into phrases and sentences.

Synchronous linguistics- descriptive linguistics, inheriting the language as a system at some point in its history: modern Russian, modern Uzbek, etc.

Language system- an internally organized set of language units that are in relationship with each other ("set" + "units" + "functions").

Predicate- the main member of the sentence, expressing the predicative sign of the subject.

Weak position- the position of indistinguishability of phonemes, when fewer differential (distinctive) features are found than in a strong position : sama [sma], soma [sma].

Word- the main structural - semantic unit of the language, which serves to name denotations, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language.

Word-forming affix- an affix that serves to form a new word: old - old age.

phrase- a syntactic construction consisting of two or more significant words connected by a subordinating relationship : new house, read a book.

word form- a two-sided unit, represented externally (a chain of phonemes, stress) and internally (the meaning of a word).

Word-forming affix- an affix that combines the functions of word formation and form formation : godfather - godfather, husband - wife.

Syllable- a segment of speech limited by sounds with the least sonority, between which there is a syllabic sound, a sound with the greatest sonority (R.I. Avanesov).

syllable section- syllable boundary marking the end of one and the beginning of another : yes.

Addition- the formation of a new word by combining two or more bases into one verbal whole : forest-o-steppe, warm-o-move.

Difficult sentence- association according to certain grammar rules two or more simple sentences based on grammatical connection.

Service words- lexically dependent words that serve to express various relationships between words, sentences, as well as to convey various shades of subjective assessment.

Stop consonants- sounds, during the formation of which the lips, palate, tongue and teeth close tightly and open sharply under the pressure of the air stream: [b], [d], [g], [h], [c] and etc.

Consonants- sounds, during the formation of which the exhaled air meets an obstacle in its path in the oral cavity.

Coordination- a type of subordination in which the dependent word is likened to the main one in their common grammatical forms : new dress, new house.

Social theory of the origin of language- a theory that connects the emergence of language with the development of society; language enters the social experience of mankind.

Building units of the language- phoneme, morphemes; they serve as a means of constructing and designing nominative, and through them, communicative units.

Language structure- internal organization of language units, a network of relationships between language units.

Submorph- part of the root, outwardly similar to an affix, but not having its own meaning : cap, cucumber, crown.

substrate- traces defeated language the local population in the language system - the winner of the alien population; in Russian as a substratum of the Finno-Ugric languages.

Superstrat- traces of the conquered language of the alien population in the language - the winner of the local population: the French superstratum in English language - jury.

suppletivism- the formation of grammatical meanings from different bases: man - people, child - children, walking - walking, good - better.

Suffix- a morpheme after the root, which serves to form new words (old - old age) or new forms of the word (swim - swam).

Suffixoid- a morpheme used in the function of suffixes and occupying their position in the word: spherical, vitreous, serpentine.

Noun- a significant part of speech, combining in its composition words with general meaning objectivity: table, horse, life, wisdom and etc.

Essence of Language- a spontaneously emerging system of articulate sound signs that serves for the purposes of communication and is able to express the totality of a person's knowledge and ideas about the world. (I.Kh. Arutyunova)

hard consonants- sounds pronounced without palatalization by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate, i.e. velarization.

Linguistics, T. l. is of particular difficulty for study due to the consubstantiality of the language-object and metalanguage, i.e. due to the fact that the language-object and metalanguage completely coincide in terms of expression, outwardly they are one and the same language. T. l. includes: 1) the terms themselves, i.e. those words that are either not used at all in the language-object, or acquire, being borrowed from the language-object, special meaning; 2) peculiar combinations of words and their equivalents, leading to the formation of compound terms included in T. l. on the same rights with integrally designed units.

It is necessary to delimit the concept of T. l. as a system of general linguistic concepts and categories from another component of the metalanguage of linguistics - nomenclature- systems of specific names that are used to designate specific linguistic objects. So, for example, " agglutination », « flexion », « phoneme », « grammar"- these are terms that serve to express and consolidate general linguistic concepts, and" Saxon genitive on s "," Arab"ain" ", etc. - these are nomenclature signs, the names of private objects, the number of which is immensely large. However, the boundary between nomenclature units and terms is fluid. Any nomenclature mark, no matter how limited in its use, can acquire more general character, if similar phenomena are found in other languages, or if a more general universal content is found in the initially narrow names, then the nomenclatural sign becomes a term expressing the corresponding scientific concept. Thus, the term is the final stage in the study of a real language object.

T. l., like the terminology of any scientific field, is not just a list of terms, but semiological system, i.e., the expression of a certain system of concepts, which in turn reflects a certain scientific worldview. The emergence of terminology in general is possible only when science reaches a sufficiently high degree of development, i.e., a term arises when a given concept has developed and taken shape to such an extent that it can be assigned a completely definite scientific expression. It is no coincidence that the most important means of distinguishing a term from a non-term is to check for definitiveness, that is, to decide whether the term lends itself to a strict scientific definition. A term is part of a terminological system only if a classifying definition is applicable to it. per genus proximum et differentiam specificam(through the closest genus and species difference).

T. l. how a semiological system develops throughout the history of linguistics and reflects not only a change in views on the language, not only the difference in linguistic word usage in various schools and directions of linguistics, but also various national linguistic traditions. A metalanguage is always assigned to a given national language system. Strictly speaking, there is not one system of linguistics, but a large number of terminological systems for linguistics, which in different languages ​​have their own plan of expression, which is inseparable from the plan of expression of the given language. Therefore, the regularities that exist in human language in general are also represented in any historically established system of linguistics. The absence of a one-to-one correspondence between the plane of expression and the plane of content, which is the reason for the existence in natural language as synonymy, and polysemy, in terminological systems gives rise to the existence, on the one hand, of doublets, triplets, etc., i.e., two, three or more terms that are essentially correlated with the same referent, on the other hand, the polysemy of terms, when the same term has not one scientific definition, but several. This expresses the inconsistency not only of the term, but also of the word. "Dictionary of linguistic terms" O. S. Akhmanova leads 23 "synonyms" to the term " phraseological unit ", registered in the scientific use of Soviet linguists by the 60s. 20th century, 6 "synonyms" for the term " offer", etc. Polysemy of terms, for example" speech" (3 values), "shape" (5 values), " phrase” (4 meanings), reflected by the same dictionary, clearly shows not so much the presence of different concepts called by one term, but different approaches, different aspects of studying the same language object.

Since T. l. is not a rationally organized, semiotically impeccable system, in linguistics there is a constant problem of streamlining terminology. Some researchers believe that in T. l. must overcome the inherent natural languages violation of the laws of the sign and build it on a purely rational basis, having found access to "pure, ideal objects", others rightly believe that, since it is impossible to suspend the development of science while creating a new terminology, the task of streamlining T. l. should be reduced 1) to the study of real linguistic word usage, 2) to the selection of terminology and its description in dictionaries of linguistic terms, 3) to the comparison of national terminological systems in bilingual and multilingual terminological dictionaries. When comparing the identified doublets, triplets, etc., it is necessary to strive for a clear identification descriptors, i.e., such words or phrases that would most adequately represent this concept, most accurately reveal the nature of this particular phenomenon, designated by this term. The identification of descriptors (for example, "phraseological unit" in relation to parallel functioning doublets, triplets and other correspondences of this term) already in itself plays a normalizing role in this terminological series. In the presence of doublets and "synonyms", there may be a desire to distinguish between them, which allows terminologically to reflect the various aspects of the object (cf. differentiation of the concepts " subject - subject »).

Since the system of T. l. is an open system, constantly replenished due to the need to reflect new noticed properties and aspects of the object with new monolexemic and polylexemic terms, with modeling of this system, it is desirable to give preference to motivated terms that have a transparent semantic structure.

The viability of a particular terminological system is determined primarily by its orderliness and consistency in the relationship between content and expression. A terminological system that meets these requirements, such as the so-called allo-emic terminology, can survive the scientific direction that gave rise to it (in this case descriptive linguistics), and enter the modern metalanguage of this science.

• Akhmanova OS, Dictionary of linguistic terms. Preface, M., 1966;
• Ganiev T. A., On the system of phonetic terminology, in the book: Modern Russian lexicology, M., 1966;
• White V. V., The main groups of linguistic terms and features of their production, in the book: Continuity in teaching foreigners the Russian language, M., 1981;
• his own, Structural and semantic characteristics of terms in modern Russian (based on linguistic terminology). Candidate's abstract. dis., M.; 1982 (lit.);
• Akhmanova O., Linguistic terminology, 1977(lit.);
• her own, The methodology of metalinguistic lexicography, in book: Sprachwissenschaftliche Forschungen. Festschrift für Johann Knobloch, Innsbruck, 1985;
• see also the literature under the article Metalanguage.