Spacing between letters in an architectural font. Architectural fonts: varieties and scope

The valuation of an enterprise initially depends on what scenario of its development, i.e. on what solution about it further fate she's done. Therefore, a competent approach to the enterprise clearly requires that any assessment of it be done based on the initially indicated cost determination enterprises, which in principle can be two (taking into account intermediate solutions):

1) assessment of the enterprise as operating (on- going- concern);

2) assessment of the liquidation value of the enterprise (based on its liquidation, which implies the termination of the enterprise).

There are the following approaches to the valuation of the enterprise, to varying degrees corresponding to one or another definition of the value of the enterprise:

profitable;

market;

property (cost).

If an enterprise is evaluated as operating (preserving jobs), then it is natural to evaluate it within the framework of the so-called income approach. This approach assumes that the market value of the enterprise is determined by the future income that can be received by continuing the business. At the same time, the assessment of the market value of the enterprise should not be influenced (should not be taken into account in it) by the value of the property that is available at the enterprise and is necessary for the continuation of the enterprise and the life of the enterprise as an operating one. If such property is sold (such a prospect would allow its market value to be included in the valuation of the enterprise), the continuation of the enterprise that is based on it will become impossible and eliminate the initial assumption of the valuation of the enterprise as a going concern.

The assessment of an enterprise as an operating one is also carried out within the framework of the so-called market approach. It boils down to the fact that in order to assess the market value of a closed or not having shares of an open company placed on the stock market, among open companies with sufficiently liquid shares, an analogue company (of the same industry, the same size, using the same system) is found. accounting in terms of accounting methods for inventory items and depreciation methods, the same “age”, etc.), which is estimated by the stock market itself, and, with appropriate adjustments, transfer this assessment to the enterprise in question.

The liquidation value of the enterprise is estimated mainly within the framework of the so-called property (cost) approach. Its content is to assess the market value of the net, minus debt, assets of the enterprise. It is based on the assessment of the market value of all assets (property) of the enterprise - tangible (real and financial) and intangible, regardless of how they are reflected (and whether they are reflected at all, with regard to intangible assets) in the balance sheet of the enterprise.

A gross mistake in the valuation of an enterprise is the application to the valuation of an approach that is inadequate to determine the value, which follows from the current specific socio-economic situation with the enterprise in question.

So, if the company is city-forming(a monopsonist in local labor markets, which also contains the local engineering and social infrastructure of a small remote city or town), then the natural definition of its value (the purpose of the valuation) will, as a rule, be the assessment of the enterprise as operating. But then, if the enterprise is, for example, industrial, it cannot be evaluated within the framework of the property (cost) approach, which is reasonable for the case when it is assumed that the property of the enterprise will be sold and in this way the price of the enterprise, which is calculated by the amount, will be justified for the investor. the market value of its assets less the company's accounts payable.

The property (cost) approach may be adequate to determine the value of an enterprise as operating only in cases where the enterprise being valued:

Refers to the category of financial companies with a predominant share of financial assets, the market value of which then, in turn, is either taken from the stock market (when the financial asset is liquid or at least regularly quoted), or is specially estimated based on the expected income for the asset (security) ( the situation of “matryoshka in a nesting doll”, which implies the use of an income approach for the implementation of the property approach);

It has an increased share of intangible assets that are valuable only when they are used, i.e. when the company will operate.

Assessment of an enterprise as operating in relation to the assessment of the property complex assumes that the entire property complex will remain in the same hands and will continue to be used to produce products of a certain type (possibly updated). Then jobs and sources of income for the local, regional and federal budgets will be preserved. At the same time, it is not important for the assessment in whose hands the property complex will be, if it is preserved as an active one.

The cost of the property complex as operating does not necessarily have to coincide with the value of the company that owns this property complex and is considered as operating, because:

The company may have so-called surplus assets that are not needed for the property complex for the production and marketing of certain products, but which can be sold and are capable, therefore, of increasing the value of the company as an operating company;

The value of the property complex as operating, understood as the probable proceeds from its sale, based on a reasonable time to find interested buyers, is not equal to the value of this complex for the enterprise owning it due to the need to reduce this value when selling it by the sum of the costs of transactions for the preparation and sale of the complex.

In specific cases, there may be other reasons.

Liquidation value of the enterprise as a property complex represents the value of the probable proceeds from the urgent sale of the assets included in this complex, property rights and contractual rights (in conjunction with obligations under the same contracts) in installments. With such a sale, many assets and rights will not be able to be sold due to their low liquidity, i.e. the absence of active trading on them and the presence of only a narrow circle of people interested in such special assets and the rights of buyers (for a short time you may not be able to find them for sale at all). Consequently, the liquidation value of the property complex, as a rule, is lower than the value of the property complex as an operating one.

The main concepts given in this chapter are systematized in the diagram in fig. 1.1.

Rice. 1.1. Scheme of subordination of concepts in determining the goals of enterprise valuation

So, we repeat that the main concepts of economists on the issue of the value of goods were formed during the 17th-19th centuries, and today there are three main approaches to determining the value. Let's describe them in a little more detail.

First approach based on the use the theory of labor value of K. Marx. In accordance with this trend, the production and exchange of commodities take place on the basis of their value, which is determined by the socially necessary outlays of labor. In this case, commodity producers must proceed from the following logical position: if individual labor costs are greater than socially necessary, then that part of the costs that exceeds the latter is not recognized by society. At the same time, the value of a commodity is based on the social labor expended on its production. Hence, value is defined as the social labor of commodity producers embodied in the commodity.

According to K. Marx, the value of goods is determined not by individual, but by socially necessary labor time, which is required for the manufacture of goods in the presence of socially normal conditions of production and with an average level of skill and intensity of labor in a given society.

The use of indirect measures through comparison with other commodities is sometimes attacked by opponents of the labor value theory, although we are talking on the determination of value not by average labor, but by labor conditioned by the social conditions of production and sale.

Second approach based on the use marginal utility theory. This theory has found wide application among marginalists. They derive value and price from the marginal utility of goods and their rarity. Representatives of this direction believe that the sequential increment the same values the stock of the good at the disposal of the subject, beyond a certain point, is accompanied by a progressive decrease in the utility unit of the good. The utility of a unit of stock, or the marginal utility of a good, determines the value of a given good.

At the same time, theorists of marginalism, in particular representatives of the Austrian school, distinguish two types of value of material goods - subjective and objective. Under the subjective value is understood the value of material goods for a given subject, under the objective value - the market price of the goods. The representatives of the Austrian school assign the decisive role to the subjective value, which was laid down by them in the theory of prices. The latter is considered as the result of a collision in the market of subjects assessing the usefulness of a given product on the part of buyers and sellers.

Third Approach was formulated by A. Marshall (neoclassicist). His position of determining value is reduced to clarifying the interactions of market forces lying on the side of demand in the form of marginal utility, and supply in the form of production costs.

Hence A. Marshall concludes: utility determines the quantity offered, the quantity offered determines the cost of production, the cost of production determines the value. He believed that the price that the buyer agrees to pay for the goods is determined by the utility of the goods, while considering the utility as the maximum cost that the buyer can pay for the goods.

When determining prices, A. Marshall singled out two factors that affect prices: marginal utility and production costs. He believed that the price set by the seller of a commodity is determined by the cost of its production, and market prices are set by buyers and sellers as a result of supply and demand.

In the market, under the influence of changes in supply and demand, there are constant fluctuations in market prices. According to the theory of labor value, such fluctuations are explained as a deviation of prices from the value of commodities. On this basis, the producers of commodities in their exchange are forced to consider the social labor value of the commodities, the latter serving as the price base. The equilibrium state occurs when supply and demand coincide. When determining the value of a good on the basis of the theory of marginal utility, price fluctuations occur around the value of the "marginal product". The equilibrium market price of a good is the result of a market collision subjective assessment usefulness of this product by buyers and sellers.

As a result, we can conclude that the theory of labor value according to K. Marx and the theory of marginal utility do not contradict, but complement each other. If in the first one the scientific apparatus of substantiating the cost in accordance with labor costs is most deeply developed, then in the second - the most efficient use of the main factors of production - labor, capital, land, etc. is theoretically substantiated.

Introduction………………………………………………………………………….….…..3 1 The history of the art of the font…………………………….….………..4 1.1 Pictographic writing……………………………………………..……..…..4 1.2 Ideographic writing………………………………………...………….…....5 1.2 Syllabary…………………………………………………………………..5 1.4 Alphabetic writing…………………………………….…..……………..6 2 Font composition in architecture…………………………………..……………..8 3 The relationship of architectural monuments of different eras with text components.………………….. ……………………….………..….……………10 4 Construction of the architect's font based on the method of constructing letters Geoffroy Tory……………………….……………………………….……………..11 Conclusion…………………………………………….………………………………..13 References……………………………………….……………………………….14

Introduction

In decorative and design art, graphic works occupy a significant place - writing type posters, design wall papers, invitation cards, posters, etc. Modern design art cannot be imagined without the use of a font. The more diverse its use, the more attention should be paid to its quality, which is impossible without a serious study of its structure, classification and development history.

Communication of people with the help of written signs - font - is one of the greatest achievements of mankind. The word "font" - (schrift) - is of German origin and in translation means - writing, lettering. Font is an alphabet in which the image of letters, numbers and other written characters has general pattern construction and uniform style. In other words, a font is a graphic form of a particular writing system. The font sometimes lives for tens and hundreds of years, developing independently and together with all the art of its time. The font is necessary for people to convey information in writing in time and space.

1 History of type art

One of the greatest and most important achievements of mankind is communication through written signs: type. The word "font" in translation from German means - the outline of letters, writing. A font is an alphabet with a clear definition of the pattern of constructing images of letters, numbers and other written characters, combined into a single style. The font sometimes lives for tens and hundreds of years, developing both independently and together with the rest of the art of its time. The font is necessary for us to convey written information in time and space.

Without knowing the history of writing, it is difficult to delve into the essence of the art of type. Writing is common culture every people and part of world culture. Its history goes back to ancient times. A very long and difficult path was taken by the drawing of signs before it became an alphabet. Only four types of letters were unraveled:

1. pictographic

2. ideographic

3. syllabic

4. alpha-sound

1.1 Pictographic writing

Pictographic (picture or pictorial) writing in the form of rock paintings by primitive people belongs to the earliest period. During this period, the same concepts were depicted in drawings differently, since there was still no writing system.

Different tribes had their own drawings, which were carved on stone with a shark's tooth or other devices. It is possible that these drawings were re-composed as needed for each entry in the process of working on the image. Many drawings that have come down to us have not yet been solved.

1.2 Ideographic writing

Much later, in the era of the formation of states and the development of trade, in China and Egypt, pictographic writing was replaced by ideographic writing, that is, writing using ideograms, not letters. A whole word was designated by one written sign. It was already a system of graphic forms, since the sequence of signs corresponded to the order of words in speech. Objects were depicted either as symbolic signs (sun, moon) or graphic images: bird, beast, etc.

1.3 Syllabary

Later, a syllabic script appeared, in which syllables were designated by signs. The ancient Egyptians wrote in syllabary on papyrus, a writing material made from reed stalks. Papyrus was rolled into scrolls so that it would not break. The inscriptions were made very diligently and slowly. The syllabary was cumbersome, as it mixed verbal and syllabic signs (cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs). Types of this letter existed for many centuries among the peoples ancient east and in the countries of East Asia - Japan, China, Korea.

1.4 Alphabetic writing

Letter-sound writing appeared in the second millennium BC. e. In it, signs meant individual sounds (phonemes). Moreover, the signs, depending on the pronunciation, could convey differently sound features language. In alpha-sound writing, with the help of graphic signs, it was possible to convey human speech.

Over time, graphic signs improved, one was replaced by others, simpler in form, conveying a new meaning. The emerging alphabetic-sound system became the basis for the writing of many peoples of the world, whose linguistic specificity was also reflected in the phonographic composition of their alphabets. Each language has stabilized on a certain number of characters that make up the alphabet. The first alphabets have come down to our time a little.

Depending on the specifics of the language, the alphabets of different peoples have a different number of letters, for example: in modern Italian - 21, in Russian - 33, in Czech - 39, in Armenian - 39. Each alphabet (font) is a system of graphemes and has its own patterns in construction and development.

The first alphabet in Europe was the alphabetic-sound alphabet, which appeared around the 11th century BC. e. It was created by the Phoenicians and was the prototype of many alphabets in the world. From the Phoenicians, alphabetic writing passed to the Greeks (VII - VIII centuries BC). It is assumed that the structure of graphemes is historically associated with hieroglyphic images, which is also confirmed by the original names of some letters of the Greek alphabet.

2 Font composition in architecture

"Font composition" is a set of letters, blocks of text and other members of the text space that are harmoniously interconnected, from which the composition is composed.

The most illustrative examples of font compositions in this context are memorial plaques, tombstones, memorial and entry signs. In these artistic objects, the font is always present, or almost always, because they are not only symbolic objects, but also informational ones, that is, they contain indications of personalities, events, dates, and geographical points.

The inclusion of an image/plasticity in a type composition is a frequent and not at all an easy task. After all, the font is a very peculiar art. Firstly, it is conditional, symbolic, and not pictorial. Secondly, the font composition is not only considered as a whole, but also read in a certain order, line by line, from top to bottom and from left to right.

Any inscription has a certain dynamics and sequence, deployed not only in space, but also, so to speak, in time.

All this makes the composition of the font with the image very specific, distinguishing it from most types of decorative and fine art. Meanwhile, these arts constantly collide, unite in compositions of a synthetic nature, where the font and the subject image turn out to be parts of one whole, and must coexist not only without interfering with each other, but also uniting into a single artistic concept.

It is important to remember that in the context of any project where there are fonts, and even more so when they are combined with graphics/images/plasticity, font constructions together with these elements should be perceived as one whole.

Font designs should harmoniously fit into the structure of the solution as a whole, thereby revealing general idea project. Fonts and images don't have to live on their own. To achieve a successful result, you should not create elements that are identical in mass. The more clearly the difference and contrast of sizes in the composition is read, the more interesting it is.

Priorities may be different, it depends on the purpose and technique of the project.

Sometimes, according to priorities, text blocks should be expressed more clearly than graphic elements, sometimes on the contrary - text can be an addition to graphics, but only font compositions are also possible.

Of course, the pictorial and type compositions have not only differences, but also common features. They help bring them to a "common denominator". The image and font can be subject to a common spatial rhythm close to plastic principles. Signs of the artistic style, the artistic features of a particular time are equally manifested in the typefaces and drawings. To do this, there are various ways of visually subordinating a font to an image, or vice versa, an image to a font.

By the way, the compositional unity of font and image can be based not only on their convergence, but also on meaningful, skillfully applied contrast, opposition of volume and plane, statics and dynamics, etc.

In such works, it is not necessary, after making graphics, to “sew” a font to it later. In this case, the font will always be "foreign". If the composition already in the mind of the author appears to be divided into two parts, then this alone is enough for a minimal, but still noticeable artificial separation of the inscription and image. Therefore, work on a composition that includes type and graphic elements must be started and carried out simultaneously for all elements. We must constantly remember that the inscription and the image are parts of the same organism.

The image and font must necessarily be in historical subordination and stylistic compliance with a particular era. This applies not only to historical topics, but also to modern ones. After all, modernity is not outside of history. It is just a link in a continuous historical process.

How to correctly compose the inscription and image in the composition? In accordance with the plasticity of the image (the first sign of unity). After all, an image on any historical topic can be done in different ways. So the font for this image must match it. But it must be remembered that it is not recommended to simply restore this or that historical font. It must be borne in mind that, for all its historical character, the composition serves the present and must speak the modern language. That is, the features of modernity must inevitably be present in the work.

3 The relationship of architectural monuments of different eras

with text component

Since ancient times, type and architecture have been inseparable. The font was part of the architectural structures of Ancient Egypt, Sumer, Babylon, Greece, Rome. Architectural type at that time determined the form of all other types of type. In the Middle Ages, handwriting became the main shaping type, and typesetting since the Renaissance, but all this time the architectural type continued to influence other types of type and was itself influenced by them.

Font, like architecture, is closely connected with the great style that dominates contemporary art and at the same time is subject to fashion fluctuations. Type forms in each period are in a strange relationship with architectural forms. Sometimes they repeat each other, sometimes they diverge and oppose, but they never develop completely independently.

Font, like architecture, forms the man-made environment around us. All civilized space - from city streets and federal highways to our apartments - filled with information flows, the material carrier of which is the font.

The font, like the architecture, performs an important social function. It is they who, surrounding us from birth, serve as a measure of the beautiful or familiar, set the rhythm of our life, largely determine our views on the world. Each major style in art and architecture has a specific font associated with it.

4 Construction of the architect's font based on the method of constructing letters

Geoffroy Tory

During the Renaissance, the art of type was given great attention. In

In the second half of the 15th century, an active study of Roman monumental writing began. Studies have shown that many treatises on the art of type were based on the lost work of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), two signs subsidized by 1500 have been preserved, which, with a high probability, modern researchers attribute to Leonardo da Vinci. In terms of the complexity of the construction and the method of graphical analysis of the font form, these two signs are a classic example of type art. All subsequent treatises are rather superficial and are limited to an analysis of only the external proportions of signs. In 1509, Leonardo da Vinci's student Luca Pacioli published his treatise On Divine Proportion.

In this treatise, signs were built on the basis of a square and a circle. The thickness of the vertical element of the sign "H" was equal to 1:8 of the square, the thickness of the horizontal element was equal to 1:3 of the vertical. All signs are distinguished by the perfection of external and internal proportions.

In 1525, Albrecht Dürer published his famous work "Measurement Rules ...", intended for architects, a significant part of which was devoted to the construction of fonts. Durer designed the Latin alphabet on the basis of a square, paying great attention to the construction of ovals. The thickness of the vertical element of the sign "H" was equal to 1:10 of the square, the thickness of the horizontal element was equal to 1:3 of the vertical. Dürer was the first to give several construction options for individual characters of the alphabet. In 1529, the French master Geoffroy Tori (1480-1533) published his treatise "blooming meadow". In his treatise, Geoffroy Tory compares the proportions of signs with the proportions of the human body on the basis of a circle and a square. The square was divided into 10 parts horizontally and vertically, the thickness vertical element sign "H" was equal to 1:10 square. The horizontal element was located in the horizontal visual center, in other treatises it was placed in the geometric center (the optical, visual center is always somewhat higher than the geometric one).

The font of the architect consists of uppercase, lowercase letters and numbers. Depending on the shape of the letters, this font has several options.

Consider the construction of letters and numbers of the lightest version of this font.

The capital letters of the architect's font are built in a square, the side of which is equal to b. The side of the square is divided into nine parts, 1/3 of the part is taken as a module t, at the same time, the module is also the width of the main rack. The width of the thin elements of capital letters is taken equal to 1/3 of the module t. The semicircles of the letters at the junctions with the post have a width of 1/3 m, and in their wide part they should be equal to the module. The centers of the arcs can be easily found with the help of additional horizontal and vertical lines.

Conclusion

The architectural font, or the font of the architect, is distinguished by the rigor and elegance of letters and numbers. It is used when making inscriptions on engineering or architectural projects (drawings). Texts written in architectural type can also be found on architectural monuments (for example, the names of metro stations, on memorial plaques, etc.).

A well-chosen font can be more expressive than any picture. They can convey the necessary atmosphere, mood. The font has ceased to be only a carrier of information, it is now information itself. The font possibilities are endless, you just need to determine what impression you want to make and choose the right font for this.

Bibliography

Bezukhova L. N., Yumagulova L. A., “Type in the work of an architect, tutorial." M.: Architecture-S, 2007

The font of the architect consists of uppercase (capital), lowercase letters and numbers. The capital letters of the architect's font are based on a square, the side size of which is chosen depending on the height of the letters required for the inscription. Let's conditionally denote it b. The size of the side of the square (b) is divided into 9 parts and 1/9 part is taken as the module m. For example, you want to make an inscription or a letter 25mm high, so b = 25mm, and m = 25: 9 = 2.8mm. Module m is also the width of the main rack. The width of the thin elements of capital letters is assumed to be 1/3 of the modulus m. The semicircles of the letters at the junctions with the post have a width of 1/3 m, and in their wide part they should be equal to the module. The centers of the arcs can be found using additional horizontal and vertical lines.

Figure 16 (a, b, c, d, e) shows the construction of capital letters of the architect's font. It must be remembered that not all letters have a width equal to b, such letters as B, C, D, E, Z, R have a width of 2/3 b, and the letters W, W, W, Yu by 2 - 2.5 over base size b.

Figure 17 shows the construction of the lowercase letters of the architect's font. For ease of construction, a linear grid is used, which shows that the entire height of the letter with a ledge is divided into five parts, and the height of the main part of the letter is taken equal to three parts. Half of one division is taken as the width of the main rack. The width of the thin element is taken equal to ½ of the width of the main rack.

Figure 18 shows the construction of numbers in this font. A linear grid is also used here, which makes it easier to understand the construction of each figure. The basis is square shape with side size equal to b. Modulus m (the width of the main rack, the widest parts of the numbers) is also equal to b / 9. The thin parts of the numbers have a size of m / 3. The transition from thickening to thinning in the elements of figures occurs smoothly with careful selection of the necessary radii.

Rice. 16 a Capital letters architect's font

Rice. 16 b Capital letters of the architect's font (continued)

Rice. 16 in Capital letters of the architect's font (continued)

Rice. 16 g Capital letters of the architect's font (continued)

Rice. 16 e Capital letters of the architect's font (continued)

Fig. 17 Lowercase letters of the architect's font

Rice. 18. Numbers of the architect's font

Exercise #4

"Measurement of an architectural detail"

Practical familiarization with the technique of architectural measurements is a necessary step in the preparation of a specialist architect. Along with the acquisition of professional skills, fixing the perception of an architectural object from its images, a specific acquaintance with an architectural structure, its elements and structure in their relationship, an exercise in measuring an architectural detail helps prepare students for measuring practice, as well as developing the skills and abilities of research work .

The purpose of the exercise is an acquaintance with the methods of depicting a three-dimensional form in orthogonal projections (plan, facade, section), the study of details and architectural profiles (breaks), the patterns of their construction on examples of classical architecture.

Work begins with the implementation of sketch drawings, which are called krokami; the sketch is done by hand by eye without the use of drawing tools in compliance with the basic proportions. Dimension lines are applied to the drawing and all necessary dimensions are affixed. In order for the sketches to more accurately reproduce the proportions of the measured part, preliminary measurements of the main dimensions are allowed.

· Kroki are issued in the form of an album and are handed over together with the final submission of the exercise.

Measurements are carried out depending on the nature of the part in one of the following ways: a) the method of coordinates; b) serif method, system of triangles.

· Dimension lines are arranged in the form of chains, without cluttering up the drawing, starting from small, more detailed ones, ending with general dimensions and are put down in millimeters.

· When choosing a non-standard scale, it is necessary to use a scale bar.

Measurement drawings in the final form are drawn up on a tablet measuring 75x50cm, covered with whatman paper (Fig. 22)

Materials and equipment:

1. Architectural detail.

1. Ruler, triangles, protractor, soft wire, pencils, eraser, rapidographs, compasses.

When measuring simple architectural details, they use a coordinate system (Fig. 19), marking characteristic points on the sketch; then determine their coordinates with respect to the selected axes x, y, z.

Rice. 19. Measuring a part using the coordinate system method

The obtained coordinates are entered in the table.

No. p / p	X	At	Z
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3, etc.

When measuring parts with complex shape, use the so-called method of serifs or triangulation (from the French "triangle" - a triangle). To do this, mark the reference points A and B, measure the distance between them, and from each make measurements to the characteristic points. With the help of serifs, a system of triangles is obtained, which allows you to depict the measured part (Fig. 20, 21).

Rice. 20. Measuring a part using serifs or triangles

Rice. 21.Measuring the currency of an Ionic capital using a triangle and a ruler

Rice. 22. Examples of the exercise

Exercise number 5

“Composition from profiles of classic orders. Architectural breaks»

Order(from the Latin "ordo" - order) - this is the order in which the structural parts of the structure are located, in which the rational distribution and interaction of the carried and load-bearing parts received certain form, corresponding to the practical and artistic purpose of the structure. In its individual details, the order is processed by plastic forms, which are called breaks or profile elements.

bummers- these are elementary plastic forms, differing in the outlines of their profile ( cross section) and being the simplest constituent parts details of architectural orders (Fig. 23, 24).

Vignola(Vignola) - real name Barozzi (Barozzi) Giacomo (1507-1573), italian architect, theorist and practitioner, compiler of the collection "Rules of Five Orders of Architecture" (1562).

Palladio(Palladio) - the real name of di Pietro (di Pietro) Andrea (1508-1580), Italian architect, representative of the late Renaissance. He creatively comprehended the order system, wrote the treatise "Four Books on Architecture" in 1570.

The breaks of the Vignola and Palladio orders are geometrically divided into:

1. Rectilinear - shelf, shelf, belt,plinth.

2. Curvilinear simple (described from one circle) - roller, shaft (torus), quarter shaft (direct and reverse), fillet (direct and reverse).

3. Curvilinear complex (having two curvatures, most often directed in different sides) – goose (direct and reverse), heel (direct and reverse), scotia (an element representing a convexity of various curvature and found in the bases of columns of the Ionic and Corinthian orders).

Bummer called direct if it expands upward, reverse- if it expands downwards.

There are combinations of 2 connected elements. One of these, consisting of roller and shelves, was named astragalus; other combination - shelf and heel, although it is common, it does not have a special name. In all orders, the main elements alternate with the secondary ones, wide with narrow, curvilinear with rectilinear - this is the main rule of profiling.

It should be noted that if in the Roman version in the orders curvilinear profiles were made up of parts of a circle, then in Greek architecture they, as a rule, were curves of the second order - ellipses, hyperbolas, parabolas.

Along with the usual set of curvilinear profiles - cymatias(goose and heel), fillets and rollers - there were special profiles that took into account in their drawing their position in shady places, such as, for example, the profile of the so-called "crow's beak".

In order details, breaks perform various compositional functions:

1. Supportive.

2.Supported or crowned.

3. Binders.

4. Dividing.

Heel and quarter shaft, having strong, elastic outlines, are more often used as supporting forms, goose with its shapes facilitating from bottom to top is the final element, filet has the function of a connecting element.

Usually the breaks were decorated with picturesque ornaments in the Doric order and in relief - in the Ionic. Yes, doric cymatium usually decorated with a simple leafy ornament: goose- an ornament consisting of lotus and palmette motifs; heel- heart-shaped leaves with tongues or arrows between them; quarter shaft, convex facing down and other convex profiles - ionics; astragalus- beads, pearls. In the case when the profiles were decorated with ornaments, the latter always corresponded to the outline of the profile and its position in the overall composition.

Objective: the study of architectural orders, the assimilation of knowledge about architectural breaks. Development graphic image breaks, composition skills, improving the skills of students in mastering architectural graphics.

The font is an important component of any drawing, it helps to convey information that is impossible to convey in other ways. This is a kind of skeleton, the basis for further work. Therefore, while medical students study textbooks on anatomy, students of architectural and construction universities have to disassemble each letter by bones.

Fonts in architectural and construction drawings

There are many types of fonts and design options for drawing work. You need to understand exactly where this or that style is best applied. In architectural and construction drawing, this is especially important, because the font complements any image.

Narrow architectural font

A simple and discreet narrow architectural typeface fits perfectly into any project. It has no division into uppercase and lower case in addition, the elements do not have a slope. This type of font is the most elementary in writing, which explains its popularity. Strictly established dimensions he does not, but there are certain proportions that must be observed:

• the ratio of the width of the letters to its height should be equal to 1/4÷1/6;
• between adjacent elements, the distance should not be less than their width;
• the spacing between words is at least twice the width of the letters;
• symbols: W, Y, W, M, W, Y - one and a half times wider than the rest.

Cursive

This is another type of font that is sometimes used in works. For its image, you do not need to use special tools, that is, it is drawn by hand. A handwritten font is recommended when you need to write small numbers or letters (less than 7 mm high), then using a ruler is simply impractical and time-consuming.

Architect Font

Unlike handwritten, the architect's font is made with the help of drawing tools. It is used for inscriptions on architectural drawings, it is considered the most beautiful and has, among other things, a decorative function.

The architect's font contains both uppercase and lowercase letters. For ease of construction, symbols are entered into a square, and then they are built according to proportions. The height of the letters is usually taken equal to 1/20 - 1/30 of the size of the image: details or structures.

How to make an inscription on the drawing?

In order for the inscription on the drawing to look organic, you need to choose a place for its placement and a font size. It is necessary to take into account the scale of the image, the nature of the drawing, the type and thickness of the lines. The inscriptions should not dominate and attract undue attention to themselves, they only complement the work.

The font is a lifesaver for engineers, builders and architects. It facilitates the understanding of the drawing and allows you to convey all the necessary information about the object.