Speech is part of the general human culture. Signs of a culture of speech
Introduction
In our time, communication is one of the main factors of mutual understanding between people, so the culture of speech behavior is important to all people whose activities are somehow related to communication. By the way a person speaks or writes, one can judge the level of his spiritual development, his internal culture.
The culture of speech is a concept that combines the knowledge of the language norm of oral and written literary language, as well as the ability to use expressive language tools in different conditions communication.
In addition, conditions have developed in the modern world when the demand for a specialist in the labor market, his competitiveness largely depend on the availability of competent speech(both oral and written), the ability to communicate effectively, from knowledge of the methods of speech influence, persuasion. The success of any professional activity depends on how skillfully speech activity is carried out.
Thus, the relevance of this topic is beyond doubt.
The purpose of the work is to consider the features of speech culture and its influence on the ethics of communication.
consider the history of the issue;
characterize the concept of "culture of speech";
analyze the features of human speech culture;
identify the process of interaction between the culture of speech and the ethics of communication.
1. History of speech culture
communication culture speech psychological
The culture of speech as a special area of linguistics developed gradually. The norms of the Russian language of ancient times were formed in Kievan Rus influenced by oral poetry and the Church Slavonic language. Ancient handwritten and subsequent printed books preserved and consolidated the traditions of written speech, but the Russkaya Pravda code of laws, which was formed orally and recorded under Yaroslav the Wise in 1016, already reflected living speech.
The first attempts to consciously form the norms of written speech date back to the 18th century, when Russian society realized that the lack of unity in writing makes communication difficult and creates many inconveniences.
The work of V.K. Trediakovsky "A conversation between a stranger and a Russian about the spelling of the old and the new" (1748) is the first attempt to substantiate the rules of Russian spelling.
The theoretical normalization of the Russian language is associated with the compilation of the first grammars, rhetorics and dictionaries, with a description in educational purposes systems of literary, exemplary, language, its norms and styles.
M.V. Lomonosov - the creator of the first scientific grammar of the Russian language " Russian grammar”, (1755) and “Rhetorics” (short - 1743 and “lengthy” - 1748) - laid the foundations for normative grammar and style of the Russian language.
In the 19th century, works on rhetoric by N.F. Koshansky, A.F. Merzlyakova, A.I. Galich, K. Zelenetsky and others.
One of the main tasks of the culture of speech is the protection of the literary language, its norms. It should be emphasized that such protection is a matter of national importance, since the literary language is precisely what unites the nation in linguistic terms.
One of the main functions of the literary language is to be the language of the entire nation, to rise above individual local or social limitations. language formations. Literary language is what creates, of course, along with economic, political and other factors, the unity of the nation. Without a developed literary language, it is difficult to imagine a full-fledged nation.
The famous modern linguist M.V. Panov among the main features of the literary language names such as the language of culture, the language of the educated part of the people, the consciously codified language, i.e. norms that all native speakers of the literary language must follow.
Any grammar of the modern Russian literary language, any of its dictionary is nothing but its modification. However, the culture of speech begins where the language, as it were, offers a choice for codification, and this choice is far from unambiguous. This indicates that the modern Russian literary language, although it can be considered as a language from Pushkin to the present day, does not remain unchanged. It is constantly in need of regulation. If, however, to follow the once and for all established norms, then there is a danger that society will simply cease to reckon with them and will spontaneously establish its own norms. Spontaneity in such a matter is far from good, therefore, constant monitoring of the development and change in norms is one of the main tasks of linguistic science about the culture of speech.
This was well understood by Russian linguists of the pre-revolutionary period, as evidenced by the analysis of the norms of the Russian language in the book by V.I. Chernyshev "Purity and correctness of Russian speech. The experience of Russian stylistic grammar” (1911), which, according to V.V. Vinogradov, is a remarkable phenomenon in Russian philological literature and retains its significance to this day. He proposed a scientifically based view of the literary language as a complex interaction entire categories of synonymous, but at the same time, stylistically heterogeneous grammatical forms and syntactic turns speech.
The main sources of better speech in this work are recognized: the generally accepted modern usage; works of exemplary Russian writers; best grammar and grammar studies. The book was awarded the Academy of Sciences Prize.
After 1917, the preservation of the norms of the literary language became especially relevant, since people who did not speak it were involved in social activities. A stream of colloquial, dialectal and slang vocabulary has poured into the literary language. Naturally, there was a threat of loosening the literary norm.
However, the concept of "culture of speech" and the concept of "language culture" close to it arise only in the 1920s in connection with the emergence of a new Soviet intelligentsia and with the general post-revolutionary attitude that the "masses" "master the worker-peasant (proletarian) culture ”, an important part of which was the struggle for the “purity of the Russian language” (usually based on the relevant statements of Lenin).
A new stage in the development of the culture of speech as a scientific discipline was post-war years. The largest figure of this period was S.I. Ozhegov, who became widely known as the author of the most popular one-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language, which became table book not one generation of people. In 1948, a book by E.S. Istrina "Norms of the Russian literary language and culture of speech".
In the 1950s and 1960s, the scientific principles of the culture of speech were refined: an objective and normative point of view on the language, a distinction between codification (as a normalization activity) and norms (an objective historical phenomenon). The “Grammar of the Russian Language” of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1953-54) is published, the “Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language” is published in 17 volumes, which received the Lenin Prize, the collections “Questions of the Culture of Speech” are periodically printed
In 1952, the Speech Culture Sector of the Institute of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was created and it was headed by S.I. Ozhegov, under whose editorship from 1955 to 1968 the collections “Questions of the culture of speech” were published.
The theoretical works of V.V. Vinogradov in the 1960s, D.E. Rosenthal and L.I. Skvortsov in the 1960s-1970s; At the same time, there are attempts to distinguish it from the term "language culture" (under which they propose to understand, first of all, the properties of exemplary literary texts).
The culture of speech has become an independent discipline since the 70s of the twentieth century: it has its own subject and object of study, goals and objectives, methods and techniques scientific research material. The following theoretical directions are being developed:
variability of norms;
functionality in normative assessments;
the ratio of outside - and intra-linguistic factors;
the place and role of standardized literary elements in the modern Russian language;
norm changes.
Cultural and speech activity turns from "prohibition" into positive program linguistic education, development of linguistic flair, skills in the best possible way use the language, its expressive means in accordance with the speech tasks and the laws of the functioning of the language in society.
The communicative component of speech culture received some development (the works of B.N. Golovin, A.N. Vasilyeva, etc.) only in the 60s. 20th century in connection with the needs of teaching the culture of speech in higher education.
The normalization activity of linguists did not weaken in the 90s. 20th century: works by D.E. Rosenthal, T.G. Vinokur, L.K. Graudina, L.I. Skvortsova, K.S. Gorbachevich, N.A. Eskova, V.L. Vorontsova, V.A. Itskovich, L.P. Krysina, B.S. Schwarzkopf, N.I. Formanovskaya and others.
The communicative component of speech culture is also receiving increasing attention.
Modern approach to the problems of the culture of speech establishes internal links between the increase in the speech culture of society with the development of national culture; scientifically analyzes the processes taking place in modern speech practice; contributes to the improvement of the modern Russian literary language, taking into account the diverse social functions.
. Characteristics of the concept of "culture of speech"
Speech is the activity of communication - expression, influence, communication - through language, a form of existence of consciousness (thoughts, feelings, experiences) for another, serving as a means of communication with him, a form of generalized reflection of reality.
The culture of speech is such a set and such an organization of language means that, in certain situation communication, while observing modern language norms and ethics of communication, can provide the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative tasks.
The main indicators of the culture of speech:
vocabulary(offensive (obscene), slang words, dialectisms are excluded).
vocabulary (the richer it is, the brighter, more expressive, more varied speech, the less it tires the listeners, the more it impresses, remembers and captivates);
pronunciation (the norm of modern pronunciation in Russian is the Old Moscow dialect);
grammar ( business speech requires adherence to general rules of grammar);
stylistics (a good style of speech is subject to such requirements as the inadmissibility of unnecessary words, the correct word order, logic, accuracy, the absence of standard, hackneyed expressions).
The normative aspect of speech culture presupposes, first of all, the correctness of speech, i.e. compliance with the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers as a model.
The language norm is the central concept of speech culture, and normative aspect culture of speech is considered one of the most important.
This is a necessary but not sufficient regulator, the culture of speech cannot be reduced to a list of prohibitions and definitions of “right or wrong”.
The concept of "culture of speech" is associated with the laws and features of the functioning of the language, as well as with speech activity in all its diversity. It is possible to cite a large number of texts of the most varied content, impeccable from the point of view of literary norms, but not reaching the goal. This is ensured by the fact that the norm regulates to a greater extent the purely structural, symbolic, linguistic side of speech, without affecting critical relationships speech to reality, society, consciousness, people's behavior.
The culture of speech develops the skills of selecting and using language means in the process speech communication, helps to form a conscious attitude to their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks. Selection of language tools necessary for this purpose - the basis of the communicative aspect of the culture of speech. As G.O. Vinokur, a well-known philologist, a major specialist in the culture of speech: "For each goal there are means, this should be the slogan of a linguistically cultural society." Therefore, the second important quality culture of speech is communicative expediency - the ability to find, in the language system to express specific content in every real situation of verbal communication an adequate linguistic form. The choice of language means necessary for this purpose and in this situation is the basis of the communicative aspect of speech.
The communicative qualities of speech are, first of all, the accuracy of speech, intelligibility, purity, logical presentation, expressiveness, aesthetics and relevance. Clarity of wording, skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of visual and expressive means of language, proverbs and sayings, catchwords, phraseological expressions will certainly raise the level professional communication of people.
The third aspect, the ethical aspect of the culture of speech, is closely connected with communicative expediency. The rules of speech behavior, the ethical norms of speech culture are one of the critical components professional communication.
Ethical norms of communication are understood as speech etiquette: speech formulas of greeting, request, question, gratitude, congratulations, etc.; appeal to "you" and "you"; choice of full or abbreviated name, form of address, etc.
Communicative expediency as a criterion of the culture of speech concerns both the form of expression of thought and its content. The ethical aspect of the culture of speech prescribes the knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations in such a way as not to humiliate the dignity of the participants in communication. Ethical norms of communication provide for the observance of speech etiquette. Speech etiquette is a system of means and ways of expressing the attitude of those who communicate with each other.
The ethical component of speech culture imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication and other forms that offend the dignity of participants in communication or people around them.
Thus, the culture of speech is the observance in speech of the prevailing in society:
norms of the literary language (correct pronunciation, formation of sentences, construction of sentences, use of words in their accepted meaning and accepted compatibility). The literary language is the highest form of the national language and the basis of the culture of speech. He serves various areas human activity: politics, culture, office work, legislation, verbal art, everyday communication, interethnic communication;
norms of speech behavior, etiquette (greet, say goodbye, apologize, be polite, do not be rude, do not insult, be tactful);
norms related to the ability to achieve the greatest effectiveness of one's speech (rhetorical literacy);
norms associated with the ability to switch from one sphere of communication to another, take into account who the speech is addressed to and who is present at the same time, in what conditions, in what environment and for what purpose the speech is being conducted (style and stylistic norms).
All of the above allows us to accept the proposed by E.N. Shiryaev defines the culture of speech: “Culture of speech is such a choice and organization of language means that, in a certain situation of communication, while observing modern language norms and ethics of communication, can provide the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative tasks.”
3. Human speech culture
A high level of speech culture is an integral feature of a cultured person. By speech, they judge the level of culture of the individual and the whole society.
Human speech culture is an attitude a person to knowledge about the language (and knowledge in general), the desire (or lack of it) to expand them, the ability (or inability) to use the acquired knowledge .
The culture of speech affects not only the process of creating speech (speaking, writing), but also its perception (listening, reading). In order for the structure of speech to take on the necessary communicative perfection, the author of the speech must possess the totality of the necessary skills and knowledge; At the same time, in order to acquire these skills and knowledge, one must have samples of communicatively perfect speech, one must know its signs and patterns of its construction.
Thus, speech culture reflects the degree of assimilation and observance of cultural norms in the process of transmission and perception of a speech message, the application of knowledge that contributes to the effectiveness of this process in situations everyday communication. In a meaningful aspect, it includes knowledge of perfect speech patterns, knowledge of speech etiquette, knowledge of the psychological foundations speech communication.
The culture of speech presupposes, first of all, the correctness of speech, i.e. observance of the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers as a model, therefore the concept of the type of speech culture seems to be extremely important for state of the art society and its culture. Types of speech cultures (according to O.B. Sirotinina):
Full-featured (elitist) - the speaker uses the possibilities of the language as fully and expediently as possible, depending on the situation and the addressee of speech, freely moves from one style to another, always observes all types of norms of speech culture.
Non-full-functional - the carrier does not know how to use all functional styles, but clearly distinguish between two or three styles, depending on the situation and their profession, allows more bugs than a representative of an elite culture.
Middle literary - the carrier is "self-confidently illiterate": carriers of this type, making a large number of mistakes, do not doubt their knowledge, are confident in the correctness of their speech, never check themselves in dictionaries and even "correct" specialists.
Literary jargon - the carrier deliberately reduces and coarsens speech.
Everyday - the carrier always uses everyday literary speech without switching from one stylistic register to another depending on the situation of communication.
Colloquial - the carrier is not oriented in the style varieties of the language and makes a large number of gross errors.
In Russia, the majority of the population are carriers of types of speech culture, occupying different parts of the transition zone between the two poles: full-fledged and everyday.
In recent years, within the framework of the culture of speech, a special direction has emerged - the linguistics of good speech (reclamation linguistics), associated with the study of the qualities of "good speech", which, in turn, depend on the communicative qualities of speech. These qualities are revealed on the basis of the correlation of speech with such "non-speech structures" as the language itself as a device that generates speech, as well as the thinking and consciousness of the speaker, the reality surrounding him, the person - the addressee of the speech, the conditions of communication. Accounting for these "non-speech structures" determines the following mandatory qualities of good speech: correctness, purity, accuracy, logic, expressiveness, figurativeness, accessibility, relevance.
4. Ethics of speech communication
The culture of speech has a certain influence on the ethics of communication. Ethics prescribes the rules of moral behavior (including communication), etiquette presupposes certain manners of behavior and requires the use of external formulas of politeness expressed in specific speech actions. Compliance with the requirements of etiquette in violation of ethical standards is hypocrisy and deception of others. On the other hand, a completely ethical behavior that is not accompanied by the observance of etiquette will inevitably make an unpleasant impression and cause people to doubt the moral qualities of a person. When communicating, first of all, the features of speech etiquette are taken into account. The ethical component of speech culture manifests itself in speech acts - purposeful speech actions, such as expressing a request, question, gratitude, friendliness, congratulations, etc.
Thus, the ethics of communication, or speech etiquette, requires compliance with certain rules of linguistic behavior in certain situations.
In speech communication, it is also necessary to observe a number of ethical and etiquette norms that are closely related to each other. Speech etiquette begins with the observance of the conditions for successful speech communication.
First, you must be respectful and kind to the interlocutor. It is forbidden to offend, insult, express disdain to the interlocutor with your speech. Direct negative assessments of the personality of the communication partner should be avoided; only specific actions can be evaluated, while observing the necessary tact. Rough words, a cheeky form of speech, an arrogant tone are unacceptable in intelligent communication. Yes, and from the practical side, such features of speech behavior are inappropriate, because. never contribute to achieving the desired result in communication. Politeness in communication involves understanding the situation, taking into account age, gender, official and social standing communication partner. These factors determine the degree of formality of communication, the choice of etiquette formulas, and the range of topics suitable for discussion.
Secondly, the speaker is ordered to be modest in self-assessments, not to impose his own opinions, to avoid excessive categoricalness in speech. Moreover, it is necessary to put the communication partner in the center of attention, show interest in his personality, opinion, take into account his interest in a particular topic. It is also necessary to take into account the listener's ability to perceive the meaning of your statements, it is advisable to give him time to rest and concentrate. For the sake of this, it is worth avoiding too long sentences, it is useful to make small pauses, use speech formulas to maintain contact: you certainly know…; you might be interested to know...; as you can see...; note…; should be noted... etc.
Speech etiquette is determined by the situation in which communication takes place. Any act of communication has a beginning, main part and final. Main ethical principle speech communication - compliance with parity - finds its expression, starting with a greeting and ending with a farewell throughout the conversation.
Greetings and salutations set the tone for the entire conversation. If the addressee is unfamiliar to the subject of speech, then communication begins with an acquaintance. In this case, it can occur directly and indirectly. According to the rules of good manners, it is not customary to enter into a conversation with a stranger and introduce yourself. However, there are times when this needs to be done. Etiquette prescribes the following formulas:
Allow (those) to get to know you (with you).
Let (those) get to know you (you).
Let's get acquainted.
It would be nice to meet you.
Appeal performs a contact-establishing function, is a means of intimization, therefore, throughout speech situation the appeal should be pronounced repeatedly - this indicates both good feelings for the interlocutor and attention to his words.
Depending on the social role of the interlocutors, the degree of their closeness, You-communication or You-communication is chosen and, accordingly, greetings hello or hello, good afternoon (evening, morning), hello, salute, welcome, etc. Communication also plays an important role.
Etiquette defines the norm of behavior. It is customary to introduce a man to a woman, a younger one to a senior, an employee to a boss.
Formal and informal meetings begin with a greeting. In Russian, the main greeting is hello. It goes back to the Old Slavonic verb to be healthy, which means “to be healthy”, i.e. healthy. In addition, there are greetings indicating the time of the meeting:
Good morning! Good afternoon! Good evening!
Communication presupposes the presence of another term, another component that manifests itself throughout the entire course of communication, is its integral part, and at the same time, the rate of use and the form of the term itself have not been finally established. It's about handling.
From time immemorial, conversion has performed several functions. The main one is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. In addition, the appeal indicates the corresponding sign, it can be expressive and emotionally colored, contain an assessment. So, a distinctive feature of officially adopted appeals in Russia was a reflection of the social stratification of society, such a characteristic feature of it as veneration of rank. In Russia, until the twentieth century, the division of people into estates remained: nobles, clergy, raznochintsy, merchants, philistines, etc. Hence the appeal " lord", "lady" - to people of privileged groups; "sir", "ma'am"- for the middle class and the lack of a single appeal to representatives of the lower class.
In the languages of other civilized countries, there were appeals that were also used for a person occupying high position, and to an ordinary citizen: Mr., Mrs., Miss; senor, senora, senorita, etc.
After the October Revolution in Russia, all the old ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree. Instead, the appeals "comrade" and "citizen" are spreading. With growth revolutionary movement the word comrade acquires a socio-political meaning: "a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people." In the first years after the revolution, this word becomes the main reference in the new Russia. After the Patriotic War, the word comrade gradually began to emerge from the everyday informal appeal of people to each other.
There is a problem: how to contact to a stranger? On the street, in a store, in public transport, the appeal of a man, a woman, grandfather, father, grandmother, boyfriend, aunt, etc. is increasingly heard. Such appeals are not neutral. They can be perceived by the addressee as disrespect for him, even an insult, unacceptable familiarity. The words man Womanviolate the norm of speech etiquette, testify to the insufficient culture of the speaker. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without appeals, using etiquette formulas: be kind, be kind, sorry, sorry. Thus, the problem of commonly used address in an informal setting remains open.
label formulas. Each language has fixed ways, expressions of the most frequent and socially significant communicative intentions. So, when expressing a request for forgiveness, an apology, it is customary to use a direct, literal form, for example, Sorry).
When expressing a request, it is customary to represent one's "interests" in an indirect, non-literal statement, softening the expression of one's interest and leaving the addressee the right to choose an act; For example: Could you go to the store now?; Are you going to the store now? When asked how to get through.? Where is.? you should also preface your question with a request. Could you tell me?; You will not say.?
There are etiquette formulas for congratulations: immediately after the appeal, a reason is indicated, then wishes, then assurances of the sincerity of feelings, a signature. Oral forms of some genres colloquial speech also largely bear the stamp of ritualization, which is determined not only by speech canons, but also by the "rules" of life, which takes place in a multifaceted, human "dimension". This applies to such ritualized genres as toasts, thanks, condolences, congratulations, invitations. Etiquette formulas, phrases for the occasion - an important part communicative competence; knowledge of them is an indicator of a high degree of language proficiency.
euphemization of speech. Maintaining a cultural atmosphere of communication, the desire not to upset the interlocutor, not to offend him indirectly, not. cause an uncomfortable state - all this obliges the speaker, firstly, to choose euphemistic nominations, and secondly, a softening, euphemistic way of expression.
Historically, the language system has developed ways of periphrastic nomination of everything that offends taste and violates cultural stereotypes of communication. These are periphrases regarding death, sexual relations, physiological functions; for example: he left us, died, passed away; the title of Shahetjanyan's book "1001 questions about it" about intimate relationships. Mitigating methods of conducting a conversation are also indirect information, allusions, hints that make it clear to the addressee the true reasons for such a form of expression. In addition, mitigation of refusal or reprimand can be realized by the “change of addressee” technique, in which a hint is made or the speech situation is projected onto a third participant in the conversation.
In the traditions of Russian speech etiquette, it is forbidden to speak about those present in the third person (he, she, they), thus, all those present find themselves in one “observable” deictic space of the speech situation “I - YOU (YOU) - HERE - NOW”. This shows respect for all participants in the conversation.
Interruption. Counter remarks. Polite behavior in verbal communication prescribes listening to the interlocutor's remarks to the end. However, a high degree of emotionality of the participants in communication, a demonstration of their solidarity, consent, the introduction of their assessments "in the course" of the partner's speech is an ordinary phenomenon of dialogues and polylogues of idle speech genres, stories and stories-memories. According to the observations of researchers, interruptions are typical for men, women are more correct in conversation. In addition, interrupting the interlocutor is a signal of a non-cooperative strategy. This kind of interruption occurs when the communicative interest is lost.
You are communication and You are communication. A feature of the Russian language is the presence in it of two pronouns You and You, which can be perceived as forms of the second person singular (Table 1). In general, the choice is dictated by a complex combination of external circumstances of communication and individual reactions of interlocutors:
degree of acquaintance of partners ( you- to a friend You- unfamiliar);
formality of the communication environment ( you- informal You- official);
the nature of the relationship you- friendly, warm You- emphatically polite or strained, aloof, "cold");
equality or inequality role relationships(by age, position: you- equal and inferior, Youequal and superior).
Table 1 - Form selection you and you
VYTY1 To an unfamiliar, unfamiliar addressee1 To a well-known addressee2 In an official setting of communication2 In an informal setting3 With an emphatically polite, restrained attitude towards the addressee3 With a friendly, familiar, intimate attitude towards the addressee4 To an equal and older (by position, age) addressee4 To an equal and younger ( by position, age) to the addressee
The choice of form depends on social status interlocutors, the nature of their relationship, from the official-informal situation. So, in an official setting, when several people take part in a conversation, Russian speech etiquette recommends switching to you even with a well-known person with whom friendly relations have been established and everyday household address.
In Russian, you-communication in informal speech is widespread. A superficial acquaintance in some cases and a distant, long-term relationship of old acquaintances in others is shown by the use of the polite "you." In addition, you-communication indicates respect for the participants in the dialogue; so, you-communication is typical for old, girlfriends, who have deep feelings of respect and devotion for each other. More often you-communication with a long acquaintance or friendship is observed among women. Men of different social strata are "more often inclined" to You-communication.
It is generally accepted that You-communication is always a manifestation of spiritual harmony and spiritual closeness, and that the transition to You-communication is an attempt to intimize relations (compare Pushkin’s lines: “ You are empty heart You she, having mentioned, replaced... ". But with You communication, the feeling of the uniqueness of the individual and the phenomenality of interpersonal relationships is often lost.
Parity relations as the main component of communication do not cancel the choice of You-communication and You-communication depending on the nuances of social roles and psychological distances. The same participants in communication in different situations can use the pronouns "you" and "you" in an informal setting.
Speech taboos - a ban on the use of certain words, due to historical, cultural, ethical, socio-political or emotional factors. Socio-political taboos are characteristic of speech practice in societies with an authoritarian regime. They may refer to the names of some organizations, the mention of some persons objectionable to the ruling regime (for example, opposition politicians, writers, scientists), individual events public life, officially recognized as non-existent in this society. Cultural and ethical taboos exist in any society. It is clear that obscene vocabulary, the mention of certain physiological phenomena and parts of the body, is prohibited. Neglect of ethical speech prohibitions is not only a gross violation of etiquette, but also a violation of the law.
The norms of ethics and etiquette also apply to written speech. An important issue of business letter etiquette is the choice of address. For standard letters on formal or minor occasions, the appeal " Dear Mr. Petrov!For a letter to a higher manager, an invitation letter, or any other letter on an important issue, it is advisable to use the word dearand call the addressee by name and patronymic. In business documents, it is necessary to skillfully use the possibilities of the grammatical system of the Russian language. In business correspondence, there is a tendency to avoid the pronoun "I".
Compliments. The culture of criticism in speech communication. An important component of speech etiquette is a compliment. Tactfully and timely said, he cheers up the addressee, sets him up for a positive attitude towards the opponent. A compliment is said at the beginning of a conversation, at a meeting, acquaintance or during a conversation, at parting. Tactfully and timely said, a compliment lifts the mood of the addressee, sets him up for a positive attitude towards the interlocutor, to his proposals, to common cause. A compliment is said at the beginning of a conversation, at a meeting, acquaintance, parting, or during a conversation. A compliment is always nice. Only an insincere or overly enthusiastic compliment is dangerous.
Compliment may refer to appearance, excellent professional abilities, high morality, ability to communicate, maintain a common a positive assessment:
You look good (excellent, fine, excellent, great) looking.
You are so (very) charming (smart, resourceful, reasonable, practical).
You are a good (excellent, excellent, excellent) specialist (economist, manager, entrepreneur).
You are good (excellent, excellent, excellent) in managing (your) household (business, trade, construction).
You know how to well (perfectly) lead (manage) people, organize them.
It is a pleasure (good, excellent) to do business with you (to work, to cooperate).
A culture of criticism is needed so that critical statements do not spoil relations with the interlocutor and would allow him to explain his mistake to him. To do this, one should criticize not the personality and qualities of the interlocutor, but specific mistakes in his work, the shortcomings of his proposals, the inaccuracy of the conclusions.
In order for criticism not to affect the feelings of the interlocutor, it is desirable to formulate comments in the form of reasoning, drawing attention to the discrepancy between the tasks of the work and the results obtained. It is useful to build a critical discussion of work as a joint search for solutions to complex problems.
Criticism of the arguments of the opponent in the dispute should be a comparison of these arguments with the interlocutor's undoubted general provisions, reliable facts, experimentally verified conclusions, reliable statistical data.
Criticism of the opponent's statements should not concern his personal qualities, abilities, character. Criticism of joint work by one of its participants should contain constructive proposals, criticism of the same work by an outsider can be reduced to pointing out shortcomings, since the development of decisions is the business of specialists, and assessing the state of affairs, the effectiveness of the organization's work is the right of any citizen.
So, the field of speech culture includes not only the actual culture of speech as a system of means, but also the culture of linguistic communication, communication.
Among the phenomena denoted by the term “culture of speech”, one should distinguish, firstly, concern for the language, its culture and level of communication, and, secondly, this level itself, i.e. development of language or linguistic communication, individual acts and results.
The culture of language communication is distinguished by the following features:
it concerns statements (texts) and their perception and interpretation;
it connects the language construction with the content-thematic side and style-forming factors, the situation, the personalities of those who communicate, etc.;
the asymmetry between the culture of speech and the culture of communication lies in the fact that the entire national language as a whole is used in communication.
Thus, the culture of speech acts as part of a more broad concept"culture of communication", which includes both the culture of thinking and the psychological culture of influence and interaction.
Conclusion
Finishing the work, we note the following.
The culture of speech is the possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form, in which the choice and organization of language means are carried out, which allow, in a certain situation of communication and while observing the ethics of communication, to provide the necessary effect in achieving the set communication goals.
When characterizing the totality of knowledge, skills and speech skills of a person, the culture of his speech is defined as follows: it is such a choice and such an organization of language means that, in a certain situation of communication, while observing modern language norms and ethics of communication, can provide the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative tasks.
The definition emphasizes three aspects of speech culture: normative; ethical; communicative.
The ethics of speech communication requires the speaker and the listener to create a benevolent tone of the conversation, which leads to agreement and success in the dialogue.
The culture of speech is, first of all, its real signs and properties, the totality and systems of which speak of its communicative perfection:
accuracy of speech (“Who thinks clearly, clearly states”);
consistency, possession of the logic of reasoning;
purity, i.e. the absence of elements alien to the literary language and rejected by the norms of morality;
expressiveness - features of the structure of speech that maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader;
wealth - a variety of speech, the absence of the same signs and chains of signs;
the appropriateness of speech is such a selection, such an organization of language means that make speech consistent with the goals and conditions of communication. Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the message, its logical and emotional content, composition of listeners or readers, informational, educational, aesthetic and other tasks of speeches.
Thus, the correctness of speech, the richness of the individual dictionary increases the effectiveness of communication, enhances the effectiveness of the spoken word.
Human speech activity is the most complex and most common. It forms the basis of any other human activity: industrial, commercial, scientific and others.
It is important to master the culture of speech for everyone who, by the nature of their activity, is connected with people, organizes and directs their work, conducts business negotiations, educates, takes care of health, provides people with various services.
So, the culture of speech is the most important condition for communication. And mastering the basics of speech culture for each person is not only a necessity, but also a duty. Communicating culturally, people do right choice in the direction of achieving communicative tasks.
Bibliography
1. Benediktova V.I. About business ethics and etiquette. - M.: Bustard, 2004.
Vasilyeva D.N. Fundamentals of speech culture. M.: OLMA-PRESS, 2006.
3. Valgina N.S. Modern Russian / N.S. Valgina, D.E. Rosenthal, M.I. Fomin. - M.: Logos, 2005. - 527 p.
4. Golovin B.N. Fundamentals of speech culture. - M.: UNITI Publishing House, 2008.
Golub I.B., Rosenthal D.E. Secrets of good speech. - M., 2003.
6. Golub I.B. Russian language and culture of speech. Textbook / I.B. Golub. - M.: Logos, 2002. - 432 p.
Dantsev A.A. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities / A.A. Dantsev, N.V. Nefedov. - Rostov n / D .: Phoenix, 2004. - 320 p.
The culture of Russian speech and the effectiveness of communication / Under. ed. OK. Graudina, E.N. Shiryaev. - M.: Norma, 2000. - 560 p.
9. Kolesov V.V. The culture of speech is the culture of behavior. - M.: Education, 2008.
10. Krysin L.P. Language in modern society. - M.: Nauka, 1977.
11. Sternin I.A. Russian speech etiquette. - Voronezh, 2007.
Shiryaev E.N. The culture of Russian speech and the effectiveness of communication. - M.: Bustard, 2006.
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The culture of speech is understood as:
Possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written forms;
the ability to choose and use, taking into account the situation of communication, such language means that contribute to the achievement of the tasks of communication;
Compliance with the ethics of communication.
Thus, the culture of speech contains three components: normative, communicative and ethnic.
The culture of speech presupposes, first of all, the correctness of speech, that is, the observance of the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers (speaking and writing) as an “ideal”, a model.
The language norm is the central concept of language culture, and the normative aspect of speech culture is considered one of the most important. “The ability to speak correctly is not yet a merit, and inability is already a shame,” wrote the famous Cicero, “because correct speech is not so much the dignity of a good speaker, but the property of every citizen.”
The culture of speech requires the speaker or writer to select those language means that correspond to the tasks of communication.
The choice of language means necessary for the set goal is the basis of the communicative aspect of the culture of speech.
The ethical aspect of the culture of speech prescribes the knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in
specific situations. The ethical norms of communication are understood as speech etiquette (speech formulas of greeting, request, question, gratitude, congratulations, etc.; appeal to "you" and "you"; choice of a full or abbreviated name, etc.) The use of speech etiquette is greatly influenced have: the age of the participants in the speech act, their social status, the nature of the relationship between them (official, unofficial, friendly), the time and place of speech interaction, etc. The ethical component of the culture of speech imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication, condemns the conversation in "raised tones".
The term culture of speech is ambiguous. Among its main meanings are the following:
"Culture of speech is a set of knowledge, skills and abilities that provide the author of speech with an easy construction of speech statements for optimal solution communication tasks"
"The culture of speech is a combination and system of properties and qualities of speech that speak of its perfection"
"Culture of speech is a field of linguistic knowledge about the system of communicative qualities of speech"
These three values are interrelated: the first refers to the characteristics of the individual abilities of a person, the second - to the assessment of the quality of speech, the third - to the scientific discipline that studies speech abilities and speech quality.
Formation of a culture of speech.
The culture of speech as a special scientific discipline began to take shape in the 1920s. 20th century thanks to the works of V. I. Chernyshov, L. V. Shcherba, G. O. Vinokur.
The change in the social order after 1917 brought about a new cultural and linguistic situation. In public communication began to take part in the broad sections of the population, previously illiterate. There has been a change in the spheres of communication, the level of speech culture of society as a whole has sharply decreased.
All these processes have become the subject of attention of scientists. Scientific works appeared that contained an analysis of the speech practice of society and its individual social environments, as well as works that proposed methods for improving literacy and developing the speech culture of participants in public communication.
Among the most important works of that time, one should mention the works of G. O. Vinokur "Culture of Language" (1929), S. I. Kartsevsky "Language, War and Revolution" (1922), A. Gornfeld "New Words and Old Words" (1922) , A. M. Selishchev "Language revolutionary era. From Observations on the Russian Language in Recent Years (1917-1926)" (1928). These works were devoted to the study of the factors leading to the destruction of the norms of the literary language, the identification and description of sections of the language system that are most sensitive to violations of the literary norm, and methods of improving literacy, dissemination of knowledge about the language, education of respect for correct speech.
Then, after a long break, interest in the problems of the culture of speech increased again in the 60s. A special role at this time was played by the works of V. V. Vinogradov, S. I. Ozhegov, D. E. Rosenthal.
In 1957, "Selected Works on the Russian Language" by Academician L. V. Shcherba was published. This collection includes a number of articles on speech activity and the problems of language learning.
In 1959, in the "Selected Works" of A. M. Peshkovsky, his article, written in 1923, "An objective and normative point of view on language", dedicated to scientific definition the concept of linguistic norm.
In 1960 in " Selected works in the Russian language" by S. P. Obnorsky, his work "Culture of the Russian Language" is published.
V. V. Vinogradov in the article "Russian speech, its study and questions of speech culture" ("Issues of Linguistics", 1961, No. 4) and other works drew attention to the problems of studying the culture of speech: the existence of subjective taste assessments inherent in a certain time and a certain environment, the dynamism of the norm and its stylistic diversity.
During this period, the problems of language regulation, speech culture propaganda are studied in the works of B. N. Golovin "How to speak correctly. Notes on the culture of speech" (1966), V. A. Itskovich "Language norm" (1968), V. G. Kostomarov "Culture of language and speech in the light of language policy" (1965) and other scientists. Collections of scientific articles "Issues of culture of speech", "Language and style" are published.
In the 70s, the works of V. G. Kostomarov "Russian language on the newspaper page" (1971), S. I. Ozhegov "Lexicology. Lexicography. Culture of speech" (1974), L. V. Uspensky "Culture of speech" ( 1976).
Interest in the issues of speech culture in science increases after a new change in the language situation in the late 80s. Among the best known scientific works on the state of speech culture of society at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. we can note the collective monograph "The Russian language of the late twentieth century" (1996), the work of O. A. Lapteva "Live Russian speech from the television screen" (2000), V. G. Kostomarov " Language taste era" (1994), as well as textbooks on rhetoric by N. N. Kokhtev, Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky and other authors, textbooks on the culture of speech.
The culture of human speech plays an important role in the process of verbal communication, one of the tasks of which is the desire to make a good impression on the interlocutor, that is, a positive self-presentation. By the way a person speaks, one can judge the level of his spiritual and intellectual development about his internal culture.
There are several main features of speech culture. Let's consider them.
Right.
The correctness of speech is the observance of the current norms of the Russian literary language.
Correct is speech that is consistent with the norms of the language - pronunciation, grammatical, stylistic. But correctness is only the first step of a true speech culture.
Communicative expediency.
The concept of communicative expediency of the statement has already been mentioned in this section. It is not enough to speak or write correctly, you also need to have an idea of the stylistic gradations of words and expressions in order to be able to use them in appropriate communicative situations.
Accuracy.
Accuracy as a sign of speech culture is determined by the ability to think clearly and clearly, knowledge of the subject of speech and the laws of the Russian language. In the concept of "accuracy of utterance" two aspects are distinguished: accuracy in reflecting reality and accuracy in expressing thought in a word. The first aspect has to do with truth. speech utterance. The second with the accuracy of word usage, correct use polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, lack of specificity (statements like “Someone here and there sometimes”.
- - meaning of the word,
- - its versatility
- - matching with other words
- - emotionally expressive coloring,
- - stylistic characteristic,
- - scope of use
- - grammatical formality, a feature of affixes.
Failure to comply with the basic criteria for the selection of lexical means leads to errors in word usage. The most typical of them are the following: the use of words in an unusual meaning; ambiguity not eliminated by the context, generating ambiguity; pleonasms and tautology; displacement of paronyms; errors in the stylistic evaluation of words; errors associated with the compatibility of words; the use of satellite words, words in a universal sense, etc.
Logic of presentation.
The statement must reflect the logic of reality, the logic of thought and be characterized by the logic of speech expression. The logicality of thought (or the content of the statement) means the correct reflection of the facts of reality and their relationships (cause-effect, similarity-difference, etc.), the validity of the hypothesis put forward, the presence of arguments for and against, the reduction of arguments to a conclusion that proves or rejects the hypothesis. Examples of a violation of the logic of the statement are the well-known phrases “There is an elderberry in the garden, and an uncle in Kyiv” or “It was raining and two students, one to the university, the other in galoshes.” Violations of the logic of speech expression are also often manifested in the incorrect division of the written text into paragraphs.
Clarity, clarity and accessibility of presentation.
Accessibility of presentation is the ability of a given form of speech to be understandable to the addressee, to interest him. Clarity is achieved through precise, unambiguous, correct and motivated use of words, terms, phrases, grammatical constructions.
An example of a violation of the clarity of expression and the manifestation of ambiguity is, for example, the sentence "There are no digital data in other works of this kind."
Purity of speech.
Brightness, figurativeness, expressiveness of speech.
Expressiveness is understood as such features of the structure of speech that maintain the attention and interest of listeners and readers. The speaker must influence not only the mind, but also the feelings, the imagination of the listeners. The imagery and emotionality of speech enhance its effectiveness, contribute to better understanding, perception and memorization, deliver aesthetic pleasure. Expressiveness can be informational (when the listeners are interested in the reported information) and emotional (when the listeners are interested in the way of presentation, manner of performance, etc.).
Outstanding masters of the word of all times, major public and political figures, famous scientists, lecturers paid great attention figurativeness of their speeches.
Wealth and variety of means of expression.
The speaker needs to have a sufficient vocabulary to express his thoughts clearly and clearly. The requirement for a variety of means of expression is met when the speaker or writer actively uses a large amount of vocabulary, a large number of synonyms.
Aesthetics.
The aesthetics of speech is manifested in the rejection by the literary language of means of expression offensive to the honor and dignity of a person. To achieve aesthetics, euphemisms are used - emotionally neutral words used instead of words or expressions that seem indecent, rude, tactless to the speaker.
Relevance.
Relevance implies such a selection and organization of language means that make speech consistent with the goals and conditions of communication. The appropriateness of certain linguistic means depends on the context, situation, psychological characteristics of the interlocutor's personality. The saying “In the house of a hanged man, they don’t talk about a rope” very well reflects the essence of this principle.
Language is an instrument of popular culture. But in order for it to work for good, it must be organically, beautifully and competently used.
The culture of speech is not only the actual setting of stresses and the correct use of words, but also the virtuoso operation of the richest set of expressive means.
Clean speech is the key to the health of society
Meeting a person who is beautiful from all sides, we are fascinated by his even posture, pleasant face, neat clothes, open smile, modest disposition, purity of soul and kindness of heart.
But, it happens, as soon as he opens his mouth, the magic disappears: instead of a beautiful speech, they shower us with “agreements” and “quarters”, constantly intending to “lie” something and “call” someone.
The third gives out such confusing "three-story" illogical constructions that even a philosopher with a defended Ph.D. cannot make out the meaning of the sentence. 
Someone enriches his speech with uninvited paronyms. Others torment the language with tautologies and monotony, without trying to add even a drop of color to the narrative.
At business meetings, jargon is heard from the stands, and the Internet is replenished with funny illiterate quotes from metropolitan politicians.
All this linguistic chaos occurs for one single reason - the insufficient level of speech culture.
The culture of speech - what is it?
The personal culture of an individual's speech is characterized by how well he knows the norms of the language.
His ability to express himself accurately, specifically, succinctly, accessible, cleanly, competently, expressively and clearly is implied.
The culture of a person's speech is directly related to the spiritual wealth and integral internal culture of the individual, with his outlook, aesthetic perception and views of the world.
In a general sense, this is a section of linguistics aimed at improving the main social tool - communication.
He explores language problems, establishes rules of word usage, defines strict boundaries of cultural communicative behavior and promotes language norms.
In addition to cultural vocabulary, the section of speech culture explores colloquial forms, everyday simplified words, jargon, youth slang and borrowings.
Speech culture is based on oral and written standards and implies an adequate, literary possession of them. In global terms, the culture of speech is a love for the native language and a reverent attitude to dogmas.
She happens to be important requirement to define a person as developed, highly educated, cultured and noble.
The culture of speech and its features
The level of speech culture can characterize both the way of life of a single individual, and education, the upbringing of a whole generation.
Criteria of culture of speech:
1. Compliance with the rules. You can speak incorrectly in different ways - confusing stress (“ringing”), incorrectly pronouncing letter combinations (“fried egg” instead of “egg”) and choosing the wrong word forms (“lodge” instead of “put”).
2. Sentence Accuracy. This refers to the specificity of the reflection of thoughts. Due to vague constructions (“somewhere, someone, sometime”) and stylistic errors, your phrase may no longer be intelligible.
4. The logic of the story. Some individuals manage to start talking about one thing, and finish the thought with a completely “other opera”.
Logical speech disorders, for example, are considered breaks in causal relationships (“because gladiolus”).
The use of different sets and categories in one phrase is also disastrous (“I read two books - “The Primer” and blue”, “two comrades went, one went to school, the other in boots”).
5. Clarity. The ability to say nothing plainly after talking for two hours is highly valued in politics and marketing. However, in other communicative situations, confusing and ambiguous constructions interfere with mutual understanding.
6. Variety of expressive means and vocabulary volume. Speech saturated with synonyms and vivid turns is considered beautiful and rich.
7. Aesthetics. The use of euphemisms is a "soft" alternative to describe the gross aspects of reality.
8. Reasonableness and appropriateness of the use of means of expression in a given situation.
Communication is a widely demanded tool of modern society, and those who master the culture of speech achieve great success.
In many different professions, the ability to express yourself clearly, accurately and meaningfully, to select “talking” metaphors and to influence the masses with one word is useful.
The culture of speech is the basis oratory, literature and other major disciplines. Do not hesitate, always - both at a young and old age - it makes sense to improve the knowledge of your native language!
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§ compliance with the ethics of communication.
1. Normative
2. Communicative
3. Ethical
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Language norms.
Language- a system of multi-level language units that are in relationships of interconnections and interdependence.
Language norms- rules for the use of language units of various levels.
The concept of the norm extends to all levels of the language. In accordance with the level correlation and specificity, the following types of language norms are distinguished.
| Language norms | Language units | Language levels |
| Orthoepic (describe the correct pronunciation of words). | Linear: Sound (v, ac.) Syllable Phonetic word | 1. Phonetic. |
| Ancentological (provide correct setting accents) | Non-linear: Stress Speech rate, etc. | |
| Spelling and Punctuation (fix the uniformity of speech transmission in writing) | graphemes | 2. Graphic. |
| Lexical or word usage norms (ensure the correct choice of words) | A lexeme is a word with one or more lexical meanings. | 3. Lexical. |
| Word-building (rules of word formation) | Morpheme (root, etc.) interfix | 4. Derivative. |
| Grammar: Morphological (inflection rules described in grammars) Syntactic (regulate the correct construction of grammatical structures) | Word form. Phrases, sentences. | 5. Grammar: Morphological Syntactic. |
1. Phonetic.
A syllable is a phonetic unit formed by one expiratory push.
A phonetic word is a word united by one verbal stress.
Rags - 1 word and 1 word stress.
Well, come on - 1 verbal stress and 3 words.
Service parts of speech do not have verbal stress, unless it is stylistically determined.
Vegetable storage - the first add. stress, second verbal. Also a sofa bed.
CHINA (fish), thinking - equal stresses.
Logical stress is the most significant word in the context.
Emphatic stress - stretching a word.
2. Graphic.
Grapheme - superscript and subscript sign (letter, punctuation mark, diacritic mark, comma, underline, etc.).
3. Lexical.
Lexical meaning- the conceptual content of the word.
Archaism - obsolete words.
The cheekbones are the cheeks, the shuya is the left hand, the right hand is the right hand.
Comrade from goods, eyelash from clear (fringe), burr from sleep (skin).
4. Derivational.
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word.
Beat (bi-root), fight (the word is the root), athlete (change-suffix), gentleman (word-root), superman (1- prefix, 2-root), dress (e-root), put on (y -root) from the old word uti, which means shoes, pantrantash (1-root, 2-suffix).
An interfix is an asemantic component between morphemes that performs a connecting function and is not a morpheme.
5. Grammar.
A word form is a word in a certain grammatical form, it is formed by conjugation or declension of the main dictionary form of the word.
There are three degrees of normativity, which are reflected in various dictionaries:
§ Norm of the 1st degree - strict, rigid, does not allow options (putting, not laying down);
§ Norm of the 2nd degree - neutral, allows equivalent options (decent (sh));
§ The norm of the 3rd degree is more mobile, allows colloquial, obsolete forms (cottage cheese, cottage cheese).
The norm of the 1st degree is called the imperative norm, the norms of the 2nd and 3rd degrees are called dispositive norms.
AT linguistic literature In recent years, two types of norms have been distinguished: imperative and dispositive.
imperative(strictly obligatory) - the norms are the only correct ones, they have one representation.
dispositive- norms allow stylistically different or neutral options.
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Jackets, jackets, hats.
From the butcher shop
Aunt Zina came running. (I. Reznikova)
If we take this passage in the literal sense, it turns out that along with people (mothers, fathers, aunt Zina), things (jackets, vests, hats) were rushing along the street. When using synecdoche, the name of a garment can figuratively used to refer to the person who wears the garment.
The most common types of synecdoche are:
1. Part of the phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole.
For example: All flags will visit us (A. Pushkin), i.e. ships under the flags of all countries.
2. The whole in the meaning of the part.
For example:
Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:
Oh, how are you! Fight with a helmet?
Well, isn't it mean people?
3. Singular in the meaning of the general and even universal.
For example: There is a groan Human from bondage and chains. (M. Lermontov) From here we will threaten to the Swede. (Meaning - the Swedes)
4. Replacing a number with a set:
For example:
Dare now encouraged
To prove with your care
What can own Platonov
And quick minds Nevtonov
Russian land beget. (M.V. Lomonosov)
Milona you. Us - darkness, and darkness, and darkness(A. Blok)
5. Replacing a generic concept with a specific one.
For example: ... Most of all, take care and save a penny: This thing is the most reliable. A comrade or friend will deceive you and, in trouble, will be the first to betray you, and penny will not give out, no matter what trouble you are in. You will do everything and you will break everything in the world penny. (Instead of a generic, broader concept of money, a specific one is used, a narrower one is a penny, and a singular is used instead of a plural)
beom penny! Very well! (V. Mayakovsky)
6. Replacement of a specific concept by a generic one.
For example:
A tear from the eyes of the very - (Meaning the plural - tears)
the heat drove me crazy
but I to him
for a samovar:
"Well,
sit down light!" (Instead of the narrower concept of the sun, a broader, generic concept of the luminary was used)
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Lexical homonyms.
They are words of the same part of speech, identical in spelling and pronunciation, but different in meaning.
1. Bor - a piece of coniferous forest.
Boron is a dental drill.
Boron is a chemical element.
2. Peace - the absence of war.
The world is like the universe.
3. Focus - a circus trick.
Focus - in physics, the point of refraction of rays.
4. Club - spec. a building where ceremonial and entertainment events are held.
Club - a meeting of interests.
The club is like a coil of smoke.
5. Braid - a kind of hairstyle.
The spit is a sandbar.
A scythe is an agricultural implement.
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Varied antonyms.
Big small;
High - low.
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These are words and expressions peculiar to groups of persons and related common occupation, interests, living conditions, social status.
Forms of communication can be different:
Study at school;
Military service;
Doing sports;
Drunkenness;
Playing cards, etc.
Jargon is a social type of speech special language, but just a specific dictionary. This differs from the territorial dialects.
Researchers distinguish the heterogeneity of modern jargon:
1. common layer (bazaar, roof, put on shoes, buzz);
2. narrow-group (specialized) jargons (dirich, botanist, slop, chimera, hysteric, jelly, filoluhi, psychos, pervaks, cloacquism, spurs, etc. - understandable to schoolchildren and students).
Jargon is characterized by emotional appraisal, but it is fleeting.
The formation of the jargon dictionary occurs due to the same sources that are characteristic of the language as a whole:
Metaphorical, metonymic transfer (conductor = beggar; parents = laborers, shoelaces, stockings, antiques; printer = computer science teacher; pocket = rich man; boar = girl's friend);
Borrowing from other languages (drink = booze, style - style);
Borrowing from thieves jargon (ment, garbage);
Derivation (suffix addition) (beach package, hostel, slip away, dump);
Argo vocabulary - words and expressions used by a separate, closed group of people - is used by representatives of the underworld (for example, burglar, window man, plucker, bracelets = handcuffs, green execution = work at a logging site). Some argot words are fixed in the literary language: bum, lawlessness.
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Pronunciation of vowels.
In Russian speech, only vowels that are under stress are pronounced clearly: s [a] d, v [o] lk, d [o] m. Vowels that are in an unstressed position lose clarity and clarity. This is called the law of reduction (from Latin reducire to reduce).
The vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of the word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: deer - [a] laziness, late - [a] p [a] to build, forty - from [a] rock.
In an unstressed position (in all unstressed syllables, except for the first pre-stressed one), after solid consonants in place of the letter o, a short (reduced) obscure sound is pronounced, the pronunciation of which in different positions ranges from [s] to [a]. Conventionally, this sound is denoted by the letter [ъ]. For example: side - side [b] rona, head - g [b] fishing, dear - d [b] horn, gunpowder - por [b] x, gold - gold [b] t [b].
After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed syllable, in place of the letters a, e, i, a sound is pronounced, the middle one between [e] and [i]. Conventionally, this sound is indicated by the sign [ie]: language - [ie] language, pen - p [ie] ro, hours - h [ie] sy.
The vowel [and] after a solid consonant, preposition or when pronouncing the word together with the previous one is pronounced as [s]: pedagogical institute - pedagogical [s] institute, to Ivan - to [s] van, laughter and tears - laughter [s] tears. In the presence of a pause, [and] does not turn into [s]: laughter and tears.
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Grammatical norms of the modern Russian language. Variants of case endings for nouns
One of main features literary language is its normalization, i.e., the existence of norms. Language norm- this is a sample, this is how it is customary to speak and write in a given linguistic society in this era. The norm determines what is right and what is not., it recommends some language means and modes of expression and prohibits others. For example, can't speak corridor, follows - corridor, can't pronounce calling- only calling. Language norms are objectively formed in the process of language practice of members of society. Norms may change over time, but they are still stable over time. Compliance with the norms facilitates the use of literary language. Norms permeate all tiers of the literary language.
Syntax.
There are two big problems with word formation.:
) compliance with the norms or rules for the formation of words;
) the choice of a particular word, which includes evaluative morphemes, in accordance with a specific situation of communication.
The first problem relates to the field of speech culture, the second relates more to style.
Morphological norms determine the correctness of the formation and use of word forms. For example, the normative form of the genitive plural is many stocking, boot, socks, can't speak places, business, should not be changed indeclinable nouns: in new coat, incorrect: more better (simply - better) or smartest (smartest or smartest).
Morphological norms apply to all parts of speech in the Russian language. The gender of nouns refers to permanent features, therefore, often violations of grammatical norms are associated precisely with the incorrect use of nouns in a certain gender. It is not difficult to determine the gender of a noun, it is enough to choose the right pronoun for it ( he she it).
There are also morphological norms declension of nouns, where variants of case endings are clearly defined. The main grammatical norms of case endings are as follows:
1) standard endings im.p. plural noun m.r. are -s (-s), non-standard (- (-s), -e), for example: moles, horses, snow, chairs.
2) in the form of rod.p. inanimate to them. noun m.r. in units have the ending -u (-u), which is most often found in words with a real meaning and in collective nouns in the value of quantity from a part of the whole, for example: pour sand/sand.
) the -y form is firmly held in phraseological combinations, for example : in a personal meeting.
) diminutive forms with an accent on the ending are used mainly with the -y form, for example: cognac, cottage cheese.
) zero ending of the names of units of measurement (watt, erg); names of vegetables, fruits, food, measured by masses (eggplant, tangerine, pomegranate); names of persons by nationality (Avar, Ossetians, Gypsies); names of persons according to belonging to military units ( hussar, midshipman); names of paired objects or objects consisting of several parts ( boots, clip-on, stocking); some nouns that have only plural form. ( spatter, timpani, cosmos).
) an expressed null ending, for example: uncles, aunts, nurseries, etc.
) other cases.
The norms of variants of endings of nouns in the form nominative case plural, for example: constructor-constructors, front-fronts, anchor-anchors.
There are norms for phraseological combinations and combinations with forms in -y in the prepositional case, for example: not enough gunpowder, hour by hour, out of tune with the heart, at every step.
The grammatical norms of the endings of masculine nouns for a hard consonant in genitive case plural, for example: Bermuda-Bermuda, cuff-cuff, Greek-Greek, Evenki-Evenki.
A certain group of nouns used with certain grammatical norms are nouns with noun endings m.r., f.r., cf.r. with a stem to a soft consonant, Zh, or a hissing consonant in the genitive plural, for example: gossip-gusli, gossip-gossip, lodge-lies, gear-gears.
There are norms for the declension of proper nouns: surnames and place names, in particular the declension of surnames. For example, foreign and Russian surnames ending in a consonant decline if they refer to men and do not decline if they refer to women: to Oleg Finkel and Maria Finkel. The same group of grammatical norms should include the norms of declension of geographical names. For example, geographical names like Sheremetyevo(in Sheremetyevo), Komarovo (Komarovo) have normal inflected and non-inflected variants, but are not inflected if they are found with generic names ( from the port of Vanino) or the names are enclosed in quotation marks (for example, near the farm " Golovlevo»)
There are grammatical rules for the use of adjectives. Full form adjective most often refers to constant feature subject, and a short one - for a temporary one. For example: she is educated and she is educated. The short form expresses the sign more categorically than the full one: he is smart - he is smart.
The grammatical norms of declension of numerals are also determined. For example, when declining compound numbers denoting hundreds and tens and ending in -hundred or -ten in the nominative case, each part is declined as a simple number ( fifty, seventy). There are also norms for the use of collective nouns. For example, in cases of their use with personal pronouns: there are two of us, there were five.
There are also grammatical norms for the formation of personal forms of verbs. For example, for verbs offend, protect, persuade etc. form 1l is not formed. unit Some verbs (for example, drive) form is not formed imperative mood. Verbs must agree with nouns in number. When using a verb, it is necessary to follow the verb control. Certain difficulties arise in the formation of the past tense forms of some verbs. So, for example, verbs in -nut in the indicated form have grammatical variants: penetrated - penetrated, dried-dry. However, recently there has been a tendency to lose the suffix -y.
The grammatical norms for the formation of participles contain, for example, the norm that passive past participles are not formed from verbs in - (a) nut: push, push from the verbs to kiss, orphan, etc.
The same applies to the rules on the formation of adverbs. Participles are not formed, for example, from non-prefixed imperfective verbs ending in -nut: to dry, to freeze, to hang, to stick etc. The action expressed by the gerund must refer to the same person (object) to which the action expressed by the verb-predicate refers.
Syntactic norms regulate the formation of phrases and sentences, for example, when managing: can't talk shows... (shows what?), confidence in victory (in victory), the limit of patience has come (patience), pay for the fare (pay for what?); After watching this movie, I felt sad (Watching this movie, I felt sad. Or: I felt sad after watching this movie).
Knowledge of grammatical norms and rules for constructing phrases and sentences and attentive attitude to one's own speech culture allows avoiding syntactic errors in speech. phrase is a combination of two or more words significant parts speech, in which there is a main (s) and dependent (s) word (s). Phrases are not a means of communication. They form the basis of the sentence, which serves as a means of communication. The sentence is specifically intended to express any message, motivation or question.
Thus, we have examined the main groups of grammatical norms of the modern Russian language. Ignorance of grammatical norms leads to the fact that the incorrect use of certain speech turns violates the grammatical structure of the language.
Variants of case endings for nouns
Usually for each case there is one characteristic ending. However, in some cases, the same case may have different endings:
1) Some inanimate nouns masculine gender can have in the genitive singular endings not only -and I, but also - u, u. These nouns include:
real, when indicating the amount of something ( centner of granulated sugar - sand, little snow - snow) or the absence of some quantity ( not a gram of sand - sand, not a drop of alcohol - alcohol); this applies especially to real noun with diminutive suffixes ( fill in the sand);
abstract, in the same cases ( how much squealing - screeching; no cry - cry, no noise - noise);
words included in stable combinations (a week without a year, no laughing matter). Forms with endings -u, -u are conversational.
2) Some inanimate masculine nouns in the prepositional singular with prepositions in and on the with spatial meaning can always have stressed endings -u, -u (in the corner, on the cabinet). The most common of these nouns are: shore, board (of a ship), Crimea, forest, bridge, port, row, garden, corner, closet.
With ending options -e, -y (on vacation - on vacation, in the cold - in the cold, in the workshop - in the workshop) the first is neutral in nature, and the second is colloquial.
3) A number of masculine nouns in the nominative plural have stressed endings - and I): address - addressA, poplar - poplar. The most common nouns that take this form are: side, coast, century, evening, eye, director, house, doctor, region, master, number, island, passport, train, professor, volume. In case of hesitation in the choice of endings –s (s) – -and I) the latter are more characteristic of household and professional speech: years - years, inspectors - inspector, spotlights - spotlights, sectors - sectors, locksmiths - locksmiths, turners - turners, poplars - poplars,. tractors - tractors, anchors - anchors. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that some variant forms differ in meaning: images (artistic and literary) and images (icons), teachers (ideological leaders) and teachers (teachers), flowers (plants) - colors (coloring), etc.
4) Some groups of masculine nouns in the genitive plural have the form of the nominative singular (with zero ending). These groups are:
individual names of persons by nationality ( Buryats, Georgians, Lezgins, Turks, Gypsies; but cf.: Arabs, Mongols);
individual names of persons associated with military service (hussar, partisan, soldier; but cf.: captains, colonels);
separate names of paired objects ( boot, felt boots, epaulette, boot, stocking; but cf.: socks);
separate names of units of measurement when indicating their number ( ampere, watt, volt, hertz, ohm, x-ray).
In case of fluctuations of forms with zero termination and with - ov the former are characteristic of colloquial speech, and the latter - strictly literary language ( sector - sectors, orange - oranges).
5) For nouns II declension in instrumental singular vary endings -oh (-she) and - oyu(-yu): head, page - head, page. The latter forms are found, as a rule, in poetry, being due to the rules of rhyme.
6) Common nouns are declined according to the feminine declension pattern, but are used most often in colloquial speech : krivlyakA, dude, bore.
7) The grammatical gender of some nouns that have an augmentative suffix in their composition differs depending on the meaning of the word - ische. Wed: town (big city)) - male; gorodishche ( ancient settlement ) - neuter; fire (big fire)- male; FIRE (the place where the fire occurred, the remains of something burned) is neuter.
8) Although the category of animate / inanimate has a certain grammatical expression in Russian, however, in some cases there are fluctuations in attributing some words to animate or inanimate nouns. Fluctuations are observed in the names of microorganisms: to study bacteria/bacteria, research bacilli/bacilli, destroy microbes/germs; same for words embryos, larvae, embryos etc. In the general literary language, these words are used as inanimate nouns : study bacteria, destroy microbes. Attributing them to animate nouns is associated with a more archaic use or with the use in specialized literature, in professional speech: Textile paint protonsil kills pathogenic microbes in the human body.
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Peculiarities
Despite differences in content and variety of genres, formal business style as a whole is characterized by common features. These include:
1) conciseness, compactness of presentation, economical use of language tools;
2) the standard arrangement of the material, the often obligatory form (identity card, various kinds of diplomas, birth and marriage certificates, money documents, etc.), the use of clichés inherent in this style;
3) the widespread use of terminology, names (legal, diplomatic, military, administrative, etc.), the presence of a special stock of vocabulary and phraseology (official, clerical), the inclusion of complex abbreviated words and abbreviations in the text;
4) frequent use verbal nouns, denominated prepositions (on the basis of, in relation to, in accordance with, in the case, by virtue of, for the purposes of, at the expense of, along the line, etc.), complex unions (due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that etc.), as well as various stable phrases that serve to connect parts of a complex sentence (in case ...; on the basis that ...; for the reason that ...; with the condition that ...; such the way that ..., the circumstance that ..., the fact that ..., etc.);
5) the narrative nature of the presentation, the use of nominative sentences with enumeration;
6) direct word order in a sentence as the prevailing principle of its construction;
7) tendency to use complex sentences reflecting the logical subordination of some facts to others;
8) almost complete absence of emotionally expressive speech means;
9) weak individualization of style.
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The culture of speech is part of the general culture of man.
The culture of speech is part of the general culture of man. By the way a person speaks or writes, one can judge the level of his spiritual development, his inner culture. A person's mastery of the culture of speech is not only an indicator high level intellectual and spiritual development, but also a kind of indicator of professional suitability for people of various professions: diplomats, lawyers, politicians, school and university teachers, radio and television workers, journalists, managers. It is important to master the culture of speech for everyone who, by the nature of their activity, is connected with people, organizes and directs their work, teaches, educates, conducts business negotiations, and provides various services to people.
The culture of speech is, to some extent, a set of requirements for the form, content, order, nature and situational relevance of statements. Speech etiquette is associated with the so-called postulates of speech communication, which make the interaction of communication participants possible and successful.
To have a culture of speech means not only to understand the meaning of all elements of the language, but also to remember how it is customary to use them in literary speech.
The culture of speech of each individual person depends on how developed his sense of language, or linguistic instinct is. The highest culture of speech is called the possession of a sense of style.
The lack of a culture of speech is manifested, for example, in the fact that a person pronounces sounds incorrectly in words, that is, he pronounces words the way they are written, incorrectly builds phrases, gives words the wrong meaning.
Mastering the art of communication is necessary for every person, regardless of what type of activity he is engaged in or will be engaged in, since the level and quality of his communication depends on success in personal, industrial and public spheres life.
The term culture of speech means:
1. possession of the norms and oral and written language(rules of pronunciation, stress, word usage, grammar, style), as well as the ability to use the expressive means of the language in various conditions communication in accordance with the goals and content of speech;
2. a branch of linguistics that studies the problems of normalization in order to improve the language as an instrument of culture.
The culture of speech means:
§ possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written forms;
§ the ability to select and organize language tools that, in a certain situation of communication, contribute to the achievement of the goals of communication;
§ compliance with the ethics of communication.
Thus, the culture of speech contains three components: normative, communicative and ethical.
1. Normative. The culture of speech implies, first of all, the correctness of speech, that is, the observance of the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers (speaking and writing) as a model.
2. Communicative. Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture, so it is important to know the main communicative qualities speeches that have the best impact on the addressee, taking into account the specific situation and in accordance with the goals and objectives set. These include: accuracy, consistency, richness and variety of speech, its purity, expressiveness.
3. Ethical. The ethical aspect of the culture of speech prescribes the knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations. Ethical norms of communication are understood as speech etiquette (speech formulas of greetings, requests, thanks, congratulations, etc.; appeals to you and you; choice of a full or abbreviated name, address formulas, etc.).
The use of speech etiquette is greatly influenced by extralinguistic factors: the age of the participants in the speech act, their social. status, the nature of the relationship between them, the time and place of speech interaction, etc.
The ethical component of the culture of speech imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication, condemns conversation in raised tones.
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