Heraclitus of Ephesus believed that the primary element. Brief biography of Heraclitus

Heraclitus of Ephesus- an ancient Greek philosopher, who is credited with creating the first historical dialectics; he is considered the author famous phrase"Everything flows, everything changes." There is very little reliable information in the biography of Heraclitus. It is known that his homeland is the city of Ephesus ( Asia Minor). During the 69th Olympiad (504-501 BC), the philosopher was a mature man, in the prime of life, on the basis of which the researchers made the assumption that he was born around 540 BC. e.

Heraclitus was a descendant of an ancient aristocratic family, his ancestor Androclus founded Ephesus. By inheritance, Heraclitus received the rank of priest in the temple of Artemis of Ephesus. But he refused the honors due to his origin, moreover, he completely withdrew himself from lawmaking and participation in public life cities. Heraclitus held an extremely negative opinion about urban orders, treated fellow citizens and people in general with contempt, believing that they themselves were not aware of what they were doing and what they were saying. He was especially angry with his countrymen when the townspeople expelled his friend Hermodorus from Ephesus. Nevertheless, when the inhabitants of Athens and the king of Persia Darius invited him to their place, the philosopher did not want to leave hometown. Toward the end of his life, he turned into a real hermit, went to live in the mountains, where he ate pasture.

Contemporaries gave Heraclitus the nickname "Skutinos", i.e. "Dark", "Gloomy". It corresponded to his misanthropic moods and at the same time reflected the depth and mystery of his thoughts, often expressed in difficult-to-perceive images, as well as the "mood" of his entire philosophical system, which gave reason to oppose him to the "laughing sage" - Democritus.

Heraclitus was a prominent representative of the Ionian philosophical school, which put forward the origin of everything from the beginning, its unity, as the main idea. For Heraclitus, this initial principle was fire, the material expression of which is the cosmos, which is constantly changing. It was this philosopher who first called the universe the word "cosmos", earlier this term hid the order that reigned in the life of a state or a single person.

Today we know only about the only work of Heraclitus - "On Nature", which is represented by several dozen passages included in the works of other, later authors, in particular, Plato, Plutarch, Diogenes, etc. This philosophical doctrine consisted of three parts: the theological , political and natural-philosophical. The basis of the Heraclitean doctrine is the idea of the variability of everything that exists, the absence of anything permanent. In nature, there is a constant process of transition from one to another, a change of state, which is why "you cannot enter the same river twice."

He introduces into the terminology a multi-valued new concept - “logos”, which means, in particular, the principle of unity, which, by uniting opposite principles, brings the universe to order. According to Heraclitus, "discord is the father of everything", the eternal struggle of opposites leads to the emergence of new phenomena. For him, good and evil, life and death, day and night were two sides of the same coin. Such a system of views made it possible to classify Heraclitus among the founders of dialectics, the first materialist philosophers who derived the dialectical principles of knowledge and being, although their ideas were distinguished by some naivety.

According to the researchers, Heraclitus cannot be attributed to anyone's followers, he most likely did not have his own students, however, the influence of his system on the formation of the worldview of later thinkers is difficult to overestimate; he, like Pythagoras and Parmenides, was directly involved in laying the foundations for ancient and later European philosophical thought.

The death of the great philosopher is shrouded in a trail of conflicting information: Heraclitus allegedly expected his death, being smeared with manure at his own request, and was torn to pieces by dogs. In these legends, some researchers see nothing more than statements of the philosopher himself distorted beyond recognition, others - signs of his burial in accordance with Zoroastrian traditions, the influence of which can be traced in separate passages belonging to him. When exactly Heraclitus died is unknown, presumably it happened in 480 BC. e.

Biography from Wikipedia

Heraclitus of Ephesus(ancient Greek Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος, 544-483 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher.

Founder of the first historical or original form of dialectics. Heraclitus was known as the Gloomy or Dark (according to Aristotle - ancient Greek ὁ σκοτεινός λεγόμενος Ἡράκλειτος), and his philosophical system contrasted with the ideas of Democritus, which was noticed by subsequent generations.

His only work, from which only a few dozen fragments-citations have been preserved, is the book “On Nature”, which consisted of three parts(“On Nature”, “On the State”, “On God”).

Little reliable information about the life of Heraclitus has been preserved. He was born and lived in the Asia Minor city of Ephesus, his acme falls on the 69th Olympiad (504-501 BC), from this we can approximately deduce the date of his birth (about 540). According to some sources, he belonged to the genus Basileus (priest-kings with purely nominal power in the time of Heraclitus), descendants of Androcles, but voluntarily renounced the privileges associated with the lineage in favor of his brother.

Diogenes Laertes reports that Heraclitus, “having hated people, retired and began to live in the mountains, feeding on pasture and herbs.” He also writes that a disciple of Parmenides Melissus came to the philosopher in his voluntary exile and "introduced Heraclitus to the Ephesians, who did not want to know him."

Biographers emphasize that Heraclitus "was not anyone's listener." He, apparently, was familiar with the views of the philosophers of the Miletus school, Pythagoras, Xenophanes. He also most likely did not have direct students, however, his intellectual influence on subsequent generations of ancient thinkers is significant. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were familiar with the work of Heraclitus, his follower Cratyl becomes the hero of the Platonic dialogue of the same name.

The gloomy and contradictory legends about the circumstances of the death of Heraclitus (“he ordered to smear himself with manure and, lying like that, died”, “became the prey of dogs”) are interpreted by some researchers as evidence that the philosopher was buried according to Zoroastrian customs. Traces of Zoroastrian influence are also found in some fragments of Heraclitus.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius writes in his memoirs that Heraclitus died of dropsy, and smeared himself with manure as a remedy for the disease.

Heraclitus is one of the founders of dialectics.

Teachings of Heraclitus

Since antiquity, primarily through the testimony of Aristotle, Heraclitus is known for five doctrines that are most important for the general interpretation of his teachings:

Fire is the beginning (ancient Greek ἀρχή) or the original material cause of the world.
There are periodic episodes of the world fire (ancient Greek ἐκπύρωσις), during which the cosmos is destroyed in order to be reborn again.
Everything is a flow (so-called. Doctrine or flow theory).
Identity of opposites.
Violation of the law of contradiction. This doctrine is rather a consequence of (3) and (4) than an independent position of the teachings of Heraclitus.

Modern interpretations are often based on the invalidation of all these positions by Heraclitus in part or in full, and are characterized by the refutation of each of these doctrines. In particular, F. Schleiermacher rejected (1) and (2), Hegel - (2), J. Burnet - (2), (4), (5), K. Reinhardt, J. Kirk and M. Marcovich reject consistency all five.

In general, the teachings of Heraclitus can be reduced to the following key positions, with which most researchers agree:

People are trying to comprehend the underlying connection of things: this is expressed in the Logos as a formula or element of ordering, establishing general for all things (fr. 1, 2, 50 DK).

Heraclitus speaks of himself as someone who has access to the most important truth about the structure of the world, of which a person is a part, knows how to establish this truth. Main Ability man - to recognize the truth, which is "general". Logos is the criterion of truth, the final point of the method of ordering things. The technical meaning of the word is “speech”, “relation”, “calculation”, “proportion”. The Logos was probably posited by Heraclitus as the actual component of things, and in many respects correlated with the primary cosmic component, fire.

Various types of proofs of the essential unity of opposites (fr. 61, 111, 88; 57; 103, 48, 126, 99);

Heraclitus sets 4 different kind links between apparent opposites:

a) the same things produce the opposite effect

"The sea is the cleanest and dirtiest water: for fish - drinking and saving, for people - unfit for drinking and destructive" (61 DK)

"Pigs enjoy mud more than clean water" (13 DK)

"The fairest of monkeys is ugly in comparison with another kind" (79 DK)

b) different aspects of the same things can find opposite descriptions (writing - linear and round).

c) good and desirable things, such as health or relaxation, only seem possible if we recognize their opposite:

"Illness makes health pleasant and good, hunger - satiety, fatigue - rest" (111 DK)

d) some opposites are essentially related (literally "to be the same"), as they follow each other, are pursued by each other and by nothing but themselves. So hot-cold- this is a hot-cold continuum, these opposites have one essence, one thing common to the whole pair - temperature. Also a couple day Night- common for the opposites included in it will be the temporal meaning of "day".

All these types of opposites can be reduced to two large groups: (i - a-c) opposites that are inherent or simultaneously produced by one subject; (ii - d) opposites that are connected through existence in different states into one stable process.

Each pair of opposites is thus forms both unity and plurality. Different pairs of opposites form an internal relationship
“Conjugations (ancient Greek συνάψιες): whole and non-whole, converging divergent, consonant inconsonant, from everything - one, from one - everything” (10 DK)

Συνάψιες is letters."things put together", interconnections. Such "things taken together" must first of all be opposites: that which is given with the night is the day (Heraclitus expresses here what we might call "simple qualities" and which he could then classify as opposites; that is, it is all those changes which can be related as taking place between opposites). So "things taken together" are indeed described in one sense as "whole", that is, forming one continuum, in another sense - as "not a whole", as single components. Applying these alternative analyzes to the conglomeration of "things taken together" one can see that "out of all things a unity is formed", and also that from this unity (ἐξ ἑνὸς) the outer, discrete, multiple aspect of things ("everything", πάντα) can emerge .

There is some relationship between God and the number of pairs of opposites

“God: day-night, winter-summer, war-peace, excess-need (that is, all opposites - such is the meaning); but it changes as if when mixed with incense, it is named after the smell of each [of them] ”(67 DK)

In contrast to the teachings of Xenophanes, in Heraclitus God looks like immanent things or as the sum of pairs of opposites. Heraclitus did not associate god with the need for worship or service. God is essentially not different from the logos, and the logos, among other things, collects things and makes them opposites, relations between them are proportional and balanced. God is a common connecting element for all opposite ends of any oppositions. The total plurality of things thus forms a single, connected, definite complex - unity.

The unity of things is obvious, it lies right on the surface and depends on balanced interactions between opposites (Fr. 54, 123, 51 DK).

At the same time, the implicit type of connection between opposites is stronger than the obvious type of connection.

"Hidden harmony is better than obvious" (ἁρμονίη ἀφανὴς φανερῆς κρείττων) (54 DK)

The general equilibrium in the cosmos can only be maintained if changes in one direction eventually lead to a change in the other, that is, if there is an endless "enmity" between opposites (Fr. 80, 53).
The Image of the River ("Flow Theory") illustrates the kind of unity that depends on the preservation of measure and balance in change (fr. 12).
The world is an ever-living fire, parts of which are always fading to the forms of the other two basic world-constituents, water and earth. Changes between fire, sea, and earth balance each other; pure or ethereal fire plays a decisive role.
Astronomy. celestial bodies there are bowls of fire, fed by fumes from the sea; astronomical events also have their measure.
Wisdom consists in truly understanding how the world works. Only God can be wise, man is endowed with reason (φρόνησις) and intuition (νοῦς), but not with wisdom.

"Wisdom is knowing all as one" (50 DK)

Souls are made of fire; they arise from it and return to it, the moisture, completely absorbed by the soul, leads it to death. The fire of the soul is correlated with the fire of the world.
The awake, the sleeping, and the dead are correlated according to the degree of fieryness in the soul. In a dream, the souls are partially separated from the world fire, and so on. their activity is reduced.
Virtuous souls do not become water after the death of the body, on the contrary, they live, uniting with cosmic fire.
The worship of traditional religion is foolishness, although it may occasionally point to the truth (fr. 5, 14, 15, 93 DK).
Ethical and policy recommendations, suggesting that self-knowledge and moderation should be recognized as the main ideals.

Criticism by Heraclitus of Milesian philosophy and the doctrine of fire

Heraclitus' doctrine of fire can be understood as a response to the early Ionian (Miletian) philosophers. The philosophers of Miletus (a city not far from Ephesus), Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes believed that there is some initial primary substance or primary element that becomes any other thing. The world as we know it is an ordered assembly various elements or substances produced by the primary element, primary matter. For the Milesians, to explain the world and its phenomena meant simply to show how everything happens, arises or transforms from the original substance, as is the case with the water of Thales or the air of Anaximenes.

Heraclitus seems to follow this pattern of explaining the world when he views the world as "an ever-living fire" (B 30 DK) and states that "Lightning governs all things", alluding to the governing power of fire (B 64 DK). But the choice of fire as the initial primary substance is extremely strange: the primary substance must be stable and stable, retaining its essential qualities, while fire is impermanent and extremely changeable, being a symbol of change and process. Heraclitus notes:

“All things are pledged by fire, and fire [against] all things, as if [against] gold - property and [against] property - gold” (B 90 DK)

We can measure all things in relation to fire as the standard; there is an equivalence between gold and all things, but things are not identical with gold. Similarly, fire provides a standard of value for the other elements, but is not identical with them. fire is playing essential role in the teachings of Heraclitus, but he is not the exclusive and unique source for other things, since all things or elements are equivalent. Fire is more important as a symbol than as a primary element. Fire is constantly changing, however, like the rest of the elements. One substance is transformed into another in a certain cycle of changes. What bears constancy is not any primary element, but the overall process of change itself. There is a certain constant law of transformations that can be correlated with the Logos. Heraclitus could say that the Milesians correctly believed that one element turns into another through a series of transformations, but they incorrectly deduced from this the existence of some primary element as the only source for all that exists.

If A is the source of B, and B is the source of C, and C becomes B and then A, then B is the same as the source of A and C, and C is the source of A and B. There are no special reasons to promote one element or substance as a reimbursement for the consumption of another substance. It is important to note that any substance can turn into any other. The only constant in this process is the law of change, by which the order and sequence of change is established. If this is indeed what Heraclitus had in mind when developing his philosophical system, then he goes far beyond the usual physical theory of his predecessors, and rather builds a system with a more subtle understanding of metaphysics.

The doctrine of fire and logos

Hendrik Terbruggen. Heraclitus of Ephesus, 1628

According to his teaching, everything came from fire and is in a state of constant change. Fire is the most dynamic, changeable of all the elements. Therefore, for Heraclitus, fire became the beginning of the world, while water is only one of its states. Fire condenses into air, air turns into water, water into earth (“the way down”, which is replaced by the “way up”). The Earth itself, on which we live, was once a red-hot part of the universal fire, but then it cooled down.

Philosophers are companions of the gods. Logos - both the mind and the Word - has the function of managing (things, processes, space). Through Socrates and the Stoics, this idea of Heraclitus passed, apparently, into the Targums, and from there into the Christian doctrine of the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity.

sextus. adv. math. VII 132; hippolyt. Refiitatio IX 9.1 του δε λόγου .. οκωςεχει“But although this logos exists forever, people turn out to be incomprehensible to it both before they listen to it and once they listen. For although all [people] come face to face with this logos, they seem unfamiliar with it even when they try to understand such words and deeds as I speak of, dividing them according to nature and expressing clearly what they are. As for the rest of the people, they are not aware of what they are doing in reality, just as they are in oblivion of what they are doing in a dream.

The idea of universal variability and movement

Heraclitus believed that everything is constantly changing. The position of universal variability was associated by Heraclitus with the idea of the internal bifurcation of things and processes on opposite sides, with their interaction. Heraclitus believed that everything in life arises from opposites and is known through them: "Illness makes health pleasant and good, hunger - satiety, fatigue - rest." Logos as a whole is a unity of opposites, a backbone connection. “Hearing, not to me, but to the Logos, it is wise to recognize that all is one.”

Sayings

What can be seen, heard, known, I prefer. (55 DK)
Nature loves to hide. (123 DK)
Secret harmony is better than explicit. (54 DK)
I was looking for myself. (101 DK)
Eyes and ears are bad witnesses for people if their souls are barbaric. (107 DK)
One must know that war is generally accepted, that enmity is the law (δίκη), and that everything arises through enmity and mutually. (80 DK)
War is the father of all, the king of all: it declares some to be gods, others to be men, some to be slaves, others to be free. (53 DK)
On the rivers entering the same rivers, one time one, another time different waters flow (12 DK)
Century - a child playing, throwing bones, a child on the throne. (52 DK)
Personality (ἦθος) - the deity of man. (119 DK)
The people must fight for the trampled law, as for the wall (of the city). (44 DK)
Born to live, they are doomed to death (or rather, to rest), and even leave children to be born [new] death (20 DK)
Multi-knowledge does not teach the mind. (40 DK, often erroneously attributed to Lomonosov)

(Quoted from the edition: Fragments of early Greek philosophers, M., Nauka, 1989)

This cosmos, the same for everyone, was not created by any of the gods or of people, but it has always been, is and will be an ever-living fire, flaring up in measures and extinguishing in measures.
For those who are awake there is one common peace(ancient Greek κοινὸς κόσμος), and of those sleeping, each one turns away into his own (ancient Greek ἴδιος κόσμος).

The writing

Later authors (from Aristotle and Plutarch to Clement of Alexandria and Hippolytus of Rome) have numerous (about 100 in total) quotations and paraphrases from his work. Experiments in collecting and systematizing these fragments were undertaken with early XIX century, a significant milestone in the study of the heritage of Heraclitus was the work of F. Schleiermacher. But the pinnacle of these studies was the classic work of Hermann Diels (Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, first edition in 1903). During the XX century. the collection of Heraclitean fragments was repeatedly supplemented, attempts were also made to reconstruct their original order, to recreate the structure and content source code(Markovich, Muravyov).

Diogenes Laertes cites several titles for Heraclitus's work: "The Muses", "On Nature", "The Infallible Rule of Life" and a number of other options; most likely, all of them do not belong to the author. He also writes that the "poem" of Heraclitus "is divided into three arguments: about everything, about the state and about the deity." According to him, Heraclitus placed his book "in the sanctuary of Artemis, taking care (as they say) to write it as darkly as possible, so that only the able had access to it." Diogenes Laertes preserved an epigram characterizing the work of Heraclitus:

The same Diogenes Laertes conveys that Socrates allegedly read the work of Heraclitus, and after reading it said: “What I understood is fine; what I didn't understand, probably, too. Only, really, for such a book you need to be a Delian diver.

Iconography

Crying Heraclitus and laughing Democritus

Memory

In 1935, the International Astronomical Union named a crater on visible side Moon.

Did you know that when you say "everything flows, everything changes" you are quoting the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus? His name is known all over the world, and such luminaries as Nietzsche, Kant, Schopenhauer proudly called themselves followers of the great philosopher.

Ancient Greece gave the world a lot worthy people. Philosophy originates from antiquity. One of the founders of this science was Heraclitus. You can learn briefly about the philosopher from our article, which will help not only significantly expand your horizons, but also tell you about the origin of many sciences and doctrines.

Who is Heraclitus? What is he known for

Ancient Greece, or, as it was poetically called in ancient times, Hellas, became the cradle of many sciences.

One of the most famous philosophers of antiquity was Heraclitus. Philosophy as a science owes him the formation of many concepts and basic theses. For many centuries Heraclitus is considered the author catchphrase"everything flows, everything changes." The concepts of the ancient Greek sage are still the subject of study by many representatives of science.

Heraclitus was known due to the introduction of the concept of "logos" into the system of philosophy and the development of the original dialectics. The dialectics of Heraclitus became the basis of the teachings of many philosophers after him, for example, Plato in his monumental work "The State" in one of the chapters conducts a conditional dialogue with Heraclitus.

One can agree or disagree with the theses of the sage, but they do not leave indifferent both the people of science and the casual reader.

Briefly about the life path of the philosopher

Reliable information about life path very few philosophers. It is known that he lived in 544-483 BC. He came from ancient family. Possessing aristocratic noble roots, Heraclitus in adulthood renounced all possible privileges and preferred life in the mountains to society.

The issues that he studied are ontology, ethics and political science. Unlike many philosophers of his time, he did not belong to any of the existing schools and trends. In his teaching he was "on his own". The Milesian school, which the philosopher criticized, although it did not have an impact on his views, left its mark on the worldview. More about this - in following sections articles. He did not have actual students, but the wisest thinkers from antiquity to the present day, they weave his theses and views into their ideas.

The heyday of Heraclitus' activity fell on the period of the 69th Olympiad. But his teaching was out of time and did not find a response. Perhaps that is why, according to some historians, Heraclitus leaves Ephesus for the mountains in order to develop his ideas and emerging brilliant innovative concepts alone. Those brief information about the sage that have survived to this day, describe him as a closed person, with sharp mind and a critical attitude to everything seen and heard. were like arrows that hit right on target. And the target of his criticism could be both his fellow villagers and local authority and the people at its helm. The philosopher was not afraid of censure or punishment, he was direct, like a sword, and did not make exceptions. Perhaps, at an already mature age, his consciousness reached a peak, and it became impossible for him to be in an environment that was completely far from his views and knowledge, and did not understand him. The philosopher was called "dark", and there are two versions of why. The first - the nickname arose from the fact that the thoughts of the sage were incomprehensible to his contemporaries, she called them confused and "dark", respectively. The second theory comes from the worldview and moods of the philosopher. Knowing that which is inaccessible to the understanding of others, Heraclitus was closed and was constantly in a melancholy or sarcastic frame of mind.

There are many myths about the death of the sage, none of them has been confirmed or refuted. According to one of the existing opinions, the philosopher was torn apart by stray dogs, according to other sources, the sage died of dropsy, according to the third - he came to the village, ordered himself to be smeared with manure and died. He was too unusual for his time. Just as people did not understand him during his lifetime, he remained a mystery to them after his mysterious death. Only many centuries later, the thoughts of Heraclitus found their admirers.

Works of Heraclitus

It is believed that the great sage had a lot of works, but only one could reach our days - consisting of the parts "On God", "On Nature" and "On the State". The book was not preserved in its entirety, but in separate parts and fragments, nevertheless it was able to convey the teachings of Heraclitus.

Here he substantiates his concept of "logos", which we will discuss below.

Due to the fragmentation of the book, many ideas and concepts were left out of sight. However, those grains that we have the opportunity to study and realize are great wisdom philosopher, his theses, which do not lose their value or relevance.

Fundamentals of the philosophy of Heraclitus

The ancient sages gave the world a love of wisdom and stood at the origins of many sciences. So was Heraclitus. Philosophy as a science owes its development and origin to him.

The main theses of the philosopher:

1.Fire is the source of everything. It is not known whether it was about fire in the actual sense or in a figurative one (fire, as energy), but it was Heraclitus who considered him the fundamental principle of the creation of the world.

2. The world and space periodically burn out from a powerful fire in order to be restored again.

3. The concept of flow and circulation. The essence of the phrase: "Everything flows, everything changes." This thesis of Heraclitus is ingeniously simple, but the essence of variability, the flow of life and time was not discovered to anyone before him.

4. The law of opposites. Here we are talking about the difference of concepts. As an example great philosopher brings the sea, which gives life to marine life, but often brings death to people. In some way, Einstein's theory of relativity owes its birth to this ingenious progenitor idea, which has come down to us thanks to the great philosopher.

Unfortunately, due to the fact that the only teaching of Heraclitus has come down to us only in fragments, his doctrines are very difficult to interpret, they seem completely incomplete, fragmentary. Because of this, they are constantly criticized. For example, Hegel considered them untenable. We do not fully have the opportunity to evaluate and perceive them. It remains to think out and fill in the missing fragments completely intuitively, relying on a presentiment and traditions and views that prevail in ancient Greece times of the great philosopher. Although he denied the influence of schools and thinkers that existed before him, it is impossible not to notice some similarities, for example, with the same Pythagoras.

The Milesian school in the formation of the views of the philosopher

This is a school founded by Thales in the colony of Greece in Asia, in the city of Miletus. Its peculiarity is that it was the first philosophical school ancient world. Created in the first half of the VI century. The main subject of study of the school was natural philosophy (the study of natural physical problems and essence). According to many science scholars, it was from this school that astronomy and mathematics, biology and geography, physics and chemistry began their journey not only in Greece, but throughout the world. One of the main principles of the school was the position "nothing comes from nothing". That is, each emerging being or phenomenon has a root cause. Often this reason was given divine origin, but such a definition did not stop philosophers in their search, but helped to go further.

As we said above, Heraclitus was not a representative of any of the existing schools. But with the Milesian school, whose views he criticized and did not perceive, the philosopher entered into controversy, which was reflected in his writings.

Another feature of the school is that it perceived the world as a living whole being. There was no difference between the living and the dead, everything was interesting for science. According to some sources, it was thanks to the Milesian school that the term "philosophy" was born and was first uttered. Love for science, for knowledge was the main stimulus for development for the representatives of this society. The school of Heraclitus, as it is sometimes incorrectly called, developed in parallel with himself. Though great sage and denied this connection, it is quite obvious.

The concept of dialectics

The term "dialectic" came to us, like many others, from antiquity. It literally means "to engage in dialogue, to argue."

There are many definitions of this concept, but we will focus only on the one in line with which Heraclitus worked.

For the great philosopher, the concept of dialectics consisted in the doctrine of eternal becoming and, at the same time, the changeability of being. The idea of Heraclitus about the eternal flow seems too simple to us, but at the time of its inception it was a major breakthrough in philosophy in particular and in science in general.

Here, of course, one can feel the views of the Milesian school and its representatives. Developing freely from Heraclitus, on completely different planes, they nevertheless intersected in their conclusions, although they were independent and obtained as a result of purely personal observations and conclusions.

In addition to the concept of dialectics, modern science owes to the ancient philosopher another immortal concept and the concept that grew on its basis. This is the logos of Heraclitus - the great idea of fire as the fundamental principle of everything.

The sage of antiquity presented the concept of logos as follows: there is a world and there is fire (logos itself). The world began with him, and the end awaits him in the fire. Fires constantly occur in the Cosmos, from which new worlds are born. Does this statement remind you of anything? Perhaps, people with knowledge of astronomy would answer this question much faster than others. Think about the birth (and death, in principle, too) of stars in outer space. After the explosion and the release of its accumulated and then instantly released energy, a new young star is born. Perhaps we who know this from school course astronomy or physics, this information will not seem like something supernatural. But let's go back to antiquity. Before our era, astronomy was clearly not taught at school, so that, having learned about the process of the birth of stars, the Greek philosopher could draw up his concept. If such knowledge cannot be explained by science, then how could Heraclitus have obtained it? Philosophy has never denied the concept of intuition, the notorious sixth sense, a gift or punishment for the chosen representatives of the human race.

The great sage was able to realize and perceive what would be revealed only thousands of years after his death. Doesn't this speak of his supreme wisdom and providence?

Followers of the philosopher

According to some reports, the philosopher still had a student - Cratyl. Perhaps with his light hand and the desire to restore the works of his mentor, we received a certain absent-mindedness of the true thoughts of Heraclitus. Cratyl was a diligent student, he adopted the concepts of the teacher. He would later become, to some extent, a mentor to Plato, who would conduct conditional fictitious monologues with him in his monumental Republic. The philosopher Heraclitus was so great that he inspired his followers many centuries after his death.

Plato will also follow the path of dialectics. Almost all of his works will be built on its basis. The use of dialectics will make them quite accessible and understandable.

Since Cratyl was the inspiration of Plato, the great author of the "myth of the cave" can also be conditionally attributed to the followers of Heraclitus.

Later, Socrates and Aristotle, taking the dialectic of Heraclitus as a basis, created their own, new, rather strong concepts. But, despite all their independence, it is completely unreasonable to deny the influence of the ancient sage on them.

Of our practically contemporaries, the followers of Heraclitus were Hegel and Heidegger. Enough strong influence Nietzsche also tested the conclusions of the Greek sage. Many of the chapters of Zarathustra are marked by this influence. German philosopher worldwide famous name and thought a lot about the very concept and essence of time and its flow. The axiom that everything changes was taken by him for granted and developed in many works.

Denial and criticism of the ideas of Heraclitus

In 470 BC. e. the comedian Epicharmus lived at the court of Hieron. In many of his writings, he ridiculed the theories of Heraclitus. “If a person has borrowed, then he may not repay, because he has already changed, this is a completely different person, so why should he repay debts for someone,” are just one of the examples. There were many of them, and now it is difficult to judge what in question: about the usual entertainment at the court, based on mockery of the works of Heraclitus, or about the comprehension and criticism of his concept by the court comedian? And why did Heraclitus become the target of comic scenes? Epicharmus' views on his writings were rather caustic and ironic. But even behind such a screen, admiration for the wisdom of the great ancient philosopher did not hide.

The same Hegel and Heidegger, using the judgments of Heraclitus in their many treatises, accused him of imperfect views, paradoxical and chaotic thoughts. Nevertheless, apparently, the fact that the works were not completely preserved, but what is, was supplemented and rewritten by the heirs of the work and students who were unable to understand their teacher completely, forced them to fill in the gaps with their own thoughts, and sometimes conjectures.

Thoughts of Heraclitus and their place in modern philosophy

Although Heraclitus denied the influence of other individuals and schools, but, undoubtedly, his views did not arise out of nowhere.

Many researchers claim that the philosopher was well acquainted with the works of Pythagoras and Diogenes. Much of what he wrote echoes the concepts introduced into the everyday life of science by these ancient sages.

The words of Heraclitus are repeated and quoted even today.

Here are the most famous theses of the sage, which, having passed through the millennia, have not lost their value.

The eyes are more accurate witnesses than the ears. Brief wisdom, which is the true perception of man. Not knowing human anatomy (as we remember from the sections of the article above, the school of natural philosophy only marked the beginning of the development of this branch of science), not owning scientific knowledge about the sense organs, the philosopher subtly and accurately noted the priorities in the perception of information. Remember the saying that it is better to see once than hear once. Now this can be found in almost every nation, but during the life of a philosopher, it was a worthy discovery.
When all the wishes of a person come true, it makes him worse. It really is. If a person has nowhere to strive, he does not develop, but degrades. If an individual has everything he wants, he loses the ability to sympathize with those who are less fortunate; ceases to appreciate what is available, takes it for granted. Thousands of years later, the Irish-born British writer Oscar Wilde will interpret this thesis in his own way: “Wishing to punish us, the gods fulfill our prayers,” he will say in his brilliant novel The Picture of Dorian Gray. And Wilde never denied that he drew his knowledge of the world from the source of antiquity.
Knowledge does not teach the mind much. Some researchers believe that this phrase was said in reproach and denial of that same Miletus school. However, there is no documentary confirmation of this fact, however, like many other episodes. The dialectic of Heraclitus in this thesis blossomed with bright colors and showed the versatility of the thinking of the great sage.
The essence of wisdom is not only to pronounce the truth, but also, listening to the laws of nature, to follow it. Here we will not delve into discussions about the essence of this conclusion of the ancient philosopher. Everyone can perceive it in their own way, but the essence of this will only be enriched with meaning.
One for me is ten thousand, if he is the best. This thesis is an explanation of why during his lifetime the Greek philosopher did not want to teach students. Perhaps, at one time, he never found worthy ones.
Fate is the sequence and order of causes, in which one cause gives rise to another. And so on ad infinitum.
Knowledge and understanding of wise sage- just an opinion.
Like the deaf are those who, while listening, do not perceive. We can say about them that, being present, they are absent. In this statement, Heraclitus expressed all the bitterness from the misunderstanding with which he had to face. He was too ahead of his time to have any chance of understanding.
Anger is very difficult to deal with. You can pay with your life for whatever he demands. But it is even more difficult to conquer the desire for pleasure in oneself. It is stronger than anger.

Finally

There are individuals who do not fit so well into the framework of their time that they are simply not destined to be understood by their contemporaries. Such a person was ancient greek sage Heraclitus. Philosophy, as it is today, would not be the same without his theses and works, theories and concepts.

The great philosopher spent most of his life in the mountains, alone with nature and his thoughts. The people who called him "dark" were not destined to understand the depth of the wisdom of this amazing man.

His aphorisms are still quoted in dozens of languages, and his work inspires more and more students. Many philosophers of our time take as a basis the works of the great Greek hermit. And, although his works have come down to us only in the form of brief unfinished extracts, this in no way diminishes their value.

It is worth getting acquainted with the theories and concepts of the great sage, not only for general development but also to get acquainted with the ancient world.

In the second half of the VI century. BC e. a strong philosophical school arises, associated with the name of the philosopher Heraclitus from Ephesus (540-480 BC). Heraclitus, apparently, was familiar with many of the views of the Milesian philosophers. According to Diogenes Laertes, he knew at least the main part of the philosophy of Pythagoras, he knew the teachings of Xenophanes.

From the work of Heraclitus, which, according to some sources, was called "On Nature" (this name is very common among the first Greek philosophers), according to others - "Muses", approximately 130 fragments have survived. Among them there are fragments explaining natural phenomena. The sun, according to them, is as big as it seems to us, and "if there were no sun, it would be night, despite the fact that there are stars." It also explains other natural phenomena in a natural way. So, Heraclitus believes that “thunder arises by the collision of winds and clouds and the penetration of winds into clouds; lightning occurs by igniting vapors, and lightnings by igniting and extinguishing clouds. Of the surviving thoughts of Heraclitus, the most important for us are those that relate to the method of explaining the essence and development of the world as a whole. Heraclitus considers fire to be the basis of everything. "Fire is the basic element, everything is a type of fire, and everything happens by rarefaction and condensation." In the understanding of Heraclitus, fire, on the one hand, is similar to the pra-matter of the representatives of the Milesian school and is both the fundamental principle of the world (arche) and the main element (stoicheiron). On the other hand, this concept in Heraclitus also represents a certain methodological principle. Fire is for him the most adequate symbol of the dynamics of development, the gradualness of constant changes. This is evidenced, for example, by his saying that the world “arises from fire and burns again in certain periods throughout the century; this is done according to fate.

In an intuitive understanding of development as a unity and struggle of opposites, of all pre-Socratic thinkers, Heraclitus advanced the most. His contribution to the development of dialectics is exceptional.

In Heraclitus we find whole line other observations, mostly intuitive, which are, to a greater or lesser extent, guessing the main features of the dialectic. These include, in particular, the universality of development (its source, as we have seen, is the struggle of opposites). The central motive of his entire teaching was the principle of everything flows (panta rhea). Constant change and constant development Heraclitus explains different ways: "The same is alive and dead, awake and sleeping, young and old, for this, having changed, becomes another, and the other, having changed, becomes this." He compared the constant course of development with the course of a river that cannot be entered twice: “According to Heraclitus, one cannot enter the same river twice, nor touch twice a transient, identical entity in its nature. She quickly separates her changes, and then connects them again, comes and goes again. Elsewhere, he emphasizes this idea even more clearly: "We enter and do not enter the same rivers, we exist and we do not exist."

Variety of manifestations existing world explains Heraclitus by the changes taking place in the original "forematter". One matter, according to him, "lives by death" another: "Fire lives by the death of earth, air lives by the death of fire, water lives by the death of air, earth by the death of water." Thus, Heraclitus comes very close to understanding "creative negation".

Very important in the views of Heraclitus is attached, using the modern term, to determinism (the general conditionality of all events and phenomena). Heraclitus (as well as other pre-Socratics) naturally uses a different concept. Everything, according to him, is ruled by fate, or necessity (nike). The understanding of regularity-law (logos) is very closely connected with the concept of necessity. The Logos, according to Heraclitus, is as eternal as the uncreated and indestructible world. Its cognition presupposes an understanding of the natural development of the world as a struggle and unity of opposites.

Heraclitus was one of the first to draw attention to the character human knowledge. Cognition, according to his views, seeks to comprehend the essence, that is, the logos. Whoever does not understand it cannot understand anything in the development of the world. He pays considerable attention to the difference between "much knowledge", "much learning" and true wisdom. "Many knowledge", unlike true wisdom, does not contribute to the actual knowledge of the principles of the world, but rather hides them. In this regard, he is very critical of a number of other thinkers, in particular of Pythagoras. "Much knowledge does not teach rationality, for it would teach Hesiod and Pythagoras, as well as Xenophanes and Hecateus." These thoughts show Heraclitus' denial of petty, cheap scholarship, which does not seek to know and reveal the true causes and principles of things. The only wisdom, according to Heraclitus, is “the knowledge of the thought that rules everything everywhere”, i.e. logos. Both the world and the pra-matter and Heraclitus logos exist objectively, that is, independently of human consciousness. human consciousness- the soul (psyche) - is subject to the logos. Therefore, the Heraclitean dialectic is also an objective dialectic. This is the dialectic of the development of an objectively existing world.

And although Heraclitus did not receive recognition in his native Ephesus, he was highly respected in Athens (in particular, in the time of Socrates) and had a number of supporters and students. The most prominent of these was Cratylus.

Heraclitus philosophy is the pinnacle of the spontaneously dialectical understanding of the world, not only in pre-Socratic philosophy, but also in ancient philosophy in general. As already mentioned, we are not talking about a whole theoretical system dialectic approach to the world, but rather an intuitive explanation of the essential and at the same time universal features of dialectics.

The close connection between dialectics and spontaneous materialism allowed Heraclitus to make significant progress in comparison with the Milesian philosophers.

Heraclitus, one of the first ancient Greek philosophers, father - the founder of scientific dialectics, believed that everything in the world is constantly changing and as a result of this, opposites attract.

Information about the scientist's life is extremely scarce, and he did not like to talk about himself, and he presented his conclusions in a veiled form incomprehensible to others. For this, as well as for being in extreme melancholy and hypochondria, contemporaries called him "Gloomy".

What is known about the biography of the philosopher?

A reliable fact is that Heraclitus was born in the city of Ephesus, which is located on the territory of the state of Turkey. It is believed that he was born in the middle of the sixth century BC, approximately in 544-541. Such conclusions are drawn on the basis that during the 69th Olympiad Heraclitus reached the age of full bloom - "acme", i.e. about 40 years old.

He was of high birth; belonged to the dynasty of "basileus", i.e. his ancestors performed in society the functions of both the ruler and the priest. It was his closest ancestor who founded the city of Ephesus, and representatives of subsequent generations ruled the city and ruled the court.

But even in his youth, Heraclitus decided to devote his life to science and abandoned high positions in favor of his brother, and he himself settled at the temple of Artemis and engaged in reflections and conclusions.

By the way, it was this temple, most famous in the world, as one of the wonders of the world, that was burned down in 356 BC. someone Herostratus, who wanted to receive eternal glory and memory for posterity.

Dialectics in the understanding of Heraclitus

The scientific ideas and conclusions of Heraclitus were consistent with the philosophers of the Ionian school, who believed that the world consists of four elements, the main of which is fire. So in the teachings of Heraclitus special place occupies the logos - fire - the fundamental principle of being. It is the fire that is both the beginning and the end of existence, it flares up or subsides as needed. As a result of any natural disasters, the world fire flares up, which destroys all life both on earth and in space, but only in order to give rise to new life in the cleared space.

It is this philosopher who has the honor of using the word COSMOS in its modern sense - the Galaxy, the Universe.

Heraclitus's dialectic is based on the constant connection of everything that exists in the world, the struggle and attraction of opposites, and the eternal, continuous variability of the world.

The world is constant and eternal, but at the same time, the ever-changing struggle of all the elements: fire and water, earth and air. It is Heraclitus who is awarded the statements that everything flows, everything changes, and also that you cannot enter the same river twice.

Opposites at the same time repel and fight, but also converge: day turns into night, life turns into death, good and evil change each other cyclically in the whirlwind of human life. But this constant cycle has boundaries, rhythm and tempo.

The main force that controls the fate of the earth and people is a certain universal mind, higher power and justice. Heraclitus called this substance "the value of values" and identified it with the Logos - fire.

HE also believed that the senses constantly deceive us: what seems motionless and static changes invisible to the eye and is in constant motion.

The soul in the teachings of Heraclitus

Being in constant melancholy and hypochondria, Heraclitus lamented the behavior of his fellow citizens, reproaching them for their inability to properly manage their lives. For this, he received another nickname "Crying".

He suffered in impotent rage from human stupidity and ignorance, unwillingness to change and change his life. The philosopher considered the most terrible and useless people for society to be those who do not want to think and learn something new, who prefer earthly wealth to the riches of the soul and knowledge.

He also believed that nature the best teacher for a person, and everyone can learn and improve with very little effort.

Moreover, the philosopher's reflections on the state of human souls are very interesting. In his opinion, ignorant souls are made of vapor, they receive moist vapor from the air and change depending on the weather, therefore they do not have own opinion and easily influenced from outside. The souls of vile and stupid people consist of water, and the more water, the more negative qualities in a person, and the souls of noble and kind people are dry, they are identical with the Logos - fire and are able to radiate light from within.

Views on politics and religion

On the social structure Heraclitus had his own special opinion: he was not a supporter of either democracy or tyranny. He considered the crowd of people unreasonable and subject to influence in order to allow it to control the state and public life.

Looking at people as ignorant animals unwilling to improve their lives and gain new knowledge, he likened them to tamed animals that can eat from human hands if they live with people, but become wild when they receive the desired freedom.

There is a legend that when the inhabitants of the city of Ephesus turned to Heraclitus with a request to draw up a set of just laws, he refused, saying that you live badly because you cannot live differently. And he also refused the inhabitants of Athens, and even the king of Persia, Darius, not wanting to leave his homeland and his fellow citizens, whom he for the most part despised.

In addition, Heraclitus believed that it was not the Gods who created this world, but the elements, and the main among them was fire. He rejected the existence of the Olympians and did not believe in gods, but put nature at the head of life. At the same time, the philosopher believed that the only correct truth was revealed to him, he achieved fiery enlightenment and conquered his shortcomings.

Heraclitus was confident in his own uniqueness and believed that his name would live forever as long as humanity exists because of his teachings on the Logos and the soul.

The most famous teaching of Heraclitus

The teaching of Heraclitus, which has come down to our days, is a treatise "On the nature of things." It has not been completely preserved, but about two hundred quotations from it have been found in the writings of Plutarch, Diogenes, Dionysius, and. This work contained three large parts: the first - about the structure of the Universe, the second - about the system of government and its structure, and the third - about God and the soul.

As mentioned earlier, Heraclitus tended to speak allegorically, to present his conclusions in a paraphrased form, rather confusing and incomprehensible to his contemporaries. That is why we do not always understand the deep meaning of his conclusions.

Retirement from society and death

Unexpectedly for everyone around, Heraclitus left the city, retired from all people and led the life of a hermit. He did not appear in the city, but lived by what nature gave him. He ate only grass and roots. It is believed that he died from the resulting dropsy, because he smeared himself with a thick layer of manure, in the vain hope that the heat from it removed excess moisture from the body and endowed him with fiery health.

Some researchers consider this behavior of the philosopher as confirmation of his inclination towards Zoroastrianism, with which he was well acquainted.

The exact date of death is not known, but researchers tend to approximate dates in the region of 484-481 BC.

Heraclitus during his lifetime had almost no students, one of his famous followers was Cratylus. In Plato's Dialogues, he acts as a denial of all existing philosophical teachings and declares that there is nothing definite and studied in nature.

The ideas of Heraclitus were close to the Stoics (Socrates, Diogenes and others). History has preserved for us the image of Heraclitus - wise, but reserved, arrogant and lonely, despising people for their ignorance and unwillingness to change.

Scientific researchers, having deciphered some of the philosopher's statements, spoke of him as a pessimist who mourned the transience of life and the inability to manage it correctly.

Contemporaries endowed the philosopher with labels - "Crying", "Dark", "Gloomy".

But many ancient philosophers treated him with sincere respect and reverence. For example, in his short sketch, Aristotle shows Heraclitus in a completely different way than his contemporaries are used to seeing him.

Foreign wanderers wanted to see the great philosopher and approached his dwelling, but stopped on the threshold, amazed by the poverty of the dwelling and the poor attire of a man who warmed his body in tatters by the hearth.

“Come in, do not be afraid, for the gods live in a poor dwelling,” Heraclitus told them. The philosopher always expressed himself incomprehensibly, making it possible to think out his thought on his own. So, the concept of LOGOS is not only fire, but also a WORD, SPEECH, REPORT, COMPOSITION, PART OF A WHOLE.

Perhaps the philosopher wanted to convey to posterity that the Logos is exactly what allows you to combine disparate parts into a single whole.

The article presents facts from the biography of the great Greek philosopher Heraclitus and the main provisions of his philosophical teachings.

Thinker from the royal family

Historians to this day cannot agree on the date of birth of the great Greek philosopher. Are called various versions: from 544 BC to 540. One thing is known: around this time, a descendant of the legendary Androclus, the founder of the Ephesus policy, was born.

Born in the family of a basileus, Heraclitus undoubtedly received an excellent education, but there is no information about the teachers. This ancient thinker was described as a very gloomy, thoughtful and contemptuous person. He was called the Dark One (because of the ornate and incomprehensible manner of expressing his thoughts) or the Gloomy, sometimes weeping philosopher. It is alleged, according to Strabo, that the descendant of a noble royal family voluntarily gave up power in favor of his brother. The beliefs and philosophy of Heraclitus did not accept democracy. Most likely, it was a form of protest against the established new political system.

Proud mountain hermit

Diogenes Laertes reports his solitary lifestyle as an ascetic and hermit. It is difficult to say what was the impetus that led this thinker to practically complete isolation. According to one version, after the ostracism of Hermodorus, Heraclitus did not see himself in the public life of his native policy, he believed that the expulsion of his friend caused irreparable damage to the public good of the city. However, he retires to the mountains and eats "pasture", harboring contempt for the human race. Melissus of Samos was visiting a proud hermit. Perhaps, thanks to the decisive actions of the brave naval commander, the world learned the philosophy of Heraclitus of Ephesus, who introduced him to the public.

Exist different versions death of a thinker. According to one of them, Heraclitus was torn to pieces alive by dogs. Other sources claim that he died smearing himself with manure. Marcus Aurelius probably gives a more reliable version. According to him, Heraclitus was ill with dropsy and, perhaps, manure was one of the ways to get rid of the disease, according to ancient healers.

Philosophical teachings and schools in the era of Heraclitus

In addition to the philosophy of Heraclitus, there were about three hundred teachings in the Hellenistic world, which were mentioned by ancient Roman researchers. Particular attention is paid to three schools: Ionian (or Milesian), Pythagorean and Elean.

The founder of the Pythagorean school is Pythagoras of Samos.

Representatives of this doctrine believed that the world order was based on the correct ratio of numbers, shapes and proportions. They developed the doctrine of the Soul, its transmigration and subsequent liberation through moral and physical purification. The knowledge of the world was reduced to the study of numbers and mathematical laws, which, in their opinion, ruled the world.

The founders of the Eleatic school of philosophy were Parmenides, Zeno and Melissus of Samos. They considered the integrity of the world from the standpoint of the principle of a single indivisible object. For the philosophers of this school, his personification was being, which, with the variability of the nature of things, remains unchanged.

Philosophical school of the polis Miletus

It is necessary to say separately about the Milesian school, since the ancient philosophy of Heraclitus consistently criticized this teaching.

The prominent representatives of this school and its founders are Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes and Anaxagoras.

The modern division of the year into days gave us Thales, and also gave a powerful impetus to the emergence of such sciences as philosophy, mathematics, and studied natural science. He was the first to formulate the foundations of geometry.

Anaximander deduced the origin of the four elements in the many-sided nature.

Air, according to Anaximenes, was the primary element. The rarefied air was transformed into fire.

Anaxagoras introduced the concept of Nous (mind), which creates the cosmos from random combinations of various elements.

The Milesian school is the first natural philosophy or protophilosophy, as it is also called. modern researchers, which is characterized by the absence of terminology and opposition to the material and the ideal (spiritual).

The origin of the foundations of dialectics

In summarizing the philosophy of Heraclitus, it is necessary to place God, as a link, in the center. God, in his opinion, unites all opposites into a single whole. Logos is God. As an example, he introduces the image of a lyre and a bow. The philosophy of Heraclitus interprets this as follows: on the one hand, these objects are in binary opposition to each other in their purpose. Bow - personifies destruction and death, Lyra is harmony and beauty. On the other hand, these objects exist and can perform their functions only when two opposite ends are connected - a bowstring and a string. In other words, according to the philosopher, everything in the world is born only due to opposition to each other. By this he stubbornly defended the idea of equality of two opposites. One cannot exist without the other.

Heraclitus and the Milesian School

The philosophy of Heraclitus and the Milesian school of thinkers, having at first glance general approach to the definition of the fundamental principle, they differ in understanding the foundations of the primary substance and its quality. The Milesians considered the primary substance as the basis of life, the primary matter from which everything arises and then returns to it. Heraclitus also has the concept of primary matter - "eternally living fire." But it is not the primary basis for other things, because everything in the world is identical to each other. Fire plays the role of a symbol rather than a fundamental principle. The thinker considers constancy not as a fundamental principle, but as a movement towards change: "everything flows, everything changes." Philosopher brought constant pattern, which he designated as the Logos. The Cosmic Logos is a harmonious whole, which, according to Heraclitus, most people are not able to understand. Within this system, everything changes in accordance with the laws of mutual transition, but the Logos remains unchanged and constant. Thus, although the world is dynamic, it retains its stability.

Political views of Heraclitus

The philosophy of Heraclitus places law, and not old customs and traditions, at the top of all public relations. Thus voicing the principle "Before the law all are equal." Heraclitus spoke unflatteringly about democracy, considering it the power of the mob, which he compared to cattle thoughtlessly stuffing his belly. Power must be given only to the best, who are always in the minority. By this, he defended his beliefs about the need for the power of the aristocracy. Perhaps even his departure to the mountains was due to the fact that at one time he suffered complete collapse in the political arena. The fact is that all ancient philosophers and thinkers were politicians with a keen interest in public administration. At the same time, information has been preserved that Heraclitus defiantly refused to make laws and public debates, arguing that the “unworthy” had already come to power in Ephesus.

Democritus of Abdera and Heraclitus of Ephesus

Democritus was born around 460 BC. e. He traveled a lot, studied the philosophy of different peoples: from Ethiopia to India. Met Hippocrates, who described him as smartest person. He loved solitude and often indulged in unrestrained laughter, the people swarming in their bustle seemed so petty to him. The philosophy of Democritus and Heraclitus is the common property of the European ancient culture. These thinkers were often opposed to each other: Heraclitus, going out to people, wept, but Democritus, on the contrary, found the funny in everything. Laughter and tears for ancient thinkers were acceptable reactions in response to madness human life and also personified wisdom. Thus, the two great philosophers were the living embodiment of the ideas of ancient people about what real sages should be.

The influence of Heraclitus on the further development of philosophy

The philosophy and teachings of Heraclitus are called the basis of dialectics. It was he who introduced into philosophy the concept of the unity of the struggle of opposites. By this he gave a huge impact on Plato, who through Cratylus became acquainted with this law and further developed it. Representing the absolutely existing as a process, Heraclitus, as it were, reduces being to being, and this can easily lead to the denial of the law of equality (A = A). Since everything flows and everything changes and nothing is constant, any knowledge is impossible, since it is impossible to assert unequivocally about anything because of its variability.

Heraclitus was criticized by Aristotle. Nietzsche, Hegel and many other thinkers, admiring the philosopher, also criticized many provisions in his teaching. In any case, if there are ideas that are still being argued about, therefore, they are relevant, therefore their creator continues to live.

Philosophy Ancient Greece was at the beginning of the path of knowledge and understanding of the World, but thanks to the inquisitive mind of its first adherents, we, the descendants, got the foundation on which we sculpt the temple of modern science.