Junior school age. Personal development of a younger student

Primary school age is considered to be the age of children from about 7 to 10-11 years old, which corresponds to the moment when the child is in primary school. What is the difference between this age, and what features of the psychological development of the child exist at each stage, let's take a closer look in our material.

Physiological development

Age 7-11 years - a period of relatively calm physical development . Thus, an increase in height and weight, endurance, vital capacity of the lungs takes place quite evenly and proportionally, the spine, chest, pelvic bones, hands and fingers are in the stage of ossification. Due to the fact that ossification of the hands is not yet completed completely, the younger student may still have difficulty with small and precise movements, the hand often gets tired from a long load.

Also, at the age of 7-11 years, functional brain improvement : the analytical-systematic function of the cortex develops; the ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition gradually changes. Although the process of inhibition becomes more and more strong, the process of excitation still prevails, and younger students are quite excitable and impulsive.

School

Enrollment in school contributes major changes in the life of a child: the whole way of life, position in the team, family changes dramatically.

Its main activity is education - acquisition and improvement of new knowledge, skills and abilities. The child has constant responsibilities - he must learn, acquire knowledge. For a child it serious work which requires organization, strong-willed efforts.

Of course, it is far from immediately that younger students form right attitude to learning , they do not yet understand why it is needed and why it is important.

In addition, it turns out that teaching is a labor that requires attention, intellectual activity, and self-restraint.

If earlier the child had only a vague idea of ​​the regime and rules, was not accustomed to being systematic, then he becomes disappointed, negative attitude towards learning . To prevent this from happening, parents should tell the child in advance that changes are coming in his life, that study is, of course, not a holiday, not a game, but serious, but very interesting work, thanks to which he will be able to learn a lot of new things. , entertaining, important, necessary.

If the learning process is organized correctly , the child has an interest in new activities without realizing its significance, he just likes to learn something new, especially if he succeeds and he is praised by his parents, teacher.

Younger students are extremely proud of themselves and are happy with their successes when they praises the teacher , which from the very beginning of the child's stay at school becomes an indisputable authority.

Psychological development

Studying in the lower grades helps in the development of such mental processes of cognition of the world as sensation and perception . Younger schoolchildren are distinguished by sharpness and freshness of perception, a child with lively curiosity perceives the world around him, which every day reveals more and more new sides to him.

Characteristic features of primary school students:

• pronounced emotionality perception;
• weakness voluntary attention (it is difficult for a child to concentrate on his own, especially if he is not interested in what they are telling or the task that needs to be completed is not clear);
• developed involuntary Attention (everything new, unexpected, bright, interesting by itself attracts the attention of the child, without any effort on his part).

In the course of learning, the child develops memory, memorization improves, and the possibility of its regulation develops.

Primary schoolchildren have a more developed visual-figurative memory than verbal-logical. They quickly memorize and retain specific information, events, persons, objects, facts in memory more firmly than definitions, descriptions, explanations. Also, children aged 7-11 years are prone to mechanical memorization , they are not aware of the semantic connections within the memorized material.

The imagination of a younger student most often develops in the direction of recreation, that is, the child is able to perceive and create images in accordance with the information already available: description, drawing. creative imagination also developing, but a little slower.

Character younger students are also distinguished by some features:

• impulsiveness (children aged 7-11 tend to act immediately, under the influence of impulse, motives, without thinking and weighing all the circumstances);
• general lack of will (it is difficult for a younger student to overcome difficulties and obstacles, he can give up if he fails, lose faith in his strengths and capabilities);
• capriciousness , stubbornness (a peculiar form of the child's protest against the firm demands that the school makes of him, against the need to sacrifice what he wants for the sake of what he needs);
• emotionality (younger students do not know how to restrain their feelings, control their external manifestation, they are direct and frank, their mood often changes).

Psychological characteristics of first graders

Numerous “possible”, “impossible”, “must”, “should”, “correct”, “wrong” avalanche fall on the first grader. These rules for organizing a new school life are strong stress for the child .

First class, especially the first quarter school year- a firework of overflowing various feelings, from delight and surprise to anxiety, confusion and tension. In a first-grader, the body's resistance decreases, sleep and appetite may be disturbed, the child may be capricious for no reason, be irritable and tearful.

The main thing rule for parents first grader: patience and understanding. It is important to discuss with the child his experiences, changes in his usual life, explain the reason and necessity of what is happening.

Of course, immediately at the little student it may not work out , it is natural, the child came to school to learn. It is important to support the child at this stage so that he believes in himself and loves learning at school. Also, do not forget about rest and, nevertheless, a 6-7-year-old student is still just a child, in whose life there should be time for pranks and joys.

Psychological characteristics of second graders

Children come to the second grade already as “experienced” schoolchildren: a period of adaptation to

training, new responsibilities, relationships with adults and peers is over. Now a little schoolboy well imagines , what awaits him at school , and his mood largely depends on how successful his first year of study was for him.

The younger student begins form self-esteem , which reflects the child's knowledge of himself, his attitude towards himself, assessment of his own activities both directly by the child and by the people around him.

That is an important factor building a child's positive self-esteem? His own success in learning, as well as to him from close adults, their understanding and support.

Psychologist Natalya Karabuta tells: “Second-graders' assessment of their educational activities is seriously different from that of first-graders. Most first-graders rate their work in the classroom and the level of knowledge gained quite high, they are satisfied with themselves and their successes. In the second grade, self-esteem of educational activity in many children decreases sharply, and in the third grade it rises again. This phenomenon was called the “second grade phenomenon” and is associated with the introduction in the second grade of assessment, no longer with the help of various stickers, but with a real scoring system. The student's self-criticism increases due to the ability to focus on the quality of the results of his work, on his own grades, which can now be compared with the grades of their classmates.

Often a second grader can't always understand , why yesterday he received 11 points, and today 8, because teachers do not always comment on the marks set, and parents also cannot quite understand why the work is rated this way and not otherwise. And if the marks received by the child do not meet the expectations of the parents, unfortunately, the attitude towards him is built depending on his academic performance, which complicates the formation of adequate self-esteem in the child, contributes to his appearance of self-doubt, reduces interest in learning.

Of course, the hackneyed truth that what is important in learning is not so much the mark as the real knowledge and skills of the student, his diligence, responsibility, the need to acquire new knowledge - does not always work. Like it or not, but if a parent sees “five” in the diary of his student, put up on a 12-point system, then the mood will certainly deteriorate.

home task of parents in this case: not to start scolding the child, but to try to figure out what caused the failure of the little student, help him complete (at the same time, not doing the work for the student, but helping to sort out difficult moments).

Of course, explain to the child new and complex material an hour is enough complicated , and the process of doing homework together can turn into another family scandal.

But adults should remember that the child is unlikely to deliberately pretend that he does not understand anything, most likely, the way in which they are trying to explain new material to him is not suitable, which means that we must try find these options. that could be understood by the student.

Psychological characteristics of third graders

The third class is turning point in the life of a junior student. Many teachers note that it is from the third year of education that children begin to really be mindful of learning take an active interest in learning.

This is largely due to those significant changes that occur in general

intellectual development of children in this period: it is between the second and third grades that a leap in their mental development .

It is at this stage of learning that active assimilation and formation of mental operations take place, verbal thinking develops more intensively, perception, attention, and memory improve.

Our mother is Angelina tells : “When my daughter went to the third grade, at first I did not expect anything special. She studied averagely, did not like to read, and did not particularly respect mathematics either. In general, Katya perceived the lessons as a kind of duty, and she loved school rather for the opportunity to chat and run with her girlfriends. But in the third grade, we had some kind of sudden shift from the dead center. The child suddenly became interested in the lessons himself, told me what the teacher explained to them in the lessons, prepared extracurricular assignments, and began to show interest in the books that I had given her before. Our academic performance has improved, in the evening we do lessons without scandals, if we argue over how to solve this or that problem, then Katerina can easily motivate why it should be done that way, explain how they solved this in the classroom, before she had this why - was not remembered at all. You've grown up, haven't you?"

Today, the so-called "alienation syndrome" is increasingly developing among primary school students. It is formed when the child begins to impose on himself the idea that in this class he will not achieve either the location of teachers or the friendship of peers. What is it connected with? Such an opinion is a consequence of a possible failure in school (wrongly answered the question) or ridicule from classmates. The process of suppressing one's own "I" begins, and this in turn creates a chain of subsequent failures. Is the child ready for school? Will he be able to fit into that environment, completely different from home?

Psychologists regard primary school ageas one of the most difficult periods in a child's life, because the school replaces everything that has been in his life so far:

Instead of parents, teachers appear who will no longer tolerate the whims of their student, but moreover, will demand the fulfillment of the tasks assigned to him; - in place of friends from the yard or kindergarten completely unfamiliar children come, with whom you have to face and communicate daily; - toys are replaced by books and notebooks, and free time - by doing homework.

So, the school becomes a kind of second home for the child, and the constantly changing environment in it requires activity and intelligence from him. Naturally, such changes are a prerequisite for stress. In psychology, there is such a thing as a "crisis of seven years." He describes the following qualities inherent in any child at this age: - instability of interests; - emotional incontinence; - inability to generalize their experiences.

The younger schoolboy feels that on his fragile shoulders, along with the knapsack, also lies certain share responsibility, and it scares him. Plus, children of primary school age unconsciously have a desire for leadership in the eyes of others. This is most often caused by the influence of the media on the child, and "childish megalomania" cannot be avoided. But it will pass with age.

Parents of younger students often approach teachers with one request: that their child be treated with special attention. Many do not understand that the teacher is not able to break between all his students and constantly build relationships in the classroom. To do this, psychologists work in schools, and the best option It would be better to turn to a specialist in psychology. It will help you find the right solution at such a difficult stage of education.

Senior school age.

In high school, the question of self-determination becomes quite relevant. For the first time, the child begins to think about himself as a person, about what profession he is supposed to choose, how to increase his social circle and at the same time not lose "himself" in this circle. In our time, self-determination is more often expressed outwardly than inwardly. So, in order to stand out among the crowd of ordinary people, children of senior school age are trying to attract attention with the help of contrasting clothes, non-standard makeup. They create their own subcultures according to certain generalizing interests, thus finding their like-minded people. Senior school age psychologists describe the following behavioral traits:

sharpness;
- side of constant protest;
- irritability (scandalousness);
- excessive emotionality.

These traits in the child's behavior have to be taken for granted. Naturally, there are both calmer children and overly active ones. It depends on the temperament of the person. For example, choleric and sanguine people at the teenage stage of development become completely uncontrollable and irritable. For phlegmatic and melancholic people, senior school age proceeds relatively calmly.

Children at this age still suffer from excessive imagination, and when it comes to the understanding that many of their dreams were not destined to come true, deep depression and disappointment in themselves arise. The unattainability of the set goal makes one doubt the correctness of the surrounding things, and, as a result, selfishness begins to appear. If the development of selfishness is not prevented in time, it will become a "chronic disease" for your child. Girls start dreaming and making plans at an earlier age than boys. In early adolescence, relationships often arise between young people, problems associated with them, so parents cannot always determine what causes anger, passivity in a child, and often there is no mood. In this case, it is better not to ask annoying questions, as this will anger even more. It is worth contacting a specialist or reading the relevant literature on raising children at that age.

Tip: Determine your child's temperament with the help of various tests and exercises. After that, it will be much easier for you to communicate with a teenager.

Education and development. L. S. Vygotsky, following the idea of ​​the socio-historical nature of the psyche, interpreted the social environment not as a “factor”, but as a “source” personality development. In the development of the child, he notes, there are two intertwined lines. The first follows the path of natural maturation. The second is to master the culture, ways behavior and thinking. He noted that in the course of mental development, the initially existing simplest (“natural”) mental processes and functions (perception, memory, thinking, etc.), entering into complex relationships with each other, turn into qualitatively new functional systems that are specific only to humans. ( verbal thinking, logical memory, categorical perception, etc.).

Auxiliary means of organizing behavior and thinking that mankind has created in the process of its historical development are systems of signs-symbols (for example, language, writing, number system, etc.).

The learning process is interpreted by Vygotsky as a collective activity, and the development of the child's personality traits has the closest source his cooperation with others.

Any higher mental function in the mental development of a child, according to Vygotsky, appears on the stage twice: the first time - as a collective, social activity, the second time - as an individual activity, as internal way child's thinking.

Mental development is not limited to the assimilation of social experience. In the process of development, a qualitative transformation of the very personality of the child takes place, and it occurs on the basis of his personality. own activity and own active attitude to the environment.

The question of the relationship between learning and development for a younger student is central. Already by the beginning of the 30s. of the last century, the main psychological theories that studied the relationship between learning and development were more or less clearly defined. L. S. Vygotsky in the article "The problem of learning and mental development at school age" analyzed the main theoretical approaches to this problem.

First scientific point of view is based on the idea of independence of child development from learning processes O - R. In this case, learning is understood as a purely external process, using the achievements of development. This theory was adhered to by such psychologists as A. Gesell, Z. Freud and others. The views of the outstanding psychologist J. Piaget on the mental development of children also corresponded to this theory. This psychological theory corresponds to the famous didactic principle of accessibility (according to it, a child can and should be taught only what he “can understand”, for which certain cognitive abilities have already matured in him).

According to second point of view to this problem learning is development O = R. In this case, learning completely merges with child development, when each step in learning corresponds to a step in development, and development is understood as the accumulation of all kinds of habits. A supporter of this theory was, for example, the prominent American psychologist W. James. In Russia, the direction of this theory was developed by such well-known domestic psychologists as G. S. Kostyuk, N. A. Menchinskaya and others.

Third point of view associated with an attempt to overcome the extremes of the first two approaches by simply combining them O R. According to this version, development prepares and makes learning possible, and the latter stimulates and advances development. While mastering a particular operation, the child at the same time masters a certain general structural principle, the scope of which is much wider than that of the given operation. Therefore, by mastering a particular operation, children later get the opportunity to use this principle when performing other operations, which indicates the presence of a certain developmental effect.

L. S. Vygotsky, in resolving this issue, did not agree with any of the points of view, even with the third, with which he apparently sympathized. He formulated his hypothesis about a more correct solution of the issue under discussion. Learning, according to Vygotsky, is the driving force behind mental development. Without education, the effective mental development of a child is impossible. “Development processes do not coincide with learning processes; the former follow the latter, creating zones of proximal development. This hypothesis, according to Vygotsky, establishes the unity, but not the identity, of the processes of learning and internal processes of development. It involves the transition from one to another. He formulated an important proposition about the two levels of mental development of the child: this level of actual development(the current level of preparedness, determined using tasks, that the student can do on their own.) and the level that determines the zone of proximal development. Zone of proximal development - This is the distance between the level of actual development of the child and the level of possible development. This level is determined by tasks, solved under the guidance of adults.“The zone of proximal development defines functions that have not yet matured, but are in the process of maturation; functions that can be called not the fruits of development, but the buds of development, the flowers of development.<...>The level of actual development characterizes the successes of development, the results of development for yesterday, and the zone of proximal development characterizes mental development for tomorrow.

Thus, learning is not the same as development. It creates zone of proximal development(ZBR), i.e. arouses in the child an interest in life, stimulates and sets in motion the internal processes of development, which at first are possible for the child only in the sphere of relationships with others and cooperation with comrades. The zone of proximal development is a logical consequence of the law of the formation of higher mental functions, which first formed in joint activity, in cooperation with other people and gradually become internal processes of the subject. When a mental process is formed in joint activity, it is in the ZPD. After formation, it becomes a form of actual development (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.2.

The ZPD phenomenon testifies to the leading role of education in the mental development of children. “Learning is good only then,” wrote L. S. Vygotsky, “when it goes ahead of development.” Then it awakens and brings to life many other functions that lie in the ZPD.

With regard to elementary school, this means that teaching should focus not so much on already matured functions, completed cycles of development, but on maturing functions. Learning opportunities are largely determined by the ZPD. Learning can focus on development cycles already passed - this is the lowest threshold of learning, but it can focus on functions that have not yet matured, on the zone of proximal development, which characterizes the highest threshold of learning. Between these thresholds is the optimal training period. The child in school carries out activities that constantly give him the opportunity to grow. This helps him rise above himself.

The zone of proximal development determines the child's capabilities much more significantly than the level of his actual development. According to the test results, two children show the same level of actual development, however, the ZPDs in these children are different. One child, with the help of leading questions, examples, demonstrations, solves problems two years ahead, and the second child only six months ahead. The dynamics of mental development in the course of learning, as well as the dynamics of mastering knowledge, will be different for these children and, accordingly, they will achieve the same higher level of actual development in different time and at different speeds. Thus, it is precisely the determination of the zone of proximal development - the child's ability, with suggestive prompts from an adult, to perform a task that is still difficult for independent solution, and is the main one. learning diagnostics.

L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that the state of development of a child is never determined only by its mature part, the zone of actual development; it is necessary to take into account the maturing functions, the zone of proximal development, and the latter is given the main role in the learning process.

Vygotsky's ingenious guess about the significance of the zone of proximal development in a child's life made it possible to conclude the dispute about the priorities of education or development: only that education is good, which forestalls development.

In the 60-70s. 20th century In our country, psychological and pedagogical studies of various problems of developmental education in the field of primary education have been launched. The results of these studies made it possible, firstly, to substantiate experimentally the position of the leading role of education in the mental development of children, and secondly, to determine some specific psychological and pedagogical conditions for its implementation.

P. Ya. Galperin developed a theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions, which was successfully put into practice, primarily in elementary school. The following provisions developed in Russian psychology by L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinshtein, A. N. Leontiev served as the initial theoretical postulates:

• - any mental function appears at first as external, intrapsychic, and then as internal, ingrapsychic; those. every psychic is a transformed, internalized external (L. S. Vygotsky);
• - the psyche (consciousness) and activity represent a special type of unity: the mental is formed in activity, and the activity is regulated by the mental (S. L. Rubinshtein);
• - internal, mental activity has the same structure as external, objective activity (A. N. Leontiev).

P. Ya. Galperin distinguished two parts of the objective action being mastered: its understanding and the ability to perform it. The first part plays the role of orientation and is called indicative, second - executive.

P. Ya. Galperin attached particular importance to the indicative part, considering it to be the "managing authority", later he would call it the "navigator's map".

The condition for the formation of actions is orienting basis of action(OOD) is a system of guidelines and instructions, explanations of the teacher, providing them with information about all the components of the action that the student must perform while performing the educational task (subject, product, means, composition and procedure for performing operations).

Both in study and in life, it is of great importance how completely and accurately we were oriented in the performance of any action and how we can then use this orientation when performing an action similar, but not identical.

P. Ya. Galperin and N. F. Talyzina carried out a typology of OOD according to three criteria:

• - the degree of completeness (the presence in it of information about all components of the action: subject, product, means, composition, procedure for performing operations);
• - measure of generalization (breadth of the class of objects to which this action is applicable);
• - method of obtaining (how the subject became the owner of this OOD).

Accordingly, three types of OOD and three types of training are distinguished.

First type of learning characterized by an incomplete composition of the OOD, the landmarks are presented in a private form and are distinguished by the subject himself through blind tests. The process of forming an action on the basis of such a DTE is slow, with large quantity errors. For example, both a textbook and a Russian language teacher give samples of words and sentences, demonstrate some grammatical phenomenon, analyze it and formulate a spelling rule. The same is done in geometry, physics, etc.

The second type of training characterized by the presence of all the criteria necessary for the correct performance of the action (action according to a detailed algorithm). According to the criteria listed above, they are given to the subject: the first - in finished form, the second - in a particular form, suitable for orientation only in this case. The formation of an action with such an OOD is fast and unmistakable. However, the scope of the transfer of action is limited by the similarity of the specific conditions for its implementation.

The third type of training - The OOD has a complete composition, the landmarks are presented in a generalized form, characteristic of a whole class of phenomena. In each case, the OOD is compiled by the student independently using the general method that is given to him. An action formed on the third type of OOD is characterized not only by the accuracy and speed of the formation process, but also by greater stability and breadth of transfer.

For example, general schemes and algorithms are given that are used in many cases: analysis of a word by composition and as a part of speech, analysis of a sentence by the presence of a stem and other characteristics. The teaching proceeds relatively quickly, without errors, with the understanding of the essential (insignificant) features of the object and the conditions for working with them, the transfer of knowledge and actions to all specific cases in this area is ensured.

Gradual formation of mental actions according to this classification corresponds to the third type. But the success of such training is due not only to a complete, generalized and independently created OOD, but also to the development of an action at different levels of its formation (in different forms).

Using the principle of internalization, II. Ya. Halperin set the task of "opening the secrets of the emergence of the mental process." Ideal actions (performed in the field of perception, speech plane and mind) are considered as derivatives of external, objective, material actions. Therefore, in order for the action to be formed in its highest, mental form, it is necessary to trace the entire path of its formation - from the material form. P. Ya. Galperin developed an integral scheme for this transformation. Determining the conditions that ensure the transfer of external action to inner plan, it highlights six stages of formation of mental actions.

The first stage is motivational. There is a preliminary acquaintance of students for the purpose of learning, the creation of internal or cognitive motivation. Problem situations can be used to create cognitive motivation (N. F. Talyzina).

The second stage is drawing up the OOD scheme. The student understands the content of the assimilated action: the properties of the object, the result-sample, the composition and order of executive operations.

The third stage is the formation of an action in a material or materialized form. The action is performed as external, practical, with real objects (the material form of the action), for example, when counting, shifting any objects. The action is performed with the converted material: models, diagrams, diagrams, drawings, etc. (materialized form). At the same time, all operations of the action are realized, and their slow execution allows you to see and realize the content of both the operations and the entire action as a whole. A prerequisite for this stage is the combination of the material form of the action with the verbal one, which makes it possible to separate the assimilated action from those objects or their substitutes with the help of which it is performed.

When the action begins to flow smoothly, more accurately and more quickly, the orientation card and material supports are removed.

The fourth stage is the formation of action in loud speech. The student, deprived of the material support of action, analyzes the material in a loud socialized speech addressed to another person. This is both a speech action and a message about this action. The speech action must be expanded, the message must be understandable to another person who controls the learning process. At this stage, there is a jump - the transition from external action to the thought of this action. The mastered action undergoes further generalization, but remains unabbreviated, non-automated.

The fifth stage is the formation of an action in external speech “to oneself”. The student uses the same verbal form of action as in the previous step, but without pronunciation (even without a whisper). Operational control is possible here: the teacher can specify the sequence of operations performed or the result of a separate operation. The stage ends when the quick and correct execution of each operation and the entire action is achieved.

Sixth stage - formation of action in inner speech. The student, solving the problem, reports only the final answer. The action becomes abbreviated and easily automated. But this automated action, performed as fast as possible for the student, remains error-free (if errors occur, you must return to one of the previous stages). At the last, sixth stage, mental action, the "phenomenon of pure thought" appears.

Comparing the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions with the spontaneous learning of a child (the first type of learning), one should first of all note the advantages in the stability of the positive results achieved. The significance of this theory lies in the fact that it indicates to the teacher how to build learning in order to effectively form knowledge and actions using the main didactic tool - the orienting framework.

The development of the ideas of L. S. Vygotsky in the theories of developmental education is associated primarily with the names of L. V. Zankov, D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov.

Developmental education system - a new approach to teaching children in the existing problematic world. Created by domestic scientists, it entered the practice of schools in Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Belarus, and Latvia. The system is of great interest to French, German, Dutch, Canadian, Norwegian and Japanese educators. In Norway, for example, developmental education is being actively introduced not only in the primary (as is generally the case in Russia), but also in the middle and senior levels of the school, in colleges and universities.

For the first time, the question of the need to create a more effective education system that affects the development of schoolchildren was raised in the 50s. of the last century by a Russian teacher and psychologist, a student of L. S. Vygotsky, L. V. Zankov. After the death of Vygotsky, Zankov became one of the leaders of the Scientific and Practical Institute of Defectology (now the Institute of Correctional Pedagogy of the Russian Academy of Education), where experimental studies were carried out on the development of abnormal children, in which the conditions for their effective learning were revealed. In the laboratory, under the leadership of Zankov, work began on building a more effective system for teaching younger students.

L. V. Zankov criticized the traditional teaching methods. The programs and methods of teaching in the primary grades do not provide the maximum possible overall development of students and at the same time give a low level of knowledge and skills. This is because the educational material is of a lightweight primitive nature with a low theoretical level, the teaching methodology relies on the memory of students to the detriment of thought, the limitation of experiential knowledge leads to verbalism, the curiosity and individuality of children is ignored, and a slow pace of learning is practiced.

In developing his system of education, Zankov proceeded from the position of L. S. Vygotsky: education should lead development. He showed what learning should be like so that it can lead development.

The general development of younger schoolchildren in the framework of Zankov's experimental work was considered as the development of:

• - abilities, namely, observation, the ability to perceive phenomena, facts (natural, speech, mathematical, aesthetic, etc.);
• - abstract thinking, ability to analyze, synthesize, compare, generalize, etc.;
• - practical action, the ability to create some material object, to perform manual operations, simultaneously developing perception and thinking.

The system of education leading development is based on the didactic principles worked out by scientists. Unlike traditional didactic principles, they are aimed at achieving the overall development of schoolchildren, which ensures the formation of knowledge. The principles are:

• - the leading role of theoretical knowledge in primary education;
• - training at a high level of difficulty;
• - learning at a fast pace;
• - students' awareness of the learning process;
• - targeted and systematic work on the overall development of all students, including the weakest ones.

Particular importance is attached to the principle of learning at a high level of difficulty. According to this principle, the content and teaching methods are built in such a way as to cause an active cognitive activity in learning material. Difficulty is understood as an obstacle. The problem lies in the knowledge of the interdependence of phenomena, their internal connections, in rethinking the information and creating their complex structure in the mind of the student.

This is directly related to the principle of the leading role of theoretical knowledge, which means that the formation of actual, applied knowledge and skills occurs on the basis of understanding scientific concepts, relationships, dependencies, on the basis of deep theoretical equipment and general development. The high level of difficulty is also associated with the principle of learning at a fast pace. Its essence is not in increasing the volume of educational material or reducing the time of study, but in the constant enrichment of the student's mind with versatile content, the inclusion of new and old information in the knowledge system.

The principle of awareness of the learning process by schoolchildren, with all its closeness, does not coincide with the generally accepted principle of consciousness. It is required to teach the student to realize not only the object of activity - information, knowledge, skills, but also the process of mastering knowledge, their activities, cognitive methods and operations.

Finally, the fifth principle requires the teacher to conduct purposeful and systematic work on the general development of all students, including the weakest ones. For the successful acquisition of knowledge, it is necessary to provide everyone, especially the weak, with advancement in general development. This requires special attention to the formation of learning motives, internal, subjective drivers of cognitive interest in intellectual growth.

The set of principles of the didactic system is implemented in the content of primary education and in teaching methods in all subjects.

In the 60s. of the last century, the laboratory of L. V. Zankov developed programs and methods of primary education. The experimental system affected learning not only in elementary school.

Research on developmental learning is available from other didacts: N. A. Menchinskaya, V. V. Davydov, N. F. Talyzina. They showed the possibilities of high school didactics to build the learning process as a developing one, using a number of methods and techniques in the organization of educational activities.

The problem of developmental education has been most fully developed in concepts of educational activity by D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydov. This system has developed and is legally fixed in Russian education in the 70s. 20th century as an alternative to the traditional education system (in 1996, by decision of the Board of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, it was recognized as one of the three state systems).

“The theory of developmental education was developed by us,” wrote V.V. Davydov, “in line with the main ideas of the scientific school of L.S. Vygotsky and at the same time develops and concretizes these ideas themselves... organization of educational activities, in which the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren takes place in the form of their constant dialogue and discussion cooperation and communication both among themselves and with the teacher.

Developmental learning was born from theory, not from experiment or analysis of practical learning experience, i.e. at first there was a theory about learning going ahead of development, and then developmental learning itself became a fact of practice.

It is important to note that the concept of developmental education arose in those historical conditions when the reform of school education proclaimed in the country needed to be freed from factors that hindered the mental development of children. Among them was the orientation of primary education to the level of mental, in particular, mental development, which is achieved during preschool childhood.

Psychologists have also found that traditional elementary education is not accompanied by significant progress in the development of students, since it does not break away from the experiential thinking inherent in the preschooler.

Paying attention to the development of the type of thinking of the student, V. V. Davydov focused on the different roles of sensory and rational cognition, a in the last distinguishedempirical and theoretical thinking.

AT empirical thinking there is a designation of sensually given properties of objects and their connections, abstraction of these properties, their combination into classes and generalization on the basis of the formal identity of their individual properties, the establishment of explicit external connections of objects and their external changes during interaction.

AT theoretical thinking implicit hidden connections are established, object entity causes, roles and functions relations of things within the system. The establishment of such an internal relationship and connection of objects is carried out on the basis of analysis, including reflection, modeling, transformation of objects with going beyond the limits of sensory representations. After analysis, identifying the essence of the object the ascent to the original sensory-concrete whole begins (for example, on the basis of a theory, make a description of a specific phenomenon, object, etc.).

If, under the empirical method, the objects of assimilation are separate aspects of reality, the possibility of knowing which is limited by the scope of the objects themselves, then under the theoretical method, not individual fragments of reality (real objects, their properties and relations) are assimilated, but theoretical objects in which general connections and relations are crystallized. , not sensually represented.

For example, equality relations - inequalities ( a = /;, a >b , a b) are universal, i.e. applicable for any measurement values ​​(weight, length, volume, area, etc.). This type of assimilation makes it possible to rise above the world of specific things and reveal the most general connections and patterns. This method does not exclude, but involves the subsequent reliance on concrete facts without which the fundamental scientific concepts themselves would be empty.

The authors of the concept of developmental learning have developed an idea of ​​the reference educational activity as cognitive, built on a theoretical type. The organization of education, built on a theoretical type, according to V.V. Davydov and his followers, is most favorable for the mental development of the child, so the authors called such training developing.“As psychological and non-dagogical observations and studies show,” Davydov wrote, “in principle, any training, to one degree or another, contributes to the development of cognitive processes and personality (eg. traditional education develops empirical thinking in younger students). We, - he continues, - do not describe developmental education “in general”, but only that type of it, which is correlated with school age and is aimed at developing theoretical thinking and creativity in schoolchildren as the basis of personality.

aim teaching according to this concept is not so much the assimilation of knowledge and skills, but rather development of cognitive abilities which acts as a specially organized learning process.

Learning in this concept is understood as formation of personal qualities student: knowledge and understanding of oneself, the ability to control the process of assimilation of new knowledge, the ability to critically evaluate one’s own and others’ actions, independence in assessments and self-assessments, the habit of looking for evidence, a tendency to debatable ways of finding answers to any questions, the ability to argue one’s opinion are developed.

Such training is carried out in the joint educational activity of the teacher and the student, in which the teacher tries less to explain himself, and more to direct the mental search activity of the students in the right direction. So, in grade 1, even before studying specific types of orthograms, children discover the very existence of a spelling as a problem of choosing a letter and learn to ask (an adult, dictionary, reference book) about each spelling unknown to them. If it is possible to teach a child systematic "spelling doubt", which is based on the ability to separate known and unknown spellings, then you can ensure error-free writing long before knowing all the spelling rules.

Content of training is some theoretical concept (for example, length, area, numeral, etc.). The study of the topic begins with the solution of mental problems, and not, as usual, with private examples. The academic subject does not simply set forth a system of knowledge, but in a special way (through the construction of its content) organizes the child's cognition of the initial, theoretically essential properties and relations of objects, the conditions for their origin and transformation.

Teaching methods according to the developing system, they are quite different from the traditional ones. Classes are mainly held in the form of a discussion (dialogue): the students, not according to the teacher, but independently seek and find answers to theoretical questions. The teacher asks questions that encourage reflection. Questions are asked in such a way that students rely as much as possible on previously learned theory and thereby learn to apply it in practice. It should be noted that the questions are addressed not only to the respondent ("Why do you think so?"), but also to the rest ("Someone disagree?"), which contributes to the overall activity.

A special way of organizing educational activities, which the teacher implements, includes all forms of cognitive activity and determines the subjective activity of the student. The choice of the method of educational work should be laid down in the content of the assignments. For example, the teacher communicates knowledge about phenomena and their essence, and students are invited to derive an explanation of specific initial phenomena from the essence (explain the properties of specific elements based on the periodic law, the characteristics of organisms based on the laws of heredity, etc.). The student gets the opportunity to reproduce the logic in his own activity scientific knowledge, carry out the ascent from the abstract to the concrete. Or students are invited to try to find an explanation for some facts themselves, of course, with the help of a teacher.

Theoretical concepts and mental actions corresponding to them are the logical tool by which the facts and phenomena of the surrounding reality are analyzed. Given for assimilation in a specially organized system, they form a scientific worldview.

The individual consciousness of the child is understood as an internalized social consciousness. Therefore, teachers try to ensure that in the classroom the products of social consciousness in the form of concepts and universal modes of action were reproduced in the individual consciousness of the student.

It is important to emphasize that source child development with this type learning lies outside of the child in training, and specially designed for these purposes. The theoretical thinking of the child is formed by a special construction of the subject, a special organization of educational activities.

V. V. Davydov formulated the main provisions that characterize not only the content subjects, but also t with skill, which should be formed in students in the assimilation of these subjects in educational activities.

"one. The assimilation of knowledge that is of a general and abstract nature precedes the acquaintance of students with more particular and specific knowledge; the latter are derived by students from the general and the abstract as from their single basis.

• 2. The knowledge constituting a given academic subject or its main sections, students learn by analyzing the conditions of their origin, due to which they become necessary.
• 3. When identifying the subject sources of certain knowledge, students must first of all be able to detect in the educational material a genetically original, essential, universal relationship that determines the content and structure of the object of this knowledge.
• 4. Students reproduce this relationship in special subject, graphic or letter models, allowing them to study its properties in its purest form.
• 5. Students should be able to concretize the genetically initial, universal relationship of the object under study in the system of particular knowledge about it in such a unity that ensures the thinking of the transition from the general to the particular and vice versa.
• 6. Students should be able to move from performing actions in the mental plane to performing them in the external plane and vice versa.

Thus, in the theory of developmental learning, there are three closely related concentra:

• 1) purposeful educational activity, including educational and cognitive motives, a goal in the form of a learning task, learning activities;
• 2) theoretical thinking;
• 3) educational reflection.

Only in the presence of all three components can we speak of developmental education in the sense of the system of D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov. Therefore, for development benchmark with this type of learning, indicators characterizing theoretical thinking are taken: reflexivity (the ability of the subject to single out, analyze and correlate his own methods of activity with the objective situation); goal setting; planning; the ability to act internally, to exchange knowledge products.

This type of training contributes to the development independence of thinking and actions of the student, based on a solid knowledge of what he has learned and what he will learn, i.e. reflective development of schoolchildren takes place.

The teacher here must create such conditions under which the student is encouraged to independently compose the orienting basis of the action and act on it. In this case, students make significantly fewer mistakes, and they occur mainly at the very initial stage. The skill formed in this way reveals the property of a wide transfer to the performance of many tasks.

At the same time, developmental education does not develop those abilities that are initially hiereflexive - credulity, imitation, tolerance. This training does not pay much attention to calligraphy.

The main achievements of that psychological and pedagogical system, which is reasonably called "the theory of developmental education of Elkonin - Davydov", V. V. Davydov himself summarized as follows. According to this theory content developmental primary education are theoretical knowledge, method - organization joint educational activities of younger students, and product development - the main psychological neoplasms inherent in primary school age. At present, the ideas of this theory are being implemented in the construction of experimental subjects (physics, chemistry, geography, literature) at subsequent educational levels.

However, the optimal implementation of the idea of ​​developing education, according to D. B. Elkonin, involves a fundamental reform of the entire work of the school. And for this, such a school needs to be designed and developed. The practice of developmental education is fully developed and implemented in elementary school.

Structure of educational activity. The concept of "learning activity", introduced by D. B. Elkonin, means special student activity, consciously aimed at achieving the goals of training and education, accepted by the student as his personal goals. He pointed out that “learning activity is, first of all, such an activity as a result of which changes occur in the student himself. This is an activity of self-change, its product is the changes that have occurred in the course of its implementation in the subject itself.

Learning activity in this interpretation differs both from the concept of "learning activity" in the broad sense of the word, which in pedagogy means any activity in the learning process, and from the concept of "learning activity" in the narrow sense of the word, denoting the leading type of activity in primary school age. In the works of D. B. Elkonin, V. V. Davydov, A. K. Markova, the concept of “learning activity” is filled with actual active content and meaning and extends to other ages, it is associated with a special “responsible attitude”, according to S. L. Rubinshtein, the subject to the subject of education.

You can talk about five characteristics of learning activities in comparison with teaching:

• 1) educational activity is specifically aimed at mastering the material and solving learning objectives;
• 2) they master it general methods of action and scientific concepts;
• 3) general methods of action precede the solution of problems (for example, learning by trial and error, when there is no preliminary general method, program of action, is not a learning activity);
• 4) educational activity leads to a change in the subject itself, which, according to D. B. Elkonin, is its main characteristic;
• 5) there are changes in the mental properties and behavior of the student "depending on the results of their own actions" (I. Lingart).

According to S. L. Rubinshtein, human activity, its practical and theoretical activity, including the activity of learning, include mental processes(motivational, cognitive, etc.) and external acts of movement that affect the object. The former are motivating, guiding, preparatory, "planning", regulating, the latter - "executive". The first result in a plan, program, and the second - the real result of the impact.

Thus, any activity has the following components: needs - motive - goal - a condition for achieving the goal. Correlate with these components: activity - actions - operations. Activity has more general motives and goals (for example, learning to write), actions - private motives and goals (writing individual letters), operations - acts into which the action breaks up (writing the elements of letters). These are private actions, their result is realized only as a means, and not as an end.

Learning activity is characterized by the same structure and has the following external structure consisting of the following main components:

• 1) as motivation;
• 2) learning objectives;
• 3) learning activities;
• 4) control turning into self-control;
• 5) assessment, turning into self-assessment.

• 1) introductory-motivational component (learning motivation);
• 2) the operational-cognitive component (learning tasks and learning activities that form the learning situation);
• 3) reflective-evaluative component (learning actions of control and evaluation).

Let us consider in more detail each of the components of the external structure of educational activity.

Introductory-motivational component learning activity is essential part and the first condition for the success of the educational process.

S. L. Rubinshtein wrote: “In order for the student to really get involved in the work, it is necessary that the tasks that are set for him in the course of educational activity are not only understood, but also internally accepted, i.e. for them to buy significance for the student and thus found a response and a reference point in his experiences.

The child must be interested, motivated for active involvement in learning activities.

The term "motive" in various texts denotes different phenomena: instinctive impulses, interests, desires, aspirations, ideals, value orientations, etc. on the emergence of motivation and the adoption of a decision, is declared a motive. As A. N. Leontiev pointed out, in modern psychology the scope of the concept of “motive” remains unclear: “... in a motley list of motives one can find such as life goals and ideals, but also such as irritation with an electric current” .

Despite the fact that needs are considered as the causes of any human activity, it should be noted that they themselves do not provide activities that lead to their satisfaction. The need is negative state, a deficiency state that generates search behavior. The object of need is the stimulus of directed activity. Such an object is the motive of activity.

The motive, according to A. N. Leontiev, is an objectified need. For example, a student's cognitive need causes search activity (reading books, attending lectures, etc.). This activity leads to the realization of interest in mathematics. Thus, the cognitive need was embodied in mathematical knowledge. The motive for the student's further behavior is to gain knowledge in mathematics. Awareness of the motive allows you to set a goal, for example, admission to the Faculty of Mathematics or independent study of mathematics. So, a motive is a motivation for a certain activity.

When talking about motivation of a person as the totality of all his motives, then usually only the most persistent and strong enough motives for a certain activity are indicated (situational and weak motives are not indicated). It is a mistake to believe that motivation (for example, to study) is a personality trait that some have and others do not. Undoubtedly, there are individual differences in the basic motivational level, but it must be borne in mind that motivation is also determined by situational factors.

So, learning motivation defined:

• - the educational system itself;
• - organization of the educational process;
• - characteristics of the student;
• - features of the teacher;
• - the specifics of the subject.

S. L. Rubinshtein noted a peculiar dialectic of interests and activities. So, a student may study poorly because he has no interest in the subject, and he may lose interest in the subject, because he began to study poorly due to certain conditions. Often different motives for learning activities are so interconnected that it is impossible to distinguish or oppose them.

Learning activities are related to the student's various interests, various desires and needs: gain knowledge, become a leader in a group, communicate with peers, etc. We can say that learning activity, like any other, polymotivated.

At classification of teaching motives There are two main groups, which, in turn, contain motives of different levels.

• 1. The motives inherent in the educational activity itself (cognitive):
  • a) motives related to the content of the teaching: the student's desire to learn new facts, understand patterns, penetrate the essence of the phenomenon;
  • b) motives associated with the learning process: the desire to show intellectual activity, to overcome obstacles in the process of solving problems.
• 2. Motives related to what lies outside the educational activity itself ( social motives):
  • a) broad social motives: duty and responsibility, understanding the social significance of teaching;
  • b) narrow social motives: the desire to take a certain position in relations with others, to get their approval;
  • c) motives for social cooperation: orientation towards different ways of cooperation with another person (M. V. Matyukhina, A. K. Markova, T. A. Matis, A. B. Orlov).

Motives can also be divided into internal and external. To internal motives include such as one's own development in the process of learning, actions together with others and for others, learning new things. Internal motives are directly related to the activity itself.

Motives that stimulate this activity, but not directly related to it, are called external in relation to this activity. Such motives as understanding the need for learning for later life, the process of learning as an opportunity to communicate, praise from significant people, are quite natural and useful in learning activities, although they can no longer be fully attributed to internal forms of learning motivation. Even more saturated with external moments are such motives as study for the sake of leadership, prestige, the desire to be in the center of attention, study as a forced behavior. The external aspects are most pronounced in the motives of studying for the sake of material reward and avoiding failures.

Considering the polymotivation of educational activity, the teacher in his work needs to pay attention to the fact that in the process of learning, schoolchildren develop a hierarchy of learning motives, where either cognitive motives or broad social motives can be dominant. But it is precisely the development of internal motivation for learning that is an upward movement. It occurs as a shift of an external motive (approval, positive assessment) towards the goal of learning (assimilation of new knowledge, development of one's abilities).

The conditions for internal motivation of the student's learning process are: providing freedom of choice; the maximum possible removal of external control, minimization of the use of rewards and punishments for learning outcomes; learning objectives should be based on the needs, interests and aspirations of the student; involvement of students in assessment activities; an unusual form of education (lesson-conference, lesson-travel, role-playing game, etc.); constant analysis of life situations, appeal to the personal experience of the student; a sense of belonging to the common cause of the student; the teacher's guide to the individual characteristics of the student; the attitude of the teacher to his subject and to the student; increasing the self-esteem of the child in the process of the lesson.

It is much easier in terms of motivating students to move down, i.e. actualize the external motives of the teaching. Therefore, in real teaching practice parents and teachers often use such "pedagogical reinforcements" that lead to a regression of the internal motivation for learning in schoolchildren. They can be: excessive attention and insincere praise, unreasonably high marks, material rewards, as well as harsh punishments, belittling criticism, unjustifiably low marks.

Thus, increasing in the structure of student motivation specific gravity internal motivation of learning, the teacher uses the internal energy of the child, and does not build ingenious external levers.

Based on a high level of motivation of the child to master knowledge, the teacher proceeds to the next stage in the structure of educational activity - operational-cognitive, which includes the student's performance of learning tasks and learning activities.

Learning task - is a goal that is set for students in the form of a problematic task and thereby creates an educational and problem situation on the lesson.

D. B. Elkonin singled out learning tasks as a method of action to be mastered and practical tasks as learning actions. When solving a practical problem, the student achieves a change in the object of his action (writes, draws, plans, etc.). A learning task can be considered solved when predefined changes in the subject itself.

Thus, Elkonin considered the learning task to be the main unit of learning activity, since "its goal and result are to change the acting subject itself, and not to change the objects with which the subject acts" .

There is a transformation of the student from not owning certain knowledge, skills and abilities to having mastered them, so the activity of learning can be defined as an activity of self-change, self-development.

Conscious actions, repeated many times, gradually cease to be an object of conscious control, becoming a way to perform a more complex action, i.e. turn into operations(for example, teaching counting, writing, sounds of a foreign language, etc.). So, mental operations include analysis, synthesis, generalization, classification, abstraction, comparison.

Along with mental actions in educational actions, perceptual and mnemonic actions and operations. Perceptual actions include recognition, identification, mnemonic - imprinting, structuring information, saving, updating, etc.

Thus, each complex educational action includes a large number of often non-differentiable perceptual, mnemonic and mental operations. Due to the fact that they are not differentiated in the general group of learning activities, the teacher sometimes cannot accurately diagnose the nature of the student's difficulty in solving the learning task.

Achieved by learner level of mastery of educational material can be described through the following characteristics of the assimilation of knowledge and actions:

1) the degree of their internalization and readiness for reproduction; 2) deployment and awareness; 3) strength and resistance to forgetting.

According to I. I. Ilyasov, the change in acquired knowledge and actions according to these parameters is the main content of their development and development. There are certain operations that contribute to the implementation of changes in the assimilation of educational material. So, as special operations that provide, for example, the internalization of educational material, such mediation techniques as the use of artificial groupings and classifications of material, coding in the form of special symbols, schematizations, graphic and figurative modeling, inclusion of new material into previously learned generalized knowledge and actions. In a similar way, one can imagine other processes that make up rehearsal as a component of the activity of the exercise.

The next most important component of educational activity is reflexive-evaluative component (learning actions of control and evaluation). Exploring everyone independent section(theme) should consist of three main stages: introductory motivational, operational-cognitive and reflective-evaluative. If at the first stage it is important for students to understand why and why they need to study this section of the program, what exactly they will have to master, and at the second stage - to master the content of the topic and master the educational actions and operations, then at the last stage they learn to reflect and analyze their own performance and evaluate it. The main goals of this stage are the development of students' reflective activity (introspection), the ability to generalize and the formation of adequate self-esteem.

The control and evaluation act includes another process, namely corrective. After all, having made control and evaluation of some action of the student, the level of his knowledge, skills, skills, the teacher takes, if necessary, measures for correction.

Thus, the control and evaluation act in its own way structure consists of the following elements: a) the purpose of the control and evaluation act; b) the object of control, evaluation and correction; c) the standard with which the object is compared, compared; d) control result; e) evaluation criterion; e) assessment in the form of a detailed control characteristic in terms of the selected criterion; g) mark; h) means of correction; i) the result of the correction as a new object of control and evaluation activities.

Psychological control mechanism can be explained by studies II. Ya. Galperin about the essence of attention as a psychological process. He proposed to consider attention as a mental control, representing ideal, reduced and automated form of control. According to Galperin, in order to form attention in a child, it is necessary “to start not with attention, but with the organization of control as a certain external action. And then this action of control, through gradual development, is brought to a mental, generalized, reduced and automated form, when it, in fact, turns into an act of attention that meets a new task.

So, in her research work, S. L. Kabylyshtskaya succeeded by gradually working out the action of control (checking the text, etc.), starting with its expanded materialized form, then passing through speech forms of control, gradually reducing and generalizing this action, bring it to an automated, mental form and thereby form stable, voluntary attention in children.

Thus, during this work external control, which the student himself carried out in his activity, moved to internal. The children formed a folded, automated, mental control action. This was expressed in the fact that, firstly, the students learned to silently, quickly correct errors in the experimental texts, i.e. carefully check the text; secondly, they learned how to quickly check their own work and correct errors; thirdly, in their works errors “due to inattention” have ceased to occur; Fourthly, the number of mistakes and "on the rules" has decreased among students.

The significance of the role of control and evaluation in the structure of activity is due to the fact that the mechanism for the transition of the external to the internal is revealed, i.e. the transition of the actions of control and evaluation of the teacher into the actions of self-control and self-esteem of the student is carried out.

The control results are expressed in evaluation. Any assessment shows the degree to which the results of the student's actions correspond to some patterns and norms. When evaluating a student, various criteria can be selected, this choice determines evaluation method.

• 1) individual way assessment - the student's progress is compared with his past successes;
• 2) a comparative method of evaluation - the results, the actions of the student are compared with similar results, the actions of other students;
• 3) normative method of assessment - the student's results are compared with established standards, samples.

When applying individual standards in assessment, the teacher focuses on the organization, perseverance, and efforts of the student in solving the educational problem.

However, in order for students to have a clear guideline in their activities, it is important to use the normative method of assessment. In this situation, it is important that on the basis of the evaluative activity of the teacher, the self-evaluative activity of the student himself develops, who, relying on clear standards set by the teacher, could evaluate his work. The whole essence of the evaluation activity, which experienced teacher sets out before announcing the student's mark.

In the opinion of many educators and psychologists, a teacher should not use explicit comparative assessment methods at all, since it is inhumane to compare the successes and failures of individual students. At the same time, it is important that the students themselves be able to evaluate their progress in this way, to compare their successes with the successes of their comrades, this is an important incentive for the activation of learning activities for some students.

For the first time and most fully in psychological terms, the problem of pedagogical assessment in relation to school education was developed in the 30s. of the last century by the outstanding psychologist of the Leningrad psychological school B. G. Ananiev. He noted that pedagogical assessment is a "fact of direct guidance to the student" and that students' knowledge of their own capabilities and learning outcomes is a prerequisite for their further psychological development.

According to Ananiev, pedagogical assessment performs two functions: orienting and stimulating. In the first function, evaluation acts as a certain indicator of the results and level of student achievement in academic work. The stimulating function of pedagogical assessment is associated with stimulating influences on the affective-volitional sphere of the student. Changes in this area of ​​the child cause significant shifts in self-esteem, the level of claims, in the field of motivation, behavior, in relations with teachers, comrades.

Sh. A. Amonashvili drew attention to content-evaluative activities of the teacher during the lesson. This activity teaches the child to evaluate their educational work according to various criteria. Thus, the very learning situation in the lesson changes: the student knows what is required of him and how to achieve the desired result. In addition, the school score received by the child for work is perceived and evaluated by the teacher and the student himself as a result only for today, and not as a definition of all the educational abilities of the child, and even less as a characteristic of the personality as a whole.

The formation of an adequate self-assessment of a younger student depends on the correctness of the pedagogical assessment. If the teacher understates the marks for the work of the student, the child may experience persistent self-doubt, the overestimation of marks may lead to the student affect of inadequacy. The affect of inadequacy is a stable negative emotional state that arises in connection with the onset of failure in activity. At the same time, the very fact of failure is ignored or the subject does not recognize his responsibility for failure. This psychological phenomenon occurs in conditions when the student wants to maintain an overestimated self-esteem and an overestimated level of claims at the cost of violating an adequate attitude to reality.

Like the entire learning process, pedagogical assessment should be based on an optimistic strategy, evoke a sense of joy from learning, a sense of confidence in tomorrow's big and small successes.

It is important that the monitoring and evaluation system meets at least the following requirements noted by various authors in the pedagogical and psychological literature:

• 1) must be applied different kinds control, with particular attention to the systematic and comprehensive;
• 2) all the most important actions of each student in the educational process are controlled;
• 3) the control of the teacher should be gradually replaced by mutual control and self-control, for which, when studying each action, the method of its control should be indicated;
• 4) evaluation of the results of control should be carried out in a combination of personal and normative methods;
• 5) it is desirable to take into account the results of evaluation publicly;
• 6) pedagogical assessment should be based on an optimistic strategy, contribute to the development of the student's personality.

Returning to the statement that any reasonable full-fledged activity should contain three parts - motivational, operational-cognitive and reflective-evaluative, it should be emphasized that the most important task of elementary school is to teach students to build their activity as a full-fledged, reasonable, in which all three parts balanced, sufficiently deployed, conscious and fully implemented. This means that all actions, including control and evaluation, are carried out by the student himself.

The ability to learn can be considered as one of the key developmental tasks that a primary school student must solve for successful further education and development.

At the first stage, it includes, as V. S. Mukhina notes, “understanding the meaning of educational tasks, their differences from practical ones, awareness of how to perform actions, self-control and self-esteem skills»^.

In a more detailed form, the "ability to learn" includes such properties as the ability to listen to the teacher; allocate main idea messages; coherently retell the content of the text; answer questions about the text; draw meaningful conclusions based on the information received; the ability to express one's thoughts in writing; the ability to attract additional sources of information, use reference sources; build an independent path of knowledge; adequately assess the results of their own activities.

Consciousness, arbitrariness, reflexivity of educational activity and the development of the student's conceptual thinking in elementary school ensure his readiness to study in secondary school.

Educational activity and productive forms of cognition. At primary school age, along with the actual educational activity, other forms of organizing knowledge and activity are also important. Among them are study, design and creation. Consider their significance for the development of younger students separately.

Study as an active way of cognition, it is characteristic of preschool children, mainly in the form of exploratory behavior and spontaneous exploratory activity. Research in the literal sense of the word - "extraction of knowledge from the trace." A trace in this context can be a trace of physical or chemical processes, and a trace of life, and a trace of thought. Exploratory Behavior appears spontaneously; its launch is largely determined by external stimuli, changes in environmental contexts. Exploratory behavior is launched, manifested and inhibited involuntarily. Patterns of research asset

behavior and exploratory behavior in children at an early age, in their manifestations, are in many respects similar to the patterns of behavior of animals with developed elementary rational activity. With growing up, sociocultural determination becomes decisive, transforming exploratory behavior into exploratory activity. At a certain stage, with an adequate ratio of research initiative and socio-cultural standards for the implementation of research activity in the form research activities the research position of the individual can be formed.

Spontaneous, unconscious research in the form of a direct response to a problem situation (exploratory activity) is characteristic of any person. Sporadic research accompanies a person throughout life, regardless of abilities and social status, being a means of mastering reality and interacting with it. At the same time, research, unlike other types of human activity (design, construction and organization), is the most “delicate” type of activity in relation to the object. Its main goal is to establish the truth, "what is", "observation" of the object, if possible without interfering in its inner life. Extracting knowledge "from the trace" is the key meaning of the research activity.

Research activities is based on exploratory activity and exploratory behavior, but unlike them, it is conscious, purposeful, built by cultural means.

In culture, certain norms and means of implementing the main stages of research activities have been worked out:

• orientation(identification of the subject area of ​​the study);
• problematization(identification and awareness of the problem - a specific issue that does not have this moment answer; setting the goal of the study);
• adaptation(development of methods of action, selection and justification of research methods and techniques; limitation of space and choice of the principle of selection of research materials);
• planning(formulation of sequential research tasks; distribution of a sequence of actions for the implementation of research search);
• empiricism(collection of empirical material; setting up and conducting an experiment; primary systematization of the data obtained);
• analysis(generalization, comparison, discussion, interpretation of data);
• reflection(correlation of own conclusions with the results obtained, with the process of conducting the study, with previously acquired knowledge and data).

The development of this algorithm of activity can successfully occur starting from primary school age. Mastering a holistic algorithm of research activity should be based on certain special (research) abilities, which should be developed to a certain extent already at preschool age, but continue to develop even at primary school age, especially if students are included in the practice of research activity.

There are various classifications research abilities . If they are considered in the context of the implementation of purposeful research activities, then we can single out the following: observation, sensitivity paradoxes the ability to isolate a problem, the ability to formulate a question, the ability to put forward versions (hypotheses), possession of a conceptual apparatus, the ability to differentiate, classify, typify, etc., the ability to set up and conduct experiments, the ability to structure material, analyze facts and data, formulate conclusions, and conclusions, explain, prove and defend one's ideas, etc. These are universal human abilities that help the younger student to be more independent and active in this world.

The effectiveness of the implementation of research activities is associated with the development and sustainability of the research position of the individual. The development of a research position towards the world, towards others, towards oneself takes place in ontogenesis in conjunction with the conditions of development during the implementation of activities. A developed research position allows a person to successfully interact with the changing realities of the outside world, social environment as well as subjective reality.

Research position - not only what is actualized in a situation of uncertainty, but also the position based on which a person has a need to get into these situations, find them, and after finding a situation that requires research activities, consistently go through the main stages of research.

The emotional and motivational basis for the manifestation of exploratory behavior is interest. The emotion of interest stimulates cognitive activity, and also streamlines the processes of perception and attention. Activation of interest can be done through the presence of changes in situation and context, animate objects, novelty, as well as through imagination and thinking.

The motivational basis for the manifestation of a research position is a cognitive motive, as well as a motive for self-realization. If a person is driven by the motive of achieving success (or avoiding failure), then we can talk not about the manifestation of a research position, but only about the implementation of socially normalized activities.

A research position is a complex personal characteristic that manifests itself in various aspects, among which are:

• 1) readiness for exploratory response in atypical situations",
• 2) polyversional vision of the world)
• 3) independence of judgment as the ability to go beyond generally accepted stereotypes;
• 4) fitness those. conscious and purposeful mastery of special socio-cultural ways of deploying and carrying out research activities, as well as arbitrary possession of special abilities that will be in demand and develop in the course of research activities;
• 5) reflection as an opportunity to go beyond the situation and oneself.

AT last years Starting from elementary school, research teaching methods are actively included in the practice of education. These include various trainings and classes to develop research abilities, as well as specially organized educational and research activities. In our understanding, educational and research activity is a creative process joint activity of two subjects (teacher and student) to find a solution unknown, during which cultural values ​​are transmitted between them, the result of which is the formation of a worldview.

The task of the teacher is understood by us as the creation of a hypothetical-projective model for the formation of a developing environment for students. It is the teacher who sets forms and conditions implementation of research activities, thanks to which the student should form an internal motivation to approach any problem that arises before him (both scientific and everyday plan) from a research, creative position. It follows from this that one of the most significant tasks is to resolve the issue of how to form intrinsic motivation, i.e. internalization of the external need to search for the unknown into an internal need.

For the success of the development of educational and research activities by younger students, the subject of research should be as specific as possible, tangible and understandable to the student, enter the field of his real interests and be available for study. The study should be sufficiently clearly algorithmized using a method that is accessible and understandable to the student. Pedagogical support for the research activity of a younger student should be built with the predominance of a dialogic form of communication, where the teacher rather questions, and the student independently seeks answers.

A. M. Matyushkin singled out the following signs of a student’s research talent:

• - the student seeks to understand the causes of phenomena and events occurring in the world around him; he likes to experiment with various items, designers and materials;
• - he easily understands and uses abstract symbols and concepts;
• - formulates own projects, hypotheses, theories, and also uses diagrams, graphs, sketches, etc.;
• - does not lose heart if his project or idea is not supported by adults;
• - expresses thoughts clearly and accurately.

Design. The word "project" is etymologically rooted in the concept of "problem". Rgbyota(ancient Greek) - a task, “something thrown (thrown) forward”; then, to what still to come. In Latin prschesie is fixed in the generalized and selected sense project with preservation of the ancient Greek mode of action - thrown forward. In Russian, the word appeared as tracing paper from French (and originally sounded like project) in the 18th century Later it comes from the German language as the word "project". AT result behind the "project" and "project" entrenched two meanings: ironic (projection, projection) and fixing type professional work(project, design). In the original meaning of the word and a number of its subsequent transformations, N. G. Alekseev identifies the following important for the ongoing discourse signs:

• 1) reference to the future, near or far;
• 2) as such, this future does not yet exist, but it is desirable or undesirable;
• 3) this future is viewed in an ideal plan.

Based on these three features design as a special ideal and pure type of activity can be defined as the process of foresight, what is not yet, but should (shouldn't) be(N. G. Alekseev).

There are the following typical design stages:

• conceptualization(selection of the design area, highlighting the problem);
• goal setting(creating an ideal image of the result, setting goals and objectives);
• resource provision(determination of necessary means, resources, opportunities);
• planning(creation of a phased plan for the implementation of the project);
• implementation(implementation of actions and implementation operations);
• reflection(summing up, fixing the progress of implementation, positive and negative aspects, correlating the result with the plan).

Designing for younger students at a local, concrete, especially tangible level is available. It is important that the projects implemented by younger students are in demand and significant for the child himself and his immediate environment. At the same time, it is necessary that the student does not act as a performer of someone else's plan in implementation, but masters the role of the author of the plan and learns to realize his plan in reality. And it is important that this happens on very specific and understandable examples for younger students.

Research and design have a fairly similar implementation algorithm. However, they have fundamental differences in goal setting. If in research activity begins with awareness problematic issue and unfolds along the path of the unknown, then in the design the image of the final result is initially assumed and there is a movement towards its embodiment in reality. Both algorithms are significant and important for mastering by younger students.

A full-fledged research and design includes an analysis of the initial situation and an analysis of the results obtained, problematization, goal setting, planning, control and correction of actions, reflection of one's own activity, means and methods of its implementation, results and consequences, as well as processes and results of communications accompanying it. Both research and design develop the ability of the younger student to find, analyze, generalize and interpret the necessary information, transform and present it, discuss and critically comprehend.

Creation. A full-fledged upbringing and development of a personality cannot be carried out without creativity as a special kind of amateur activity. The role of creativity in the development of personality is great. The school acts as a truly developing space for the student, if in it he can show his creative activity, become the creator of one or another artistic reality. Creativity requires a person not only to master one or another norm of activity, but also the ability to go beyond the limits of the norm, to show supra-situational activity(D. B. Bogoyavlenskaya, A. V. Petrovsky).

For creativity, any reproduction and tracing is destructive - you cannot teach to create according to a model. According to the model, the technique of the craft is mastered, which is important for the most creative realization, but is not creativity as such. Creativity is the creation and introduction of something new into the world, something of one's own, i.e. what hasn't happened yet. It is in creativity that a person often comes from his own author's message, and not from an external model. This does not mean that you need to reject everything and create a creation in opposition to the existing one. Creativity primarily creates, not negates or destroys. And one more thing - the main goal of creativity often lies not in a specific result, but in the process itself. When a child begins to create, he is so passionate and completely devoted to this process that it is often not so important for him whether the result of this process will be congenial or highly artistic, the important thing is that as a result of this process the child can realize himself.

The process of creativity requires a certain skill and skill; creativity requires a certain degree of freedom that knowledge can give. Therefore, the learning process is just as necessary for the development of the individual as creativity, but it will then be productive when provoked by the child's need for creative self-development. Knowledge, skills and abilities can give a certain degree of freedom in activity, but they are absorbed and implemented by the child only when they are provoked by the internal need to realize oneself in them.

Having entered school, the junior schoolchild in the main curriculum begins to master mainly abstract concepts, schemes, conventional signs, numbers and their relationships, etc. For elementary school, it is extremely important, given the psychological characteristics of the age of students, the development of the child's sensory experience, "... one-sided development extremely impoverishes the sensory sphere of the child, his direct connection with the outside world, sensitivity and susceptibility towards him and causes reasonable concern for thoughtful teachers and medical workers. This problem, which is customarily described in terms of interhemispheric asymmetry (underdevelopment of the functions of the right hemisphere of the brain and “overdevelopment” of the left), is exacerbated many times in the era of the early fascination with the virtual sensuality of the computer, which displaces real sensory experience not only from school education, but also from everyday life. children. Classes in art, artistic creativity are based on the comprehensive sensory experience of the child, on his interest in the subject of direct perception. And this property of the child acts not just as an age feature, and even more so as an obstacle to the formation of abstract thinking, but as irreplaceable value, subject to further development and improvement in the process of artistic creation. Thus, it is precisely a rich artistic experience, acting as a counterbalance to the “left hemisphere” education, that can preserve the integrity of the child’s mental development.

For the overall development of younger students, it is important to encourage creative manifestations in children by parents and teachers. A. M. Matyushkin gave recommendations to provide children with the following incentives:

in creativity:

• 1) to encourage initiative independent creative work and research;
• 2) formulation of questions and problems;
• 3) originality of the results of creative work;
• 4) clarity and elegance of expression of the results of creative work;
• 5) use own examples, facts, illustrations to express creative ideas;

in teaching:

• 1) encourage independent proactive learning;
• 2) the desire to learn from creative children;
• 3) active participation in joint group creative work;
• 4) active participation in competitions and discussions;
• 5) development of self-control capabilities in evaluating the results of their own creative work.

The full development of the younger student will be ensured precisely when he is included not only in educational activities, but also in research, design and various types of creative activities.

The development of learning activities is sensitive to learning styles. Style pedagogical communication teachers with students in elementary school has a strong influence on the formation of "the ability to learn", on cognitive motivation, activity and initiative in creative and productive activities. Our studies revealed that even in the same school at the beginning of the 1st grade, with practically the same “input” indicators of the level of cognitive initiative and learning motivation of younger students, by the end of the 1st grade, these indicators can vary greatly between different educational teams (classes). This difference increases from grade to grade in elementary school, largely determined by how supportive the teacher is. cognitive initiative the students themselves or focuses on the disciplinary component.

In modern pedagogical psychology, following K. Levin, it is customary to single out the following main pedagogical styles of communication and their influence on the student (A. K. Markova).

• 1. authoritarian style. With an authoritarian style, the student is seen as an object of pedagogical influence, and not an equal partner. The teacher alone makes decisions, establishes strict control over the fulfillment of the requirements presented to them, uses his rights without taking into account the situation and the opinions of students, and does not justify his actions to students. As a result, students lose activity or carry it out only with the leading role of the teacher, they show low self-esteem, aggressiveness. With an authoritarian style, the forces of students are directed towards psychological self-defense, and not towards the assimilation of knowledge and their own development.
• 2. Democratic style. This style is distinguished by the fact that the student is regarded as an equal partner in communication, a colleague in the joint search for knowledge. The teacher involves students in decision-making, takes into account their opinions, encourages independence of judgment, takes into account not only academic performance, but also personal qualities students. Methods of influence are motivation for action, advice, request. In teachers with a democratic leadership style, students are more likely to experience a state of calm satisfaction, high self-esteem.
• 3. Permissive style. Main Feature This style of leadership is the self-elimination of the teacher from the educational process, the removal of responsibility for what is happening, the transfer of initiative to students and colleagues. The teacher organizes and controls the activities of students without a system, shows indecision, hesitation. The classroom has an unstable microclimate, hidden conflicts. The conniving style is the least preferred of the listed styles.

The most complete actually activity representation of styles pedagogical activity proposed by A. K. Markova, A. Ya. Nikonova. “... The basis for distinguishing the style in the teacher's work was based on the following grounds: the content characteristics of the style (the teacher's predominant orientation towards the process or result of his work); dynamic characteristics of the style (flexibility, stability, switchability, etc.); performance (the level of knowledge and learning skills of schoolchildren, as well as the interest of students in the subject) ". Based on these features, a number of individual styles were identified.

• 1. Emotional improvisational style(EIS). Teachers with EIS are distinguished by a predominant focus on process learning. Such a teacher builds an explanation of new material in a logical, interesting way, however, in the process of explaining, he often lacks feedback from the students. Teachers with EIS are also distinguished by high efficiency, the use of a large arsenal of various teaching methods. He often practices collective discussions, stimulates spontaneous statements of students. A teacher with EIS is characterized by intuitiveness, which is expressed in the frequent inability to analyze the features and effectiveness of their activities in the classroom. However, in the activities of a teacher with EIS, the consolidation and repetition of educational material, the control of students' knowledge are not sufficiently represented.
• 2. Emotionally methodical style(EMS). A teacher with EMS is characterized by an orientation towards process and results training, adequate planning of the educational process, high efficiency, the predominance of intuitiveness over reflexivity. Focusing on both the process and the learning outcomes, such a teacher adequately plans the educational process, gradually works out all the educational material, carefully monitors the level of knowledge of all students, his activities constantly include consolidation and repetition of educational material, control of students' knowledge. Such a teacher is distinguished by high efficiency, he often changes the types of work in the lesson, practices group discussions. Using the same rich arsenal of methodological techniques in working out educational material as a teacher with EIS, a teacher with EMS, unlike the latter, seeks to activate children not with external entertainment, but to firmly interest the features of their subject.
• 3. Reasoning-improvisational style(RICE). A teacher with RIS is characterized by an orientation towards process and results training, adequate planning of the educational process. Compared to teachers of emotional styles, a teacher with RIS is less inventive in the selection and variation of teaching methods, is not always able to provide a high pace of work, rarely practices collective discussions, the relative time of spontaneous speech of his students during lessons is less than that of teachers with emotional style. A teacher with RIS speaks less himself, especially during the survey, preferring to influence students indirectly(through hints, clarifications, etc.), giving the respondent the opportunity to complete the response in detail.
• 4. Reasoning-methodical style(RMS). Focusing mainly on results teaching and adequately planning the educational process, a teacher with RMS shows conservatism in the use of means and methods of pedagogical activity. High methodology (systematic consolidation, repetition of educational material, control of students' knowledge) is combined with a small, standard set of teaching methods used, preference for the reproductive activity of students, and rare group discussions.

The teacher has the right to implement his individual style in his work, while the main argument in favor of his individual manner will be the mental and personal development of his students. Namely, in elementary school, the personality of the teacher and his individual characteristics are a key factor influencing the development of students, their mastery of educational activities.

In the social aspect, for younger students in educational activities, another significant point is the features communication with peers. In the studies of G. A. Zuckerman, it was revealed that children learn educational material better in joint work with peers than in joint work with a teacher. To do this, children must have a sufficient level of ability to cooperate in communication. Cooperation with peers, according to G. A. Zuckerman, differs from cooperation with adults. Relations with peers are equal and symmetrical. In relations with an adult in a typical learning situation, an inevitable division of functions occurs, where the adult sets a goal, controls and evaluates the child, and the child perceives the goal, implements the movement towards it and accepts the adult's assessment. In this context, any action of the child is performed first with an adult, and then independently. But with the constant repetition of such a cycle, the child gradually loses the ability to independently set a goal and in learning activities can no longer do without an adult, without setting a task on his part, without his control and evaluation. And while the teacher is the only bearer of the goals and meanings of the educational action, the child does not fully appropriate this action.

In this regard, G. A. Tsukerman distinguishes between the developing potential of cooperation between a student and peers and a student with an adult. Cooperation with peers G. A. Tsukerman is understood as a link between the beginning of the formation of a new action when working with an adult and a completely independent internal action. The situation of equal communication with peers makes it possible for the younger student to gain experience in control and evaluation actions in the form of statements in relation to an equal, to act to a certain extent in the position of a “teacher” to another, and also to accept feedback in relation to their activities not just as an assessment of the result but rather as a process adjustment. The student, in cooperation with peers, masters the educational action in its full value.

The organization of work by the teacher in the classroom so that cooperation with peers occupies an important place in the implementation of educational activities, according to the observations of G. A. Tsukerman, leads to the appearance of the following characteristics:

• - independence from an adult (the teacher organizes the work, and the students work independently; the ego ensures that the partner's position, his point of view is taken into account and leads to the development of reflexive actions);
• - the focus of children is not so much on the result, but on the way of their actions and the actions of a partner (this increases the motivational level of students: “weak” and non-initiative students become interested and active).

Of course, when organizing cooperation in a group of younger students, it is important to take into account a number of variables. Among them are such as the size of the group (optimally 4-5 people), as well as the procedural inclusion and coordination of actions in the group. It is often necessary to reorganize a group of students several times in order to find the optimal composition for all students in it.

• Vygotsky L. S. Pedagogical psychology / ed. V. V. Davydova. M.: Pedagogy, 1991. P. 385. Davydov VV Theory of developing education. P. 250. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. St. Petersburg: Piter-Kom, 1998. P. 500. Ilyasov II The structure of the learning process. M.: MGU, 1986. cht0 Takos giftedness: identification and development of gifted children. Classical texts / ed. A. M. Matyushkina, A. A. Matyushkina. M.: CheRo, 2006.
• Markova A.K. Psychology of teacher's work. M.: Enlightenment, 1993.
• Markova A.K. Decree. op. S. 41.
• Tsukerman G.A. Types of communication in teaching. Tomsk: Peleng, 1993.

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Introduction

Conclusion

psychological personality emotional

Introduction

The problem of the emotional development of the child in recent years has increasingly become the object of research interest of psychologists. This is not accidental, since by the end of the twentieth century it became quite obvious that it is emotionality in the first years of life that is the core of almost all psychological neoplasms. The first exploratory behavior looks like an emotional response to an unfamiliar object or situation. The first rule is learned along with the expressive reaction of the mother. Any practicing psychologist working with children could continue this series indefinitely. Despite the fact that all researchers of childhood in one way or another turn to emotionality and a huge empirical material has already been accumulated, the question of theoretical understanding of this problem is very acute. Vygotsky Lev Semenovich was among the first Russian psychologists who tried to include the factor of emotionality in his concept of development, and although in his theory emotionality proper is not considered either as a condition, or as a mechanism, or even as a factor in mental development. Introducing the concept of “social situation of development” into domestic psychology, Vygotsky L.S. noted the special significance of the phenomenon of key experience, which in its content, of course, should be attributed to the field of emotional phenomena. Behind the key experience, according to Vygotsky L.S., is the reality that determines the role of the environment in the development of the child. “Experience is, as it were, a knot in which the diverse influences of various external and internal circumstances are tied.” Thus, in order to understand the logic and mechanisms of a child's development, we need to know not only about the real circumstances of his life, but also about how these circumstances are refracted in his experiences, which are channeled into behavior and learning activities.

modern traditional school education largely built on the actualization and maintenance of a certain level of anxiety among students. The teacher, the evaluation system, and inadequate parental expectations regarding academic success are named by schoolchildren as the most common factors contributing to their anxiety and anxiety. Very high anxiety is a subjective manifestation of psychological distress. "Its behavioral manifestations may consist in a general disorganization of activity that violates its direction and productivity" .

Meanwhile, the influence of emotional states on intellectual activity is very great, especially among younger schoolchildren. They have an imperfect function of the cerebral cortex, which manifests itself in children in the characteristics of behavior, organization of activities and the emotional sphere: younger students are easily distracted, incapable of prolonged concentration, excitable and emotional.

The research problem is to find ways to develop the emotional sphere of the personality of a younger student.

The problem is defined by contradictions:

* on the one hand, it is necessary to develop the emotional sphere of the personality of younger students, on the other hand, all children are different, each needs an individual approach

* one side, teaching staff interested in this problem, on the other hand primary school teachers are not trained.

The purpose of the study: to study the emotional characteristics of children of primary school age.

Object of study: the process of development of the emotional sphere of children of primary school age.

Subject of study: the level of anxiety of hyperactive children of primary school age.

Research objectives:

To study the psychological characteristics of the personality of a younger student;

To experimentally study the level of emotionality of children of primary school age.

The following research methods were used:

Analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature

Observation method

Test method

Research base:

1st grade of secondary school No. 18 in Elista.

The development of the emotional-volitional sphere of a personality is a complex process that occurs under the influence of a number of external and internal factors. The factors of external influence are the conditions of the social environment in which the child is located, the factors of internal influence are heredity, the features of his physical development.

Neurophysiological mechanisms of regulation of emotional states in children have been developed (E.G. Bogina, N.P. Bekhtereva, L.G. Voronina, Z.V. Denisova, V.D. Eremeeva, A.Ya. Mekhedova, E.M. Rutman , N.I. Chuprikova and others).

L.I. Bozhovich, L.S. Vygotsky, M.V. Ermolaeva, A.V. Zaporozhets, A.I. Zakharova, A.G. Kovalev, A.D. Kosheleva, A.N. Leontiev, E.V. Nikiforova, L.S. Slavina, G.A. Uruntaeva, E.N. Shiyanov and other specialists studied the characteristics of the emotional sphere at different age stages of development and proved that a peculiar period in the development of children occurs when they become schoolchildren.

When a child enters school, changes occur in his life that largely affect the nature and content of his emotional sphere.

The structure of the course work: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters, conclusions by chapter, conclusion and list of references.

Chapter 1. Psychological characteristics of primary school age

1.1 Personality characteristics of primary school age

The abilities and qualities of a personality are formed and developed in the process of its ontogenesis, with the decisive role of cooperation between the child and the adult, with the decisive role of the system of upbringing and education. Where does personality begin?

At school, the child first encounters a system of moral requirements, the fulfillment of which is controlled. Children of primary school age are already ready to fulfill these requirements. As already mentioned, when they enter school, they strive to take a new social position, with which they associate these requirements for them. The teacher acts as a carrier of social requirements. He is also the main connoisseur of their behavior, because the development of the moral qualities of students goes through teaching as the leading activity at this age stage.

Characteristic features of the personality of a younger student.

Confidence, performance. As a rule, younger students fulfill the requirements of the teacher unquestioningly, do not enter into disputes with him, and trustfully accept the teacher's assessments and teachings. They do not claim independence and autonomy.

Increased susceptibility is expressed in the fact that the younger student perceives everything new with readiness and interest, he wants to learn how to write, read, and count.

Increased reactivity is manifested in the lessons in a quick raise of the hand, impatient listening to comrades, the desire to answer oneself.

Orientation to the outside world is expressed in interest in facts, events. If possible, children run up to what interested them, try to touch an unfamiliar object with their hands, and talk with pleasure about what they saw earlier.

Imitation lies in the fact that the students repeat the reasoning of the teacher, comrades. Such external copying helps the child to master the material, but at the same time can lead to its superficial perception.

The orientation of the personality of a younger student is expressed in his needs and motives. Children of this age retain a number of needs that were typical for a preschooler:

* the need for gaming activities, but with a different content;

* the need for movement;

* the need for external impressions.

At the same time, younger students also have new needs:

* Accurately fulfill the requirements of the teacher;

* acquire new knowledge, skills, abilities;

* get good grades, approval from adults;

* be the best student;

* play a public role.

Each child evaluates himself in his own way, based on this, at least three groups of children can be distinguished according to the degree of formation of their self-image.

First group. Self-image is relatively adequate and stable. Children are able to analyze their actions, isolate their motive, think about themselves. They are guided more by self-knowledge than adult judgment, and quickly acquire self-control skills.

Second group. Self-image is inadequate and unstable. Children do not know how to single out essential qualities in themselves, analyze their actions, although they evaluate themselves without relying on the opinions of others. The number of their own qualities realized by them is small. These children require special guidance in developing self-control skills.

Third group. Self-images are unstable, contain characteristics given to them by others, especially adults. Insufficient knowledge of themselves leads these children to the inability to orient themselves in practical activities to their objective capabilities and strengths.

Junior schoolchildren have all types of self-assessments: adequate, high adequate, overestimated, inadequate underestimated. Sustained low self-esteem is extremely rare.

Stable habitual self-esteem leaves an imprint on all aspects of a child's life.

The student's personality is formed in the process of learning activities. The effectiveness of personality development depends on the nature of the educational process, on its compliance with the laws of assimilation. Personality characterizes a person as a good or bad, responsible or irresponsible member of society.

Mental activity, judgments and statements of younger schoolchildren about certain phenomena of reality are very often colored with vivid emotional experiences. Students in grades I and II, for example, violently react emotionally to external design visual aids used in the lesson: “Oh, what a big table!”, “Look! The letters are red, but before we were shown green.”

Emotionally colored facts are remembered by children more firmly and for a longer period than facts that are indifferent to them. Whenever you communicate something to a student, take care to evoke feelings in him. It is important not only that schoolchildren think through and assimilate historical and geographical concepts, but also feel them. Before communicating this or that knowledge, the teacher must evoke the corresponding emotional state of the student and make sure that this emotion is associated with new knowledge. New knowledge can be better assimilated if it has "passed" through the student's senses.

Agitation, emotional elation should serve as the starting point of any educational work. The younger the child, the more important this provision is. For students of grades I-II, the inclusion of gaming moments in the learning process creates that emotional mood that makes it easier for them to assimilate the educational material and interests them.

Younger students still cannot restrain the manifestation of their feelings, usually the faces and postures of children very clearly express their emotional experiences. Such a direct discovery of one's feelings is explained by the insufficient development of inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex in children of this age. The cerebral cortex still does not sufficiently regulate the activity of the subcortex, which is associated with the simplest feelings and their external manifestations- laughter, tears, etc. This also explains the emergence of affective states in children, that is, their tendency to short-term violent outbursts of joy and sadness. True, such emotional states in younger schoolchildren are not stable and often go into the opposite. Children are just as easily calmed down as they are excited.

Under the influence of the development of the will, children of primary school age learn to restrain their feelings (first of all, they stop crying loudly). Even students in the first grade no longer show their feelings as directly as preschoolers.

For younger schoolchildren, a slight “contagiousness” with the emotional experiences of other people is characteristic. Teachers are well aware of such facts when the laughter of individual students causes the rest of the class to laugh, although the latter may not know the reason for the laughter. The girls begin to cry, looking at the crying girlfriend, not because they consider her unfairly offended, but because they see tears.

The emergence of emotions in younger students is associated with the specific environment in which children find themselves. Direct observations of certain events or vivid life ideas and experiences - everything evokes emotions in children of this age. Therefore, any kind of verbal moralizing that is not connected with certain examples and life experiences of children does not cause the necessary emotional experiences in them. Given this feature of the feelings of younger students, it is necessary to explain the educational material to them in a visual form and in such a way that it does not go beyond the limits of their life experience.

The school contributes to the development of higher feelings in children: moral, intellectual and aesthetic.

Participation in the life of the school team forms a sense of collectivism and social solidarity among younger students. The fulfillment of certain duties in the school team, joint educational and social activities, mutual responsibility to each other and to the class as a whole lead to the fact that students accumulate the necessary practical experience of moral behavior in a team. Based on this experience, students develop a sense of duty and responsibility, the ability to subordinate their feelings and personal interests to the common goals and interests of the team.

The emerging moral norms of behavior in a team significantly influence the formation of a sense of camaraderie and friendship among younger students. The feelings of honesty, mutual assistance and respect for each other, which are formed in the school team, are also transferred to the personal friendly and comradely relations of students of this age. The differences in the nature of friendship among junior schoolchildren of different classes are indicative. Among students in grades I and II, friendly relations are not yet sufficiently stable and the motives for friendship are poorly understood. It is not uncommon for children of this age to change their friends for random and subjective reasons. At the heart of the friendship of younger students are common interests, mainly related to play activities, free leisure activities, walks, etc.

Interests associated with educational activities are still very weakly reflected in the friendly relations of children of this age. On the basis of relatively limited interests, certain friendly relationships are formed and the corresponding friendly feelings of children of seven to nine years of age are formed.

The younger student evaluates a friend positively or negatively mainly on the basis of what his friend personally does for him. A child of this age does not always refer to the demands made on his friend, he does not yet realize that friendship should be based on equality of rights and mutual duties. Hence, a child of this age, as a rule, shifts the responsibility for maintaining or terminating friendly relations to his friend, “My friend Sveta is very good, she does not argue with me, she always agrees with me in everything. When I call for a walk or play, she never refuses. And Zhenya was a bad friend, she wanted to do everything in her own way, she did not yield to me. Now I'm not friends with her."

Children of this age (grades I-II) are just entering the life of the team, they have not learned to build their relations on mutual respect for each other, they still have a poorly developed sense of personal responsibility to their comrades, to the team - all these moral qualities they are in their early stages of development.

Schoolchildren in grades III-IV have a richer experience of moral relationships in a team. On this basis, they develop deeper and stronger comradely and friendly relations, which begin to play an increasingly significant role in shaping moral qualities character of the student.

In children of this age, the circle of common interests, on the basis of which friendship is formed, is significantly expanding. Educational, cognitive and social interests become leading. Friendship becomes more businesslike and stable, and its motives become more serious and deep.

1.2 Emotional qualities of a personality of primary school age

The general orientation of the emotions of a younger student is associated with an increase in awareness, restraint, stability of feelings and actions. With admission to school, the maximum of emotional reactions falls not so much on the game and communication, but on the process and result of educational activities, satisfaction of the needs for evaluation and good attitude of others. At primary school age, cases of indifferent attitude to learning are quite rare, most children react very emotionally to grades, teacher's opinions.

But the possibilities for a younger student to become fully aware of his feelings and understand other people's experiences are still limited. Children do not always accurately navigate even in the expression of emotions (for example, anger, fear, horror, surprise), evaluating them rudely. Imperfection in the perception and understanding of feelings entails a purely external imitation of adults in expressing feelings, and in this way, younger students often resemble parents and teachers in the style of communicating with people.

A younger student can do a good deed, show sympathy for someone's grief, feel pity for a sick animal, show a willingness to give something dear to another.

He can, when offended by his comrade, rush to help, despite the threat of older children. And at the same time, in similar situations, he may not show these feelings, but, on the contrary, laugh at the failure of a comrade, not feel pity, treat misfortune with indifference, etc. Of course, having heard the condemnation of adults, it is possible that he will quickly change his attitude and, at the same time, not formally, but in essence, will again turn out to be good.

At primary school age, moral feelings are characterized by the fact that the child does not always clearly enough realize and understand the moral principle by which one should act, but at the same time, his direct experience tells him what is good and what is bad. Therefore, when committing unlawful acts, he usually experiences feelings of shame, repentance and sometimes fear.

That is, during the period of primary school age, there are serious shifts in the interests of the child, in his dominant feelings, in the objects that occupy and excite him.

In the first grade, one can note the preservation of a strong involuntary component in emotional life. This involuntariness is found in some of the impulsive reactions of the child (laughter in class, violations of discipline). But already by grades II-III, children become more restrained in expressing their emotions and feelings, control them and can “play” the right emotion if necessary. Motor impulsive reactions characteristic of preschoolers are gradually replaced by verbal ones: the teacher can notice this in the speech, intonational expressiveness of children.

In general, psychologists consider an optimistic, cheerful, joyful mood as the age norm of the emotional life of a younger student. At this time, individuality in the expression of emotions also grows: emotionally affected children, children with a sluggish expression of feelings are revealed.

Emotionally stable children have been found to have an easier time learning and maintain a positive attitude towards it longer. Children with a high level of anxiety, increased emotional sensitivity and motor disinhibition often have a negative attitude towards educational work, the teacher and his requirements.

At primary school age, emotional life becomes more complicated and differentiated - complex higher feelings appear: moral (sense of duty, love for the Motherland, camaraderie, as well as pride, jealousy, empathy), intellectual (curiosity, surprise, doubt, intellectual pleasure, disappointment, etc.). .p.), aesthetic (a sense of beauty, a sense of beautiful and ugly, a sense of harmony), praxic feelings (when making crafts, in physical education or dancing).

Feelings in primary school age develop in close connection with the will: they often prevail over volitional behavior and they themselves become the motive of behavior. In some cases, feelings contribute to the development of the will, in others they hinder it. For example, intellectual experiences can make a child spend hours solving educational problems, but the same activity will be slowed down if the child experiences feelings of fear, self-doubt.

The will reveals itself in the ability to perform actions or restrain them, overcoming external or internal obstacles, in the formation of additional motives-stimuli for poorly motivated activities.

The emotional action of the student develops if:

The goals that he must achieve in his activity are understood and realized by him; only then his actions become purposeful;

These goals are not too far delayed, they are visible to the child - therefore, he must see the beginning and end of his activity;

The activity that the child must carry out is commensurate with his abilities in terms of complexity - this ensures the experience of success from its implementation at the very beginning, anticipating the achievement of the goal; therefore, both very easy and very difficult tasks do not contribute to the development of the will, but, on the contrary, cause either negative feelings or indifference, since activity does not require effort;

The child knows and understands the way to perform activities to see the stages of achieving the goal;

External control over the activity of the child is gradually replaced by internal.

Emotional behavior in grade I largely depends on the instructions and control of adults, but by grade II-III it is directed by the child's own needs, interests, and motives.

However, it is still too early to call him a volitional subject, since, firstly, he has great suggestibility and can perform any act simply “like everyone else” or because someone who has authority for the child insisted on this. Secondly, at this age, elements of involuntariness in behavior are still preserved, and sometimes the child cannot resist the satisfaction of any of his desires.

However, it is at this age that such strong-willed qualities as independence, perseverance, endurance, self-confidence can be formed. The educational activity that the child masters has great resources for this. This is facilitated by the communication of the child with peers and adults.

Consider the age characteristics of the emotional sphere of younger students. In educational activities and in a team of peers, a younger student first of all develops such volitional character traits as independence, self-confidence, perseverance, endurance.

An important emotional quality of a younger student is restraint. This trait manifests itself first in the ability to obey the demands of adults. Many students can already prepare their own lessons, holding back the desire to take a walk, play, read, without being distracted, without doing other things.

A junior schoolchild has a negative character trait that is opposite to restraint - impulsiveness. Impulsivity as a result of increased emotionality at this age is manifested in a quick distraction of attention to bright unexpected stimuli, to everything that captures the child with its novelty.

In the studies of E.I. Ignatiev and V.I. Selivanova revealed that boys are the most impulsive in their behavior, while girls are more restrained. The authors explain this by the special position of the latter in the family, where they perform a number of household chores to organize everyday life and have more restrictions, which contributes to the development of restraint in them.

Younger students often lack confidence in their actions. Unsure and timid younger students are in a new, unfamiliar environment for them, in the absence of solid knowledge, as a result of often repeated failures.

Persistence, as the most important character trait, is especially revealed in the third grade. Thanks to her, students achieve significant success.

At primary school age, feelings play an important role in volitional actions, which often become motives for behavior. The development of will and feelings at this stage takes place in constant interaction. In some cases, feelings contribute to the development of the will, in others they hinder. Thus, for example, the rapid development of moral feelings under the influence of the school community (sense of duty, camaraderie, etc.) becomes a motive for students' volitional actions by grade III.

At first, these emotional urges are determined by personal motives. When asked why he didn’t go for a walk, a student of grade I-II answers as follows: “Mom will swear”, “I’m afraid I’ll get a “deuce” tomorrow”, “I read an interesting story”, etc. By grade III, feelings become more social: “We need to learn a lesson, otherwise I’ll grab a “deuce”, I’ll let down the link.”

The availability of goals is very important for a younger student. Activities aimed at solving problems accessible to the student acquire purposefulness. A solvable task, creating an objective possibility of success, forces the child to mobilize forces to achieve the goal, to show organization, patience, and perseverance.

For a novice student, the solvability of a problem is often determined not only by the extent to which he has the means to solve it, but also by the extent to which he sees the goal. Therefore, the child is not indifferent to where the beginning and end of the task. “The openness of goals is best ensured by such a limitation of the scope of work, which creates the possibility of reviewing the entire path to the goal.

The designation of any milestones along this path, an indication of the ultimate goal in the presence of intermediate milestones, and a clear definition of individual steps towards a solution are necessary conditions for making the student's activity purposeful. And vice versa, the blurring of the boundaries of vision, the vagueness of the task becomes an obstacle to its solution.

From the point of view of the volitional regulation of the behavior and activities of a younger student, it is important that the tasks (tasks) be of optimal complexity. This provides an initial experience of success, thereby making the goal more accessible, which in turn intensifies further efforts. Too difficult tasks can cause negative experiences of the student, refusal of efforts. Too easy tasks also do not contribute to the development of the will, as the student gets used to work without much effort.

Another condition for students to show organization, perseverance and other volitional qualities is such an organization of activity in which the child sees his progress towards the goal and realizes it as a result of his own actions and efforts. In this regard, the teacher's methodically thought-out instructions are of great importance, both during class work and during homework assignments. The teacher must teach the sequence and purposefulness of actions, that is, create the prerequisites for the development of the will.

The instructions of the teacher, the recommendations of the textbook stimulate the volitional actions of students. In the first years of schooling, verbal instruction, primarily the word of the teacher, is almost the only signal that forces the student to make appropriate decisions and act.

Thus, the general orientation of the emotions of a younger student is associated with an increase in awareness, restraint, stability of feelings and actions and has its own specific features. With admission to school, the maximum of emotional reactions falls not so much on the game and communication, but on the process and result of educational activities, satisfaction of the needs for evaluation and good attitude of others. It is at primary school age that such volitional qualities as independence, perseverance, endurance, self-confidence can be formed. The educational activity that the child masters has great resources for this.

Chapter 2

2.1 Experimental study of the characteristics of the emotional states of children of primary school age

Modern traditional school education is largely built on the actualization and maintenance of a certain level of anxiety among students. The teacher, the assessment and examination system, inadequate parental expectations regarding academic success are named by schoolchildren as the most common factors contributing to their anxiety and anxiety.

Very high anxiety is a subjective manifestation of psychological distress. “Its behavioral manifestations may consist in a general disorganization of activity that violates its direction and productivity.”

Meanwhile, the influence of emotional states in general and anxiety in particular on intellectual activity is very high, especially among younger students. They have an imperfect function of the cerebral cortex, which manifests itself in children in the characteristics of behavior, organization of activities and the emotional sphere: younger students are easily distracted, incapable of prolonged concentration, excitable and emotional. It is precisely because of the least study that we have chosen the emotional sphere of the personality of a junior schoolchild as the object of our study, the subject is anxiety, and the purpose of our work was to study the influence of the level of anxiety on the productivity of the intellectual activity of a junior schoolchild.

In most works devoted to the study of the emotional states of children with attention disorders, high anxiety was revealed.

As is known, the concept of anxiety in psychological research used in various meanings. This term refers to the mental state that occurs under the influence of stress factors and personality traits. Holding integrated assessment using various approaches allows not only to diagnose, but also to differentiate anxiety states.

The following tasks were solved:

Examine the level of attention of children. In this regard, divide them into 2 groups: with a reduced and normal level of attention.

Carry out the "Merry-sad" technique to identify schoolchildren's anxiety

The sample of subjects consisted of 6 people, including 3 girls, 3 boys. All children are students of grade 1a of the secondary school of the city of Elista No. 18.

The following methods were used:

The Toulouse-Pieron test was used to determine the level of attention;

Methodology "Cheerful-sad" to identify the anxiety of schoolchildren.

Test Toulouse - Pierona

Equipment: special answer sheets, stopwatch

Purpose: to explore the level of attention.

Instruction:

On the left, in the upper part of the answer sheet, sample squares are drawn. With them it will be necessary to compare all the other squares in the form.

The line under the samples (without a number) is a training line. You are on it now

try to do the job.

It is necessary to consistently compare each square of the training line with samples.

In the event that the square of the training line coincides with any of the samples, it should be crossed out with one vertical line (I). If there is no exactly such a square as a sample, then it should be underlined at the bottom (-). (The instruction is accompanied by showing an adult).

Now you will sequentially process the squares in each

line, crossing out those that match the sample and underlining those that do not match.

1) First, cross out all the squares that match the patterns, and then underline the remaining ones.

2) Limit yourself only to crossing out the squares.

3) Underline with a solid line if there are squares that do not match the samples in a row.

Carrying out procedure:

After the child has fully assimilated the instructions and correctly completed the task on the training line, they proceed to the direct execution of the test.

The child alternately performs the task on 10 lines. Execution time -1 minute per line. An adult only fixes the time, but does not interfere in the course of work.

Results processing:

The number of characters viewed by the child and the number of errors in each line are counted.

The speed of intellectual activity and the accuracy of execution is calculated by the following formulas:

The results obtained are compared with the normative indicators.

And also in the course of the study, I used the technique: the technique "Cheerful - sad" to identify the anxiety of schoolchildren. The technique is taken from the book: Ilyina M.N. Preparing for school: Developmental exercises and tests. - St. Petersburg, 1998

The purpose of the methodology: assessment of the emotional well-being of children of primary school age, the identification of anxiety.

Equipment. Pictures showing children in various situations related to school and learning (presentation)

Conducting research.

The child is asked to describe what, in his opinion, the expression on the faces of the children in the pictures should be - cheerful or sad, and explain why.

Working process:

Look at the picture, in it the children go to school, and one child looks at them from the window, what is the expression on the face of this child? (happy or sad, why?)

Look at the next picture on it. The student at the blackboard answers the lesson; the teacher is standing nearby. What facial expression will be here?

And in this picture, children are in the classroom during the lesson. What facial expression?

In the next picture, the student is in the school corridor, talking to the teacher. What is the student's face?

The child is at home, preparing lessons.

A student in the school lobby near the locker room.

2.2 Evaluation of the results of the study

According to the results of processing the Toulouse-Pieron test, out of 6 people, two had a reduced level of attention.

The results obtained can be presented in the form of a table (see table 1)

Table 1 Results of studying the speed and accuracy of attention

Group 1: Normal and good level of attention

Amulanga L.

Group 2: Reduced level of attention:

Andrew D.

This means that out of these six people, two need attention development.

According to the results of processing the technique "Merry - sad"

The results obtained can be shown in the form of a table (see table 2)

Table 2 The results of the study of anxiety in younger students

"+" - cheerful facial expression

"-" - sad expression

The children willingly answered questions, if the child said “I don’t know”, in this case I asked him additional questions: What do you think is going on here? Who is this drawn? etc.

There were emotionally distressed, disturbing responses, such as:

The boy does his homework, but he was given too much, and he is afraid that he will not have time to do everything (the class is studying according to the Zankov system, homework is given);

The teacher scolds the boy because he cannot solve anything at the blackboard, so he has a sad expression on his face;

The boy is sad, he was late for school, now he will be scolded;

This boy has a sad expression on his face, as the teacher gave him a deuce; etc.

Four of the children were more likely to describe a cheerful or serious student, reflect a positive attitude, and therefore I rated them as emotionally well.

One child gives 5 “anxious” answers, which indicates that she has a “painful” attitude to school, for her this stage of life is associated with strong emotional experiences, Vika is an anxious child.

Davaev Andrey gave 4 disturbing answers, which also speaks of the emotional distress of the child.

After carrying out two methods, it was found that children with attention disorders have a high level of anxiety.

The first feature of the emotional sphere of a younger student, especially a first-grader, is the ability to react violently to individual phenomena that affect him.

In this respect, the younger schoolchild differs little from the preschooler. A small schoolboy generally reacts violently to many things that surround him. He looks with excitement as the dog plays with the puppy, with a cry he runs to the comrades who called him, begins to laugh out loud at something funny, etc. Each phenomenon that to some extent affected him evokes a pronounced emotional response.

The behavior of young schoolchildren is extremely emotional when they watch a theatrical performance: very sharp transitions from sympathy for the hero to indignation at his opponents, from sadness over his failures to a violent expression of joy at his success. Great mobility, numerous gestures, fidgeting in a chair, transitions from fear to delight, abrupt changes in facial expressions indicate that everything that affected the younger student during the performance leads to a pronounced emotional response.

The second feature of the emotional sphere is a great restraint in expressing one's emotions - discontent, irritation, envy, when one is in the class team, since incontinence in the manifestation of feelings immediately causes a remark, is subject to discussion and condemnation.

This does not mean that the younger student already has a good command of his behavior - he suppresses the expression of certain feelings that are not approved by others. No, he quite clearly shows fear, discontent, resentment, anger, although he tries to suppress them. All these emotions are clearly manifested in his behavior during clashes with peers.

The ability to control one's feelings becomes better year from a year. The younger schoolboy shows his anger and irritation not so much in a motor form - he climbs to fight, pulls out of his hands, etc., but in a verbal form he swears, teases, is rude; shades appear that are not observed in preschoolers, for example, in facial expressions and intonations of speech - irony, mockery, doubt, etc.

If a preschooler in a state of whim is able to lie on the floor and start screaming, kicking, throwing objects, then this does not happen with a younger student; the forms of expression of whim or strong irritation are different for him than for a preschooler. Feelings of anger: to shame, they manifest themselves in a more hidden form, however, quite obvious to others (especially adults).

Thus, during the primary school age, organization in the emotional behavior of the child increases.

The third feature is the development of the expressiveness of the emotions of the younger student (a greater wealth of shades of intonation in speech, the development of facial expressions).

The fourth feature is related to the growing understanding of the feelings of other people and the ability to empathize with the emotional states of peers and adults. However, in the level of such emotional understanding, there is a distinct difference between first-graders and third-graders, and especially fourth-graders.

The fifth feature of the emotional sphere of children of primary school age is their impressionability, their emotional responsiveness to everything bright, large, colorful. Monotonous, boring lessons quickly reduce cognitive interest first grader, lead to the emergence of a negative emotional attitude to learning.

The sixth feature is connected with the rapidly developing moral feelings in the child: a sense of comradeship, responsibility for the class, sympathy for the grief of others, indignation at injustice, etc. At the same time, they are formed under the influence of specific influences, the example seen and own action when fulfilling the assignment, impressions from the words of the teacher. But it is important to remember that when a younger student learns about the norms of behavior, he perceives the words of the educator only when they emotionally hurt him, when he directly feels the need to do this and not otherwise.

Conclusion

In the course of the study, the following tasks were solved: the essence and concept of emotions were studied; the features of the emotional sphere of activity of children of primary school age were studied; the existing approaches in psychology to the study of the emotional sphere of younger schoolchildren were analyzed; the features of the emotional states of children of primary school age were revealed through an experimental study.

The study showed that at primary school age, children with attention disorders are characterized by high anxiety, in particular, due to the low adaptive capabilities of these children.

The problem of the psychological health of the younger generation has attracted the attention of specialists in recent years. various areas social activities. Many researchers note the growth of emotional disorders diagnosed in childhood.

Primary school age is critical both from the point of view of psychology (“crisis of seven years”) and from the point of view of medicine (the risk of psychosomatic pathology and neuropsychic breakdowns increases). An objective crisis situation of development at this age is accompanied by a complex set of the child's own experiences.

Therefore, the psychological study of the emotional-volitional sphere of a child of primary school age is an important scientific task.

Significant changes caused by the course of the general development of the younger student, changes in his lifestyle, some goals that arise before him, lead to the fact that his emotional life becomes different. New experiences appear, new ones arise, attracting tasks and goals, a new, emotional attitude to a number of phenomena and aspects of reality is born, which left the preschooler completely indifferent.

From the moment a child enters school, his emotional development depends more than before on the experiences he gains outside the home. The child's fears reflect the perception of the surrounding world, the scope of which is now expanding. Inexplicable and fictitious fears of past years are replaced by others, more conscious: lessons, injections, natural phenomena, relationships between peers. From time to time, school-age children have a reluctance to go to school. Symptoms (headache, stomach cramps, vomiting, dizziness) are widely known. This is not a simulation and in such cases it is important to find out the cause as soon as possible. It can be fear of failure, fear of criticism from teachers, fear of being rejected by parents or peers. In such cases, the friendly-persistent interest of parents in attending school helps.

Highlighting the characteristics of children given age, we must at the same time note that children are different. In fact, it is impossible to find two completely identical students in a class. Learners differ from each other not only in different levels of preparedness for the assimilation of knowledge. Each of them has more stable individual characteristics that cannot (and should not) be eliminated with all the efforts of the teacher. Individual differences also apply to the cognitive sphere: some have a visual type of memory, others - auditory, others - visual-motor, etc. Some have visual-figurative thinking, while others have abstract-logical thinking. This means that it is easier for some to perceive the material with the help of sight, for others - by ear; some require a specific representation of the material, while others require a schematic, and so on.

Neglect of the individual characteristics of students in teaching leads to the emergence of various kinds of difficulties for them, complicates the way to achieve their goals.

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Primary school age covers the period of a child's life from 7 to 10-11 years. The mental and physical development of a younger student largely depends on the anatomical and physiological characteristics of children, on how these characteristics are taken into account by adults in the process of education.

By the age of 6-7 years, the structural formation of all cell layers in the cerebral cortex takes place, the brain reaches 90.0% of the brain of an adult, the development of the frontal lobes increases, the analytical and synthetic activity of the cortex improves. The ratio between the processes of excitation and inhibition changes (the process of inhibition becomes more stable than that of a preschooler). Thus, the brain of a child is capable of more complex activities than that of a preschooler. In perception and comprehension, a seven-year-old child can single out the main features of objects and phenomena, reflect their essential aspects; mastering elementary concepts.

If you look closely at the work of the child, it is easy to see that he works, as a rule, tensely, sometimes making many unnecessary movements, straining not only the muscles of the hands, but also the back, neck, even the tongue, and legs. At primary school age, in comparison with preschool age, there is a significant strengthening of the musculoskeletal system of the body: the spine is being formed (however, the ossification of the skeleton is not yet completed), muscles and ligaments are vigorously strengthening, their volume is growing, and muscle strength is increasing. Large muscles develop before small ones, so children are more capable of relatively strong and sweeping movements than of small, precise movements. There is a great mobility of children, the desire for running, jumping, climbing. On the contrary, low mobility and lethargy of movements indicate illness or poor health. Feeling the changes that have taken place in their muscles, the increase in muscle energy, children want to work together with adults. It is important to use this positive desire to avoid overworking children.

The importance of motor skills for the mental development of children at this age cannot be overestimated:

firstly, the perfect mastery of their body, which develops in children during this period, endows them with a sense of "I can" and allows them to appreciate themselves, which is important for them. mental health;

secondly, the ability to control one’s body well contributes to recognition from peers: clumsy, with poor coordination are often not accepted into group games, activities, and they may continue to feel superfluous long after their physical awkwardness disappears by itself.

At primary school age, a child combines the features of preschool childhood with the characteristics of a schoolchild, and the entire system of the child's relations with others is being restructured. Child's transition to school new look life have a significant impact on the further formation of his personality. No matter how well a child is prepared for school, he acquires the typical features of a schoolboy only after he begins to study at school.

Tension in the family system is growing: for the child - due to inclusion in a new institution and changing requirements, for parents - due to the fact that "the product of their educational activities is an object of public review." The task of parents is to support the child and help him adapt to new social conditions that give rise to a number of difficulties:

1. Difficulties associated with the new daily routine. They are most significant for children who did not attend preschool institutions, primarily due to low voluntary regulation of behavior and organization.

2. Difficulties in adapting the child to the classroom team.

3. Difficulties associated with the relationship of the child with the teacher, the origins of which may lie in the sphere of parent-child relations and be due to the style of family education. If a child is used to satisfying his needs through whims in the family, he is likely to behave the same way at school, where this way of behavior is unacceptable.

4. Difficulties associated with the need to accept new requirements from the parents. One of the common problems of this period is a school phobia in a child. Some children find it difficult to get used to the school requirements, and they become afraid. To be afraid to answer at the blackboard, to be punished, to get a deuce, etc.

In elementary school, the child forms the main components of educational activities that have a significant impact on his development. Including the acquisition of new knowledge, the ability to solve various problems, the joy of educational cooperation with peers, the acceptance of the teacher's authority, educational activity determines the most important changes taking place in the development of the psyche of children at this age stage. During this period, forms of thinking develop, providing further assimilation of the system scientific knowledge, the preconditions for independent orientation in learning and everyday life are being formed.

Numerous studies show that with the development of the student, the motives of his educational activity also change. Along with cognitive motives, social motives, the desire for communication and joint activities with others begin to play an increasingly important role.

The motive affects not only learning activities, but also the child's attitude to the teacher, school, coloring them in positive or negative tones.

For example, if a child studies in order to avoid punishment from authoritarian, demanding parents, learning activity is tense, disruptive, colored negative emotions, anxiety. And vice versa, teaching for the sake of knowledge makes it easy, joyful, exciting.

It is necessary to distinguish between the motives generated by the learning activity itself, directly related to the content and process of learning, and the motives that lie outside the learning activity.

The cognitive need underlies the motivation associated with the content and process of educational activity. It is born from an earlier childhood need for external impressions and a need for activity, which the child has from the first days of life. The development of the cognitive need is not the same in different children: in some it is pronounced and has a “theoretical” direction, in others the practical orientation is more pronounced, in others it is generally very weak.

Within the framework of educational activity, psychological neoplasms are formed that characterize the most significant achievements in the development of younger students and are the foundation that ensures development at the next age stage. This is a qualitatively new level of development of arbitrary regulation of behavior and activity; reflection, analysis, internal action plan; development of a new attitude to reality; peer group orientation. However, the significance of educational activity is not exhausted by this: the development of the personality of a younger student directly depends on its nature and effectiveness. School performance is an important criterion for evaluating a child as a person by adults and peers. The status of an excellent student or underachiever is reflected in the child's self-esteem, his self-respect and self-acceptance. Successful study, awareness of one's abilities and skills to perform various tasks qualitatively lead to the formation of a sense of competence. If this feeling is not formed in educational activities, the child's self-esteem decreases and a feeling of inferiority arises.

Attitude towards oneself as a student is largely determined by family values. In a child, those qualities that parents are most concerned about come to the fore: maintaining prestige (conversations at home revolve around the question “Who else in the class got an A?”), obedience (“Were you scolded today?”), etc. . Emphasis shifts in the self-consciousness of a small schoolchild when parents are concerned not with educational, but with everyday moments of his school life (“Does it blow from the windows in the classroom?”, “What did they give you for breakfast?”) Or they don’t care much at all - school life is almost not discussed or discussed formally. A rather indifferent question: “What happened at school today?! - sooner or later will lead to the appropriate answer: "Normal", "Nothing special." It is noteworthy that the values ​​of the teachings of children and their parents completely coincide in the first grade and diverge by the fourth grade.

At the same time, the educational activity carried out by the junior schoolchild is not his only activity. The second most important role belongs to labor in two forms characteristic of this age - in the form of self-service and in the form of making handicrafts. The main psychological achievement of the work of a younger student is the formation and improvement in children of the ability to plan future work and find ways and means of its implementation, awakening the child's ingenuity, ingenuity, and creativity.

The teaching does not exclude the game either, which, although it is losing its position as a leading activity, still occupies a large place in the life of younger students. These are ongoing role-playing games, games with rules, dramatization games, computer games. These games at primary school age are supplemented by didactic and competitive games.

Important during this period is the organization by parents of adequate assistance to the student. To make it easier for a first grader to master the position of a student, you need to:

· from the very beginning to introduce into the life of the child clear rules related to the school;

Do not do homework for the child, but do it with him (especially at first);

Show an increased interest in observing the school "Commandments", collect a portfolio, follow the form, etc.;

Do not be jealous of the teacher; do not express concerns with the child about the qualifications of teachers and the imperfection of school programs;

· be attentive to all the vicissitudes of school life, learn about relationships with classmates, school news;

Pay attention to the child's questions after attending school, because it is in free communication, inadvertently, that parents convey their thoughts and concerns to the child: “Are you offended?”, “Were you scolded today?” etc.

Recently, parents often ask questions: « Do modern curricula really cause overload, or is it a myth for lazy kids and lazy parents who don't want to do extra work with their child? », « Does the child need to be loaded in excess of the curriculum and with what? », « How to develop a child, "without going too far"? . It is impossible to answer these questions unambiguously. It depends on what kind of child, depending on what school, according to what program and what teacher he studies. When deciding what additional activities to include their child in, parents should carefully, as objectively as possible, as if from the outside, look at him and answer a few questions:

How does he endure mental and physical exercise? What activities tire him, exhaust him, and which ones inspire and give strength? The first, if necessary, should have a minimum volume, and the second are useful in any quantities (unless, of course, they have crowded out the main training sessions). Additional classes should not harm the health of the child;

What interests him? What does he like? It would be nice to find something close to his current interests or to associate with them activities that you seem to need;

What are his abilities? It is possible to develop the abilities already manifested, and in this way achieve a certain success relatively quickly. But it is possible to develop those abilities that, from the point of view of parents, are necessary, but the child does not have good inclinations. In the latter case, the path will be longer and more difficult, and there may not be any satisfying success at the end. But abilities, if the child is included in the relevant activity, will still develop (especially if the activities are attractive to the child, arouse his interest);

If additional classes began, how does he feel about the teacher, what kind of relationship do they have? Is there any progress in mastering this type of activity, or is everything “not going at all”, and this upsets or annoys the child? Is he comfortable?

In addition, if the child has already begun to do something additionally (it doesn’t matter what - a foreign language, chess, drawing, dancing, etc.) and parents want to stop classes for some reason, it is necessary to weigh all the “pros” and “ against". Primary school age is the time when a child must learn to do what is uninteresting, but necessary. It is at this age that arbitrariness (will) develops. Basically, this happens in the process of schooling, thanks to mandatory training sessions. But additional activities can also play an important role in the development of arbitrariness. Any activity requires effort. Any most beloved work includes routine, tedious, boring moments, and difficulties that need to be overcome, and individual failures. In not very interesting work all these troubles are many. If parents "cancel" classes that were difficult or not particularly interesting for the child, he may have hope or confidence that it is not necessary to overcome difficulties, you can get rid of any troubles and do nothing. The explanations that the child will receive are very important here.

If a junior student is doing well with academic performance, he does his homework relatively quickly and he has a lot of free time, parents need to track how he fills it. Ahead is adolescence, with its special interests and temptations. If a child is used to an empty pastime, if he does not do anything useful, later, when he becomes a teenager, his parents are unlikely to be able to send him to a section, studio or circle, for fear of dubious companies. It is necessary to start intelligently loading his free time from preschool and primary school age.

The development of individual mental processes occurs throughout the entire primary school age. Among the most important features of the development of cognitive processes are the following:

Feeling, perception, ideas and imagination in a younger student are much better developed than thinking, which, being visual-figurative, is still very dependent on the sensory picture of the world, that is, on perception;

Attention and memory are directed mainly to the result of cognition, and not to the way to achieve this result, that is, it is much easier for a child to remember what exactly he did (saw, understood, heard, learned) than to reproduce in memory or pay attention to how it was he who did it, in what sequence, according to what rules, using what knowledge;

Volitional processes and voluntary regulation in a younger student are still very weak and are often compensated by emotions - this is where his conflicts between desires and obligations (the so-called “want-need” conflicts) result. That is, it turns out that “in words” children know all their “shoulds” and can always name them, and when it comes to specific actions, they are guided by the principle of pleasure (I need to do my homework, but I sit down to watch cartoons - it’s more pleasant!) .

Primary school age is the time of the formation of such moral feelings as a sense of camaraderie, duty, love for the Fatherland, as well as the ability to sympathize, empathy.

There are also changes in the emotional-volitional sphere. The general orientation of the emotions of a younger student is associated with an increase in awareness, restraint, stability of feelings and actions (Table 1).

Table 1. Indicators of norms and deviations in the emotional sphere of a younger student

Norm

Deviations

1. Desire to go to school and be a schoolboy. 2. Certainly respectful attitude towards the teacher. 3. Bright emotional coloring of assessments. 4. Satisfaction from mastering social methods of activity, primarily educational. 5. The presence of an emotional displacement (can rejoice at the events of a week ago or expected in the future and easily endure current difficulties. 6. Sympathy and complicity in the lives of peers.

1. Negative attitude towards school, complete lack of cognitive need. 2. Ignoring the assessments of their activities, reaching indifference. 3. The development of psychological defense, leading to a complete disregard for potentially meaningful assessments teacher and other students.

In the 1st grade, children have a strong involuntariness in their emotional life, which is found in some impulsive reactions of the child (laughter in class, violations of discipline). But already by grades II-III, children become more restrained in expressing their emotions and feelings, control them and can “play” the right emotion if necessary.

At primary school age, emotional life becomes more complicated and differentiated - complex higher feelings appear:

moral (sense of duty, love for the motherland, camaraderie, pride, jealousy, empathy);

· intellectual (curiosity, surprise, doubt, intellectual pleasure, disappointment, etc.);

aesthetic (a sense of beauty, a sense of beautiful and ugly, a sense of harmony;

Praxic feelings (when making crafts, in physical education classes or dancing).

Feelings in primary school age develop in close connection with the will: often they prevail over volitional behavior and become the motive of behavior themselves.

Intellectual experiences can force a child to spend hours solving educational problems, but the same activity will be slowed down if the child experiences feelings of fear, insecurity, and failure.

Volitional behavior in the 1st grade largely depends on the instructions and control of adults, but by the 2nd - 3rd grade it is directed by the child's own needs, interests and motives.

However, firstly, the child has great suggestibility and can perform any act simply “like everyone else” or because someone who has authority for the child insisted on it. Secondly, at this age, elements of involuntary behavior are still preserved, and sometimes the child cannot resist the satisfaction of any of his desires.

Nevertheless, it is at this age that such strong-willed qualities as independence, perseverance, endurance, self-confidence can be formed, since the educational activity mastered by children has great resources for this.

At the age of 7-11 years, the child, in general, is aware of what constitutes a certain individuality. He knows that he is obliged to learn and change himself in the process of learning, assimilating collective knowledge and corresponding to the system of social expectations regarding his behavior and value orientations. At the same time, children begin to understand that they are different from others, and begin to experience their uniqueness, their "self", seeking to assert themselves among adults and peers.

The new requirements of the school, emancipation from parents contribute to the development of the child's self-esteem, based on ideas about himself and the assessments of others.

First-graders, characterizing themselves, use the adjectives "good - bad", "good - evil".

Third-graders demonstrate a richer and more differentiated psychological vocabulary for describing both their behavior and other people's character traits.

One of central moments characteristics of oneself becomes a school grade. At the same time, self-esteem in one type of activity can differ significantly from self-esteem in others: for example, in drawing, it can rate itself highly, and in mathematics, underestimate it. The criteria for assessing one's own progress depend on the teacher.

At primary school age, the child's self-consciousness develops intensively, being filled with new value orientations. The first change concerns the name and surname. If preschool children most often love their first and last name, then the younger student subtly captures how classmates treat his first and last name. In the process of communicating with peers, the child begins to appreciate the friendly attitude towards himself of those around him, expressed in the way he is addressed, and he himself learns different forms of address. Facial features and bodily expression are also of great importance for a child of this age. Like a preschooler, a younger student practices grimacing. In addition to the face, attention is drawn to one's own body.

The child gradually develops an image of his body and forms a motor style.

At 6-7 years old, the child finally realizes the irreversibility of gender. Awareness of one's gender role implies an understanding of how others relate to this, how much his gender corresponds to their expectations. At the same time, according to psychoanalysts, primary school age is considered relatively calm in terms of pronounced fixation on sex-role relationships. At the same time, younger students are able to discuss for a long time what is “male” and what is “women's work”, how girls differ from boys, what methods they use to attract attention to each other.

According to the third graders, in order to please a girl, she gets bored with boys; they are chasing after her; put a tripod to fall; lift their skirts; pulling braids; pick up a briefcase in the belly they can give a fist; give chocolates, sweets and chewing gum; carry a briefcase; protect. And to please a boy, girls bite and scratch; fight with their feet; say obscene words; spinning before our eyes; write notes "Vika + Kolya \u003d Love"; give to write off; look at him in class and sigh.

Despite the great importance of the face, body, gender, the main role in the self-determination of the younger student is played by educational activities. If the need for self-affirmation is not satisfied, it can result in whims, despondency, envy, or a constant feeling of competition. Failure in school leads to a drop in children's self-esteem and to a decrease in the level of aspirations.

An important stage in the development of personality is love for loved ones. First of all, the mother and family members get into the image of "I". Love for relatives causes the experience and understanding that the troubles and joys of another person can be perceived as their own suffering and well-being.

So, the process of self-realization is very difficult for a child of primary school age and gives rise to many experiences. First of all, this is due to the understanding of the difference between oneself and others in terms of physical, sexual, psychological, sociocultural characteristics and the formation of many complexes on this basis.

PSYCHOLOGY OF A TEENAGER

Adolescence is a difficult time for a child. But parents of teenage children also experience stress, confusion, and anxiety during this period. During this period, it is important to understand what reactions and behaviors are normal for adolescents and their parents. Sometimes parents perceive the actions of their children as problematic, when in fact they are normal for their age. Understand adolescents, the features of this age period knowing about the particular developmental niche in which they live can help.

The word "teenager" first appeared in literature in 1904. It was believed that this period is an intermediate stage between childhood and adulthood. For the first time, they started talking about the paradoxical character of a teenager. Various scientists called this period the period of "storm and stress", the period of "growing into culture", etc. Some believe that the crisis in adolescence is an inevitable and universal phenomenon due to its biological predestination associated with puberty, others argue that the crisis can be avoided if adults "behave correctly."

The rapid physiological and endocrine changes that occur at this age at first relegated psychological problems to the background in the eyes of scientists. But the study of the process of socialization of children in different cultures has proved that the characteristics of puberty, the formation of consciousness, the presence and severity of the adolescent crisis depend, first of all, on cultural traditions, the characteristics of raising and educating children, the dominant style of communication in the family. A number of studies have shown that in most primitive cultures there are ceremonies that "introduce" adolescents into adulthood. Such rites were called initiation. The forms of rituals were different, but in each of them one can observe common features: temporary isolation of a teenager from the former social environment, familiarization with secret knowledge, obtaining a new name, insignia that have symbolic meaning. In fact, initiation formalized the transition to a new status role, showing everyone and the child himself his new social position. It was this external, visible to all transition that removed many of the problems of growing up, the uncertainty of the position of a teenager, causing conflicts and difficulties in the formation of their self-awareness.

The difficulties that accompany adolescence are largely due to the fact that significant mental changes are not accompanied by external changes in the status, material or social position of children, and therefore are not always recognized in a timely manner by adults. The peculiarities of adolescent behavior, their desire to create their own culture (clothes, jargon, etc.), to closer contacts with peers, and not with adults, are explained precisely by their position - no longer children, but not yet adults.

The relationship of a teenager with the outside world is built in two directions: on the one hand, the child seeks to free himself from parental care; on the other hand, he gradually enters the group of peers, which becomes a channel of socialization and requires the establishment of relations of competition and cooperation with partners of both sexes.

Communication between a teenager and adults is full of problems. Parents and teachers, for the most part, are unable to see, let alone take into account in the practice of education, the intensive process of growing up that takes place throughout this age, trying to maintain "childish" forms of control. The attitude towards a teenager as a child from a significant environment not only hinders the development of social maturity in adolescence, but also conflicts with the adolescent's own ideas about his own adulthood and his claims to new rights. It is this contradiction that is the source of conflicts and difficulties that arise in the relationship between a teenager and an adult.

Considering the complexity of the period and the specifics of relationships with adults, in the first place - limiting the influence of parents, it is necessary to pay special attention to what forms communication with significant adults in general and with parents in particular takes. D. Fontenel formulates the conditions successful communication adults with teenagers as follows:

· remember that during adolescence, communication usually decreases and the child becomes less inclined to confide his thoughts and feelings to his parents. This is a completely normal process and should not cause you concern and negative reactions;

· listen to what they say to you, that is, try to understand the feelings of a teenager, his logic. Instead of making up counterarguments and objections, just listen;

· put your affairs aside and just look at the teenager. When a teenager is talking to you, listen. You must give your teenager proper attention. Make sure that he talks to you, and does not turn to the back of your head or the newspaper that you buried in;

· try to communicate in a positive way. Do not focus on the mistakes, mistakes, omissions of a teenager. Make communication positive, talk about successes, achievements, interests, good behavior;

· Talk to your teenager about what interests him. It can be music, sports, dancing, cars, motorcycles. If you start a conversation, do not try to use it for teaching, in order to convince a teenager of anything, to make him the desired impression. The main goal of the conversation should be the conversation itself and the maintenance of a positive interaction;

· avoid talking too much. Beware of too long or detailed explanations, repeated repetition of your instructions, unnecessary questions, and other forms of communication that make a teenager deaf to your speeches;

· try to feel the feelings of a teenager. He doesn't need you to agree or disagree with him, just say that you understand how he feels. Do not try to dissuade him in order to console him. It happens that you are not required to settle any situations or improve the mood of a teenager. Understanding his feelings on your part can be his main consolation;

· do not allow excessively violent reactions to the words of a teenager. Remember: sometimes teenagers expect to evoke a certain reaction from their parents with their words. Also, don't say "no" too hastily. It is better to think about the request and only then give an answer. In other words, think before you open your mouth;

· try to create situations favorable for communication. Be with your child more often. Try to share with the child his activities, although the teenager is unlikely to often accept your proposals. An additional obstacle to communication can be a TV;

· beware of measuring strength with a teenager, confronting him. Strive to orient communication toward compromise, not battle. Involve your teen in decision making whenever possible.

The result of the wrong attitudes of adults, society as a whole towards adolescents, according to a number of researchers, is the acute course of the adolescent crisis. The crisis of a teenager is the norm of age. But how it will proceed is largely determined by the behavior of adults. Attempts by adults to avoid the manifestation of a crisis by creating conditions for the realization of new needs, as a rule, turn out to be fruitless. The teenager, as it were, provokes prohibitions, specifically "forces" his parents to them in order to be able to test his strength in overcoming these prohibitions, to test and expand the limits that set the limits of his independence by his own efforts. It is through this collision that a teenager recognizes himself, his capabilities, satisfies his needs for self-affirmation. This is the positive meaning of the crisis in human life. If this does not happen and the crisis passes without conflict, in the future either a belated, and therefore especially painful and rapidly flowing crisis at the age of 17–18, and even later, or a protracted infantile position of a “child”, which characterizes a person in his youth and even in adulthood, may appear. age.

One of the main tendencies of age is the reorientation of a teenager from communication with parents, teachers to communication with peers for a number of reasons: this is an important specific channel of information; it is a specific kind of interpersonal relationship; it is a specific kind of emotional contact. Communication at this age is based on the interweaving of two needs: isolation and the need for inclusion in any group or community. It is important for a teenager to be included in a group that is significant for him, on the values ​​and norms of which he is guided. At the center of a teenager's life are his relationships with peers, who are the source of norms of behavior and obtaining a certain status. That is, for a child of adolescence, it is important not only to be with peers, but to occupy among them a position that satisfies him. For some, this desire is expressed in the desire to take a leadership position in the group, for others - a dear friend, for others - indisputable authority, but in any case, this desire is the main thing in the behavior of children in the middle classes.

The position of equality of peer children makes communication with them especially attractive for adolescents, and even developed communication with adults cannot replace it. It is of particular value, goes beyond the school and stands out as an independent important area of ​​life, sometimes relegating teaching and communication with parents to the background. Here, the teenager realizes the desire for communication and joint activities with peers, the desire to have close friends and live a common life with them, the desire to be accepted, recognized, respected by peers due to their individual qualities. In peers, a teenager appreciates the qualities of a comrade and friend, ingenuity and knowledge (and not academic performance), courage, self-control. It is in such communication that a teenager learns about another person and himself.

A change in activity, the development of communication, also restructure the intellectual activity of a teenager. Teenagers suddenly become very smart and know literally everything. Their awareness extends to areas of knowledge, on each issue they have their own point of view. They put forward hypotheses and prove them in reasoning, they are interested in intellectual tasks. The subject of attention, analysis and evaluation of a teenager is his own intellectual operations. It is in adolescence that new motives for learning appear, connected with life plans and the choice of a profession, with the advent of ideals in life.

Not all adolescents reach an equal level in the development of thinking, but in general they are characterized by: 1) awareness of their own intellectual operations and the desire to manage them; 2) speech becomes more controlled and manageable; 3) meaningful perception of the surrounding world; 4) the desire for reflection; 5) increase in general intellectual activity.

But the most significant changes occur in the personal sphere. A distinctive feature of adolescence is the feeling of adulthood - the emerging idea of ​​​​oneself as no longer a child. It can manifest itself in different ways: from imitation of external signs of adulthood to social and intellectual adulthood. The idea of ​​yourself as a different, changed person makes you think about your own characteristics, qualities of character, compliance with any ideals.

In thinking about himself, a teenager is turned to his shortcomings and feels the need to eliminate them, and later - to the characteristics of the personality as a whole, to his individuality, his merits and capabilities. It is easier for a teenager to compare himself with his peers than with adults. An adult is a model that is difficult to achieve in practice, and a peer is a measure that allows a teenager to evaluate himself at the level of real possibilities. A peer model is, as it were, an intermediate step between childhood and adulthood on the way to acquiring the qualities of an adult by a teenager.

The desire to be more mature, and therefore better, leads to an increase in sensitivity to value judgments addressed to oneself. They have a pronounced need for a positive assessment and a good relationship with others, to confirm the significance of the changes taking place with them. Therefore, they are very sensitive to opinions about them and almost all crave self-affirmation in any form. A teenager especially cares about his own independence, independence. The older the teenager, the wider the scope of claims for independence; most want to express their "I" in assessments, judgments, actions. At this age, the formation of one's own positions on a number of issues and some life principles begins.

It is necessary to begin to give responsibility for the child's life to him: to stop controlling him all the time, to give valuable instructions, and most importantly, to make decisions for him. For many parents, this is the most difficult thing, because they need to stop treating the child as part of themselves, as their continuation. Sometimes, without the help of a professional psychologist, it can not be done here.