Methods of teaching rhetoric Ippolitov read online. From the Editor

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N. A. Ippolitova
Pedagogical rhetoric in questions and answers

Z. S. Smelkova, doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor - sec. I (1, 2, 3, 4);

N. A. Ippolitova, doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor - sec. II (ch. 1), sec. II (ch. 5) (together with L. S. Yakushina);

T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor - sec. II (ch. 2);

E. L. Erokhin, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor – Sec. II (ch. 3), sec. IV (ch. 4);

L. E. Tumina, doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor - sec. II (ch. 4);

M. R. Savova, cand. Pedagogical Sciences, Assoc. - sec. III (ch. 1);

Z. I. Kurtseva, cand. Pedagogical Sciences, Assoc. - sec. III (ch. 2);

Z. S. Zyukina, cand. Pedagogical Sciences, Assoc. - sec. III (ch. 3);

O. V. Filippova, doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor - sec. III (ch. 4), sec. IV (ch. 3);

L. V. Salkova, Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor – Sec. III (ch. 5), sec. IV (Ch. 2, 6);

L. V. Khaimovich, candidate of pedagogical sciences, associate professor - sec. IV (ch. 1);

N. G. Grudtsyna, doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor - sec. IV (ch. 5);

O. G. Usanova, candidate of pedagogical sciences, associate professor - sec. IV (ch. 7);

L. S. Yakushina, candidate of pedagogical sciences, professor – sec. II (ch. 5) (together with N. A. Ippolitova).

© Design. Publishing house "Prometheus", 2011

Foreword

Currently, higher education is facing new challenges, one of which is the formation of the communicative competence of a specialist - a future teacher, doctor, manager, lawyer, etc.

Communicative competence implies mastering the norms of communication in a certain professional team, the ability to create and interpret professionally significant statements (texts). And for this, the future specialist needs to know the specifics of professional communication in a particular field of activity, the norms of speech behavior that ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of solving his professional tasks.

The main aspects of professional training - the achievement of learning goals, the successful solution of various educational, methodological and educational tasks - are possible only if the teacher knows the specifics of pedagogical communication, owns professional speech, norms of speech behavior, which ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the teacher.

The sphere of education is the sphere of "increased speech responsibility", since the word (speech) becomes the most important (if not the main) instrument of the teacher's activity, the main means of realizing all the tasks of a proper methodological and didactic nature.

Thus, an additional component related to mastering the experience of the teacher's communicative and creative activity should be introduced into the content of the teacher's professional training.

The problems of teaching future teachers professional communication can be successfully solved if this training is based on a single concept, on the basis of a holistic course addressed to students of higher educational institutions.

The basis of this concept can be a rhetorical approach, focused on the search, theoretical understanding and practical implementation of the best ways to master effective, successful, productive professional speech.

In rhetoric, general laws and principles of speech behavior have been developed, and the practical possibilities of their use in various situations of communication are described.

Based on the categories, laws and principles of general rhetoric, a model of professional speech training of future specialists within the framework of private - pedagogical - rhetoric can be created. A professionally oriented rhetoric course allows you to form the communicative competence of future specialists, which involves:

- mastering rhetorical knowledge about the essence, rules and norms of communication, about the requirements for speech behavior in various communicative and speech situations;

- awareness of the situation of professional communication in the field of education, the features of communicative and speech situations that are characteristic of the professional activities of students;

- mastering the ability to solve communicative and speech problems in a specific situation of communication;

- mastering the experience of analyzing and creating professionally significant types of statements; development of a creatively active speech personality who is able to apply the acquired knowledge and skills in new, constantly changing conditions for the manifestation of a particular communicative situation, able to seek and find their own solutions to diverse professional tasks.

The course of professionally oriented rhetoric has, first of all, a practical orientation - a prerequisite for the demand for rhetorical knowledge is their applied nature. The theoretical provisions of rhetoric are always aimed at solving real problems related to human life.

These are, in the most general form, the basic provisions that determine the goal, objectives and content of rhetoric as an academic discipline at a pedagogical university.

These provisions determine the main approaches to the creation of this manual.

The manual consists of four sections, which reveal the specifics of each of the named components of the professional training of a specialist. We emphasize that the basic concepts - "communication", "speech activity", "pedagogical speech genres" - are revealed taking into account the specifics of the teacher's profession, as evidenced not only by the title of the sections ("Pedagogical communication", "Teacher's speech activity", "Professionally significant speech genres for the teacher”, “Culture of speech activity of the teacher”), but also their content.

The basic concepts and categories of the psychology of communication, rhetoric, the theory of speech activity are considered in the process of their implementation in specific situations of professional communication, which makes it possible to show their specificity, to determine how general principles, provisions, rules, laws, norms operate in appropriate communicative conditions, how they "work" in the course of solving a specific problem.

Section I
Pedagogical communication

Chapter 1
The specifics of pedagogical communication

What is pedagogical communication and what are its functions?

What is the content of the concept of "pedagogical communication"? According to the definition of A. A. Leontiev, “optimal pedagogical communication is such communication of a teacher (and, more broadly, of the teaching staff) with schoolchildren in the learning process, which creates the best conditions for the development of student motivation and the creative nature of educational activity, for the correct formation of the student’s personality, provides emotional climate of learning<…>, ensures the management of socio-psychological processes in the children's team and allows you to make the most of the teacher's personal characteristics in the educational process.

A more concise definition of the term can be offered: pedagogical communication- this is the interaction of a teacher and students, providing motivation, effectiveness, creativity and educational effect of joint communicative activities.

The basis of the teacher's communicative activity is practical knowledge about the ways of purposeful use of speech means to solve the problems of pedagogical communication. Such knowledge is the key to mastering the profession.

Pedagogical communication is multifunctional. The communicative strategy of teacher-student interaction is determined by the teacher, who manages the process of cognitive activity, regulates the relationship between students, and creates an atmosphere of friendly and active verbal communication. This is a pronounced strategy of partnership, cooperation: the participants in communication are, as it were, on one side of the activity, their relationship is mediated by a common goal and common participation in the performance of their duties (functions).

Mutual influence is obvious: the communicative strategy in some way predetermines the functions of pedagogical communication, in some ways it is determined by them.

To characterize the functions of pedagogical communication, it is advisable to refer to generally accepted classifications, where the definition of functions correlates with the intended purpose of the teacher’s activity, and the following functions are distinguished as the main ones: gnostic(cognitive), constructive(selection and organization of educational material), organizational(organization of educational activities, choice of forms of work) and educational.

The communicative nature of the teacher's activity in the implementation of all these functions is obvious. Communication is the main form of knowledge; in communication, the essence of the organizational and educational functions is realized; finally, the constructive function correlates with the pre-communicative, preparatory stage of communication, when the selection and organization of the material are made in accordance with the subject of speech (topic), with the communicative intention of the addresser (teacher) and with the focus on the addressee (students of a particular class).

This obligatory nature of the communicative principle in each of the functions of communication is reflected in another generally accepted classification (communication in the broad sense of the word), proposed by the psychologist B. F. Lomov: information and communication(exchange of information, its perception), regulatory and communicative(organization of joint activities, correction of methods of interaction), educational and communicative(emotional contact, empathy).

The terminological designation of functions adopted by us has the following content: information and communication function (gnostic, providing knowledge) - the function of learning, acquiring subject knowledge and social experience; regulatory and communicative function - organizational, providing both the choice of strategy and methods of interaction between the teacher and the student, as well as the specific organization of activities within the framework of the educational and speech situation; the educational and communicative function is focused on the development of the student's personal qualities, his emotional sphere, on the formation of aesthetic susceptibility, artistic taste.

In the process of educational and speech activity, the teacher comprehensively implements all the functions of communication.

What are the conditions for the successful implementation of the information and communication function of communication?

Pedagogical communication in the "teacher-student" system is carried out, as it were, through two channels. This is, firstly, a channel of direct interpersonal contact (subject-subject communication) and, secondly, a channel of communication closely related to the first, but having its own specifics, through an educational subject (subject-object-subject).

The specifics of the subject, academic subject knowledge affect not only the content of speech (terminology, informational specifics of the exact sciences or the humanities), but also the selection of specific speech means of pedagogical communication.

Thus, the importance of the channel of communication "through the medium of the subject" increases significantly and fluency in the "language of the subject" becomes the most important condition for pedagogical communication.

The speech form of the implementation of the gnostic function is a dialogue, informational contact of the subjects of communication, each of which addresses exactly this partner, the listener. And because how equal they will be, how much the teacher will make his communicative leadership imperceptible and will be able to organize co-reflection, co-creation, and his partner will be able to change the role of the student to the role of a co-author, determines the effectiveness of learning.

What forms of scientific knowledge should a young teacher master in the first place? The minimum of subject knowledge is determined by the curriculum, the maximum - by individual abilities and a person's attitude to work.

Secondly, the development of gnostic abilities is the mastery of the "technology" of professional and pedagogical communication. Here, general guidelines are important, the definition of the main conditions (requirements) for the successful implementation of the information and communication (gnostic) function.

First condition- the accuracy of the transfer of scientific information with any degree of its adaptation for educational purposes. The adequacy of communicative means is achieved here due to the clarity and conciseness of theoretical definitions, provided by the speech methods of the joint activity of the teacher and students.

On the other hand, the adequacy of speech means to the educational and communicative task can also be considered from the standpoint of the interaction of communication partners. This is a setting for joint action (WE are studying), this is a manifestation of sensory means of influence in the speech behavior of the teacher - the creation of a relaxed atmosphere of communication.

The communicative competence of the teacher, his ability to navigate in the situation of communication - second condition successful implementation of the gnostic function of communication. Now the "feeling of the addressee" comes to the fore - the ability to anticipate his reaction both at the stage of preparing the lesson and at the stage of direct educational communication.

Third condition- do not forget about two additional functions - normative and updating - in the context of the implementation of the information and communication function of communication.

The actualizing function, which means the actualization in pedagogical communication of the individual speech characteristics of the individual (within the framework of the educational speech situation), is successfully implemented if the teacher, who knows his audience well, is able to choose from the personal arsenal of speech means those words and those forms of speech influence that will be the most adequate and emotionally consonant with this situation.

And, finally, as a general condition for the implementation of all the functions of educational communication and the open influence of the teacher's speech, professional mastery of the technique of speech should be called. Thus, the communicative-informational function, combining the content and formative (speech) structures of pedagogical communication, provides a solution to the educational problem.

What are the features of the implementation of the regulatory and communicative function of communication?

The organizational function can be defined as a core-forming one, guiding the development of the communication process and connecting all its threads.

The implementation of this function begins at the pre-communicative stage of communication, when the selection and organization of educational material takes place (this aspect of the function is also terminologically referred to as a constructive function). There is a simulation of the upcoming pedagogical communication: the selection of didactic materials necessary for the lesson, lesson planning, compiling a summary.

The effectiveness of communication largely depends on the thoroughness of the development of not only the content of the lesson, but also on the planning of its speech structure. First of all, the teacher should present the whole probabilistic picture of his educational interaction with the class, correlate the planned material, methodological methods of its assimilation with the possibilities and features of the communicative activity of specific participants in communication.

By organizing joint activities, the teacher constantly regulates the process of communication, stimulates the participation of interlocutors in it, corrects the solution of educational tasks - both planned and arising spontaneously. Mobility, internal readiness to change the tactics of speech interaction with schoolchildren is important here: an experienced teacher feels the reaction of the audience and can intuitively correct one or another method or method of speech influence.

The most mobile regulatory and communicative function is manifested in the organization of direct communication with students in the classroom. In the process of "transcoding" the abstract materials into oral speech, elements of speech improvisation naturally arise.

The activity of a teacher who organizes communication is essentially multifunctional: he retains communicative leadership (but does not advertise it), stimulates the activity of students, predetermines the effectiveness of their actions by the very formulation of the educational task and instructions that ensure its solution.

So, the successful implementation of the regulatory and communicative function of pedagogical communication depends on the formation of the teacher's communicative skills and on the installation on the creative nature of the very process of organizing educational relationships. A guideline for self-control and assessment of communication skills can be defined as follows: the teacher needs to master not only external methods of dialogizing forms of education, but also verbal ways of influencing the awakening of the student’s thought, predicting its verbal expression in speech.

What is the significance of the educational and communicative function of communication?

The range of action of this function is very wide: the development of the student's personal qualities (including communication skills), the formation of the emotional sphere, the development of aesthetic susceptibility and artistic taste in the process of studying the humanities.

Why does the second word, communicative, seem fundamentally significant when defining this function?

Speech, mental activity of a schoolchild are considered in psychology as the most important personal qualities. In addition, it is speech, speech forms of expression and thoughts, and feelings that make it possible to trace and evaluate the dynamics of the development of the student's personal qualities.

What personal qualities are professionally necessary for a teacher to carry out the educational and communicative function of communicating with schoolchildren? In any form of communication with schoolchildren, the teacher always remains an educator and communicative leader. And the more natural this inequality of social roles is, the more imperceptible it is, the more successfully the pedagogy of cooperation operates.

The communicative actions of the teacher predetermine the educational effect of communication. Voluntarily or involuntarily, the speech of the teacher, his manner of communication is perceived by schoolchildren as a model. It is difficult to overestimate the influence of such a model on the formation of interpersonal relations in a team, on overcoming the psychological barriers of communication - the uncertainty of the speech behavior of schoolchildren or their excessive emotionality and excessive verbosity.

Chapter 2
Types of communication: professional conditionality characteristics

What are the main types of communication?

Types of communication are usually distinguished on various grounds. We will name and consider those that, in our opinion, are professionally significant and stand out for the following reasons:

1. According to the sign system of communication, which determines the way of communication: verbal (verbal) and non-verbal.

2. By the number of participants in communication: interpersonal, group, mass.

3. According to the position of the communicants in space and time: contact and distant.

4. According to the external conditions of communication and observance of the social roles of communicants: official and unofficial.

What is non-verbal communication?

The main sign mechanism of communication is language - a system of sign units of a particular national language. This is a system of rules that allows the use of language signs to convey the meaning of information. In essence, speech is a language in use: a sequence of signs of a language, organized according to its laws in accordance with the needs and conditions of communication.

The system of the national language is one. The semantics of the word, the meaning of the grammatical or syntactic categories of the language are impersonal and do not depend on the sphere and conditions of communication. Another thing is that in speech the same language units can be perceived, decoded by the listener in different ways - depending on the understanding of the subtext of the statement, on the intonation of the speaker, on the expression of his eyes.

The perception of a word-sign is enriched or transformed by the simultaneous perception of a sign of another system - non-verbal (non-linguistic).

All non-linguistic signs are communicatively significant: being a concrete-sensory form of manifestation of a person's internal motives and reactions, they perform an emotionally expressive function of communication, complementing and enriching the teacher's speech.

The ability to “decode” non-verbal information is an important condition for the effectiveness of communication and a special skill that is professionally necessary for a teacher. The uniqueness of the multi-channel impact on the listener of non-verbal means of communication makes them indispensable in the arsenal of pedagogical tools.

In the process of communication, non-verbal means can replace verbal information, can duplicate it, but much more often there is an effect of supplementing the meaning of the message, strengthening the impact: the facial expressions and gestures of the speaker, the tonality and melody of speech provide its expressiveness. Information comes through different channels, its perception is a holistic process: the student hears and sees the teacher.

The existing term "body language" (Allan Pease) T. A. Ladyzhenskaya concretizes from the standpoint of pedagogical communication as the language of the "appearance of the teacher." Specifying a significant degree of reflexivity, involuntariness of the signs of the "body language" of a person, all researchers talk about its social and situational conditioning.

The primary classification of the components of the system of non-verbal signs has a psychophysical basis. Let's start with such a component as proximics.

RHETORIC

Edited by

Doctors of Pedagogical Sciences, Professors ON THE. Ippolitova

"AVENUE"

Moscow 2008

UDC 808.5(075.8) BBK 83.7ya73 R55

3. C. Smelkova. dr. ped. sciences, prof. - sec. I (Ch. 1, 2, 3, 4); N. BUT. Ippolitova, dr. ped. sciences, prof. - sec. II (ch. 1), sec. 2 (ch. 5) (together with J1. S. Yakushina);

T. BUT. Ladyzhenskaya, dr. ped. sciences, prof. - sec. II (ch. 2);

E. L. Erokhin. cand. ped. sciences - section. II (ch. 3), sec. IV (ch. 4);

J.I. E. Tumin, dr. ped. sciences, prof. - sec. II (ch. 4);

M. R. Savova, cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sec. III(chap. 1);

3. I. Kurtseva, cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sec. III (ch. 2);

3. C. Zyukina, cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sec. III (ch. 3);

O. V. Filippova, dr. ped. sciences, prof. - sec. III (ch. 4), sec. IV (ch. 3);

L. V. Salkova, cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sec. III (ch. 5), sec. IV (Ch. 2, 6);

L. V. Khaimovich, cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sec. IV (ch. I);

N. G. Grudtsyna, dr. ped. sciences, prof. - sec. IV (ch. 5);

O. G. Usanova, cand. ped. Sciences, Assoc. - sec. IV (ch. 7);

L.S. Yakushina, cand. ped. sciences, prof. - sec. II (Ch. 5) (together with N. A. Ippolitova);

O. I. Marchenko, Dr. Philosopher, Sciences - Application.

Rhetoric: textbook. / 3. S. Smelkova, N. A. Ippolitova, T. A. Lady-P55 female [and others]; ed. N. A. Ippolitova. - M. : TK Velby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2008. - 448 p.

ISBN 978-5-482-01640-4

The textbook outlines the main theoretical and practical issues of the course "Rhetoric". The specifics of pedagogical communication, the speech activity of the teacher, the main pedagogical speech genres are revealed. The appendix contains four lessons of voice-speech training.

For students, graduate students and teachers of pedagogical universities, scientists and practitioners, as well as all those interested in the culture of professional communication in the field of education.

ISBN 978-5-482-01640-4
UDC 808.5(075.8) LBC 83.7ya73

Ђ> Prospekt Publishing House LLC, 2008
Foreword

This textbook summarizes the experience of the Department of Rhetoric and Culture of Speech of the Moscow State Pedagogical University (MPGU), associated with the theoretical justification and experimental development of a professionally oriented textbook of the subject, which is based on rhetorical knowledge.

Currently, higher education is facing new challenges, one of which is the formation of the communicative competence of a specialist - a future teacher, doctor, manager, lawyer, etc.

Communicative competence implies the possession of communication skills in a certain professional team, the ability to create and interpret professionally significant statements (texts). And for this, the future specialist needs to know the specifics of professional communication in a particular field of activity, the norms of speech behavior that ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of solving his professional tasks.

“To speak and write as a teacher for a teacher at the same time means to establish oneself as a person in a given social environment, and most importantly, in our opinion, to ensure oneself, both professionally and interpersonally, equal contact in interaction with partners” (L. G. Antonov).

Thus, an additional component related to mastering the experience of the teacher's communicative and creative activity should be introduced into the content of the teacher's professional training.

In rhetoric, general laws and principles of speech behavior have been developed, and the practical possibilities of their use in various situations of communication are described.

mastering rhetorical knowledge about the essence, rules and norms of communication, about the requirements for speech behavior in various communicative and speech situations;
awareness of the situation of professional communication in the field of education, the features of communicative and speech situations that are characteristic of the professional activities of students;
mastering the ability to solve communicative and speech problems in a specific situation of communication;
mastering the experience of analysis and the creation of professionally significant types of statements; development of a creatively active speech personality who is able to apply the acquired knowledge and skills in new, constantly changing conditions for the manifestation of a particular communicative situation, able to seek and find their own solutions to diverse professional tasks.

These are, in the most general form, the basic provisions that determine the goal, objectives and content of rhetoric as an academic discipline at a pedagogical university.

These provisions determine the main approaches to the creation of this manual, which is, to a certain extent, a new type of educational literature.

In this regard, we note first of all the features of the content of the material presented in it. Professionally-oriented rhetorical training involves knowledge of the specifics of communication in a particular area, the features of the implementation of various types of speech activity, due to the nature of the profession, the development of experience in communicative and creative activities to create professionally significant pedagogical speech genres. The manual consists of four sections, which reveal the specifics of each of the named components of the professional training of a specialist. We emphasize that the basic concepts - communication - speech activity - pedagogical speech genres - are revealed taking into account the specifics of the teacher's profession, as evidenced not only by the title of the sections ("Pedagogical communication", "Teacher's speech activity", "Professionally significant speech genres for the teacher", "Culture of speech activity of the teacher"), but also their content.

We also note the novelty of the methodological organization of the manual, which is manifested in the following:

the theoretical material of the manual is selected and presented taking into account the instrumental nature of the knowledge obtained in the course of pedagogical rhetoric (knowledge about the methods of activity);
theoretical information in this regard is presented in a special way: the main provisions, conclusions, definitions of concepts, etc. are usually preceded or accompanied (in all cases) by an analysis of communicative and speech situations related to the teaching profession, illustrated by examples of the teacher's speech behavior , are supplemented with questions and tasks that activate the cognitive activity of readers;
theoretical material is presented in such a way that students (readers) become participants in those reflections to which their author is involved in the process of presenting information, as a result of which the student acts as a subject (and not just an object) of communication in the author-reader system;
the development of theoretical material is organically linked with the performance of various tasks, which are aimed not so much at reproducing what they have read, but rather at activating the mental, creative activity of readers (students), their awareness of the concepts and facts being studied;
types of tasks available in the manual can be conditionally divided into the following groups: tasks, preliminary chapter or section (? Let's think. Let's think); tasks of an analytical nature that are proposed to be performed while reading section of the manual (! Try to determine for yourself what means of popularization were used by the teacher in the fragment below); questions at the end of a chapter or paragraph, which allow you to update the main thoughts of one or another part of the manual (??? How does speech activity differ from other types of activity); pedagogical tasks, in the course of solving which the student (reader) must demonstrate the ability to apply theoretical information in practice (Imagine that you are explaining to fifth grade students how speech sounds are formed. Using textbook material and other sources, prepare an explanation. What popularization techniques do you use? Why ?)

And, finally, we note that the theoretical material of the manual is accompanied by various types of visualization (diagrams, tables, memos), which not only illustrate educational information, but also allow the reader to comprehend it at a new level, which is facilitated by special tasks: to supplement the diagram, analyze the features of compiling tables (why the voiced speech is separated from the “speaking” column), make a message based on the table, etc.

The manual has an appendix, which is an essential and necessary addition to the theoretical part of the manual.

In conclusion, we emphasize that the textbook reflects the concept of the communicative-rhetorical scientific school (CRNS) of Professor T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, which is based on a rhetorical approach to the formation of speech skills at school and university.

Despite the fact that a large number of authors took part in the work on the textbook, the commonality of their scientific positions is convincingly manifested in the unity of understanding of the tasks and content of rhetoric, in the proximity of approaches to solving the main problems of a theoretical and practical nature, in the coincidence of views on many methodological problems. . Of course, the presentation of theoretical information in various sections of the manual is characterized by different completeness, differences in the ratio of theoretical and practical material, and the manner of its presentation. But perhaps it is precisely these circumstances that ensure the absence of monotony, monotony in the structural parts of the text, which may have a positive effect on their perception.

SECTION I PEDAGOGICAL COMMUNICATION

Chapter 1

The specifics of pedagogical communication

? Let's think. Let's think

What type of profession is the teaching profession?

Let's use the classification of E. A. Klimov, who singled out five types of profession: "man-nature", "man-technology", "man-artistic image", "man-sign system", "man-man".

In what professions is the proportion of human speech activity especially high? Why are these areas of activity commonly called areas of “increased speech responsibility”?

Is the thesis-conclusion legitimate: the form of interaction between people is due to the peculiarities of the professional sphere of communication?

Give a rationale for this thesis.

What is the peculiarity of the speech behavior of the teacher in the classroom?

1.1. Pedagogical communication, its functions

Communication - “a form of interaction between people” - this concept is so succinctly defined by the sociological dictionary. Communication is a necessary condition and an integral element of any human activity, primarily collective activity.

To what extent does the definition of the main concept emphasize the importance of its professional characteristics? What general rules are subject to such professionally oriented communication and how specific are the forms of interaction between a teacher and a student that ensure the effectiveness of joint activities? What are the functions and scope of speech activity in pedagogical communication?

Let's think about these questions together. Answering them, we will try to identify the specifics of pedagogical communication, its types and styles.

First of all, it is necessary to define the basic concepts. What is the content of the concept "pedagogical communication"? Let us refer to the definition of the term proposed by A. A. Leontiev: “Optimal pedagogical communication is such communication between the teacher (and, more broadly, the teaching staff) with schoolchildren in the learning process, which creates the best conditions for the development of students' motivation and the creative nature of educational activity, for the correct formation the personality of the student, provides an emotional climate for learning ... ensures the management of socio-psychological processes in the children's team and allows you to make the most of the teacher's personal characteristics in the educational process.

We can offer a more concise definition of the term: pedagogical communication is the interaction of a teacher and students, providing motivation, effectiveness, creativity and educational effect of joint communication activities.

Considering the role of speech skills in the teaching profession, it is advisable to start with the definition of the main functions of pedagogical communication.

Function(lat. functio- execution) - "duty, range of activities, purpose, role» - in this first meaning of the term, fixed in dictionaries, we will use the named concept. Let's start the discussion of the problem with the identification of the main functions of pedagogical communication.

For a schoolchild, pedagogical communication is the main form of social and activity exploration of the world. The scope of the teacher's activity is the organization of not just the process of cognition, but active participation in the process of becoming the personal "I" of the student. Pedagogical communication is multifunctional. The communicative strategy of teacher-student interaction is determined by the teacher, who manages the process of cognitive activity, regulates the relationship between students, and creates an atmosphere of friendly and active verbal communication. This is a pronounced strategy of partnership, cooperation: the participants in communication are, as it were, on one side of the activity, their relationship is mediated by a common goal and common participation in the performance of their duties (functions).

Mutual influence is obvious: the communicative strategy in some way predetermines the functions of pedagogical communication, in some ways it is determined by them.

This obligatory nature of the communicative beginning in each of the functions of communication is reflected in another generally accepted classification (communication in the broad sense of the word) proposed by the psychologist B. F. Lomov: information and communication(exchange of information, its perception), regulatory and communicative(organization of joint activities, correction of methods of interaction), educational and communicative(emotional contact, empathy).

We use the classification of B. F. Lomov as a working one, but with some minor clarifications dictated by the specifics of pedagogical communication. Thus, communicative activity within the framework of the educational process presupposes the presence of two additional functions - normative (mastering the norms of speech behavior) and actualizing (realization in communication of the individual characteristics of a particular person), - to some extent present in each of the named main ones.

The terminological designation of functions adopted by us has the following content: information and communication function (gnostic, providing knowledge) - the function of learning, acquiring subject knowledge and social experience; regulatory and communicative function - organizational, providing both the choice of strategy and methods of interaction between the teacher and the student, as well as the specific organization of activities within the framework of the educational and speech situation; educational and communicative function - focused on the development of the student's personal qualities, his emotional sphere, on the formation of aesthetic susceptibility, artistic taste.

In the process of educational and speech activity, the teacher comprehensively implements all the functions of communication. Classification distinction allows to deepen the characteristics of the characteristics of each function in the context of the whole - effective pedagogical communication.

1.2. Information and communication function of communication

What is the specificity of the transfer of educational information? What ensures the successful implementation of the information and communication function of communication?

How important is this factor? "subject language"?- Let us refer to the authority of a psychologist: “Pedagogical communication in the “teacher-student” system is carried out, as it were, through two channels. This is, firstly, a channel of direct interpersonal contact (subject-subject communication) and, secondly, a channel of communication closely related to the first, but having its own specifics, through the medium of a school subject (subject-object-subject).

In methodological studies of recent years, the concept of "subject language" has consolidated this feature of the speech form of interpersonal communication, when the specifics of the subject, academic subject knowledge affect not only the content of speech (terminology, information specificity of the exact or humanitarian sciences), but also the selection of specific speech means of pedagogical communication.

The rationale for the fundamental difference between the subject "Russian language" and other subjects of the school course is given from two positions: for this subject, language is not just a "learning tool" and a speech form of teaching a subject, but also an object of study, as well as a means of achieving the goal of learning - a means of development students' speech. Thus, the importance of the channel of communication "through the medium of the subject" increases significantly, and fluency in the "language of the subject" becomes the most important condition for pedagogical communication. This thesis, like the statement about the thoroughness of the subject knowledge of the teacher, hardly needs additional argumentation.

Much more difficult is the question of how to form subject knowledge, how to provide both the necessary depth of knowledge assimilation, and the creative nature of the work of schoolchildren - the possibility of their own scientific discoveries. Communication is the key word in the answer to this question.

The speech form of the implementation of the gnostic function is a dialogue, informational contact of the subjects of communication, each of which addresses exactly this partner, the listener. And because how equal they will be, how much the teacher will make his communicative leadership imperceptible and will be able to organize CO-thinking, CO-creativity, and his partner will be able to change the role of a student to the role of a co-author, depends on the effectiveness of training.

The evidence of this truth appears in the winged phrases of teachers from different times and peoples: "You can't teach, you can learn"(Confucius), “What does it mean to teach? “It means systematically encouraging students to discover their own.”(G. Spencer). Spiritual interest, awareness of motivation, the ability for independent learning activities, "learning with passion" - this is the basis of success, say innovative teachers, our contemporaries.

What forms of scientific knowledge should a young teacher master in the first place? What gnostic and communicative-speech abilities should be developed first of all? What is the role of experience in this? The minimum of subject knowledge is determined by the curriculum, the maximum - by individual abilities and a person's attitude to work. It is impossible to level the amount of knowledge. However, there are proven ways to increase knowledge and develop gnostic abilities - they do not need to be reminded.

First, it is a reliance on experience and intuition. Knowledge, growing into a skill and passing into the subconscious, becomes experience. The human brain is capable of prediction, of anticipation based on past experience. This helps him to guess, correlate, make the right decision. Therefore, the ability to anticipate, intuition, should be developed first of all. Intuition is based on quick generalization, based on personal experience, on associations. Information that is already known to a person is synthesized (consciously and intuitively), summed up - argumentation is reduced - and a judgment is expressed - an assumption. Intuition is always economical and ensures the speed of mutual understanding of communication partners, if the speech form of judgment is adequate to the content. This means that it is necessary to develop intuition, trust it and more boldly turn to the range of associations that exist in a person’s memory.

Secondly, the development of gnostic abilities is the mastery of the "technology" of professional-pedagogical communication. Characteristics of the ways of interaction in various situations will be presented in the final chapter of this section. Here, general attitudes, the definition of the main conditions (requirements) for the successful implementation of the information-communicative (gnostic) function, are important.

Let us comment from these positions on the recording of the teacher’s speech (explanation of new material on the topic “Pronoun as a part of speech”):

“Today we are studying the pronoun as a part of speech. You know that each part of speech has a generalized meaning, a system of morphological features and performs a specific syntactic role. The most interesting thing about a pronoun is its meaning. A noun denotes an object, an adjective denotes a sign of an object, a numeral denotes a quantity. And the pronoun can indicate objects, signs, quantities, but not name them ... That is, the meaning of the pronoun is more general, more generalized than the meaning of other parts of speech. Therefore, it is called a pronoun - it is used instead of a name ”(quoted from the book N. D. Desyaeva).

Speech is informationally saturated, the teacher uses:

A) comparison - an appeal to the knowledge already available to schoolchildren (pronouns and other parts of speech);

B) repetition and intonation of the most significant words ( subject, parts of speech)

C) explaining the semantics of a compound word through the semantics of its constituents (place - estate: instead of a name), again supported by intonational means.

In our opinion, this is a fairly convincing example of the implementation in the teacher's speech of the pedagogical principles of influence: accessibility, evidence, associativity. On the other hand, the adequacy of speech means to the educational and communicative task can also be considered from the standpoint of the interaction of communication partners. This is a setting for joint action (WE are studying), this is a manifestation in the speech behavior of the teacher of sensory means of influence - the creation of a relaxed atmosphere of communication.

The communicative competence of the teacher, his ability to navigate in the situation of communication - second condition successful implementation of the gnostic function of communication. Now the "feeling of the addressee" is coming to the fore - the ability to anticipate his reaction both at the stage of preparing a lesson and at the stage of direct educational communication.

Third condition- do not forget about two additional functions - normative and updating - in the context of the implementation of the information and communication function of communication.

The normative function involves the development of normative speech behavior by schoolchildren directly in the process of communication. Educational and scientific speech of the teacher is perceived as a model. That is why it is fundamentally important for a language teacher to be fluent in the "language of the subject" in all its varieties: from scientific logic and information capacity of the theoretical definition of a linguistic concept to the artistic expressiveness of a word about a writer.

And, finally, as a general condition for the implementation of all the functions of educational communication and the open influence of the teacher's speech, professional mastery of the technique of speech should be called. Thus, the communicative-informational function, combining content and formative (speech) with the structure of pedagogical communication, provides a solution to the educational problem.

The teacher realizes in specific forms the dialogic essence of the process of cognition. His speech will be actively influencing if it is addressed to the mind and feeling of the student, if it is perceived as an alloy of solid subject knowledge, communication skills and expressiveness of sounding speech.

??? 1. Justify the synonymy of the use of two terms denoting the function of communication: information-communicative and gnostic.

* 2. Familiarize yourself with the judgment of the classical teacher A. Disterverg: “... knowledge in the proper sense of the word is impossible to communicate. It is possible for a person to offer, suggest, but he must master them through his own activity ... He must independently embrace, assimilate, process everything. Comment on your understanding of this thesis.

Comment on the implementation of the gnostic function of communication on the basis of a fragment of the teacher's teaching speech:

“The general meaning of all related words lies in the root. How to understand: "Total value related words"? Each of the words they wrote down has its own lexical meaning (remember their interpretation), but all the words of the first column are somehow connected in their meaning with the root "waters" in the word water - "transparent colorless liquid", all the words of the second column associated with the root "waters" in the word to drive - "to control some object (machine)" ”(according to E. I. Nikitina).

1.3. Regulatory and communicative (organizational)

communication function

How to organize joint learning activities? The organizational function can be defined as a core-forming function that directs the development of the communication process and connects all its threads.

To what extent will the chosen form of educational interaction be optimal for solving the educational problem? To what extent is it advantageous for the manifestation of the teacher's personal creative abilities? What can be the degree of adequacy of the perception of educational information by schoolchildren and what communication complications can arise?

The oral speech of the teacher in the lesson is “predictable” according to the strategic task (pedagogy of cooperation), but the interactive nature of pedagogical communication (the concrete reaction of schoolchildren) makes significant corrections in the speech fabric of the lesson. Naturally, individual ) verbal manner of the teacher.

| | | Here is a snippet from the beginning of the lesson:

Melnikov. Sit down. Well, be quiet ... (He took off his watch from his hand, put it in front of him). Last time we talked about the manifesto of October 17... We talked about the deceptive sweetness of this state gingerbread... About how it was soon replaced with an outright whip... About the beginning of the first Russian revolution. Let's repeat this and move on. Syromyatnikov!

(G. Polonsky)

How does such a beginning of the lesson organize the upcoming study work? Comment on the "subtext" of the gesture. What does the enumeration of the subtopics of the material of the previous lesson give (the form of setting a task to test students' knowledge)? Determine the communicative intention of the teacher - its external manifestation (" Let's do it again...) and inner meaning Listen: I plan your response, be specific, don't waste time").

There are no trifles here. What, for example, can be the organization of the "space of communication": “to get up or not to get up the student when he answers?”

Here is the answer of E. N. Ilyin: “And so and so,” I assured. Now same unambiguously declare - get up! And turn to the class ... Talk to those who used to be behind your back and whom you, unwittingly, ignored, addressing your monologue to the teacher. Now - he is behind his back, and those who are 30-40 are looking inquisitively at you. At any moment I will go out to them and together with them, equal to them and any of them, I will listen to you. The function of the answer changes radically when it is valid for everyone. In this position, the student does not “respond”, but influences (!) with a word, leads him ... The gift of speech is the ability to speak not only with the language, but with the whole essence of his spiritual “I”. The word is a symbol of this spirituality. What is social activity in the first place? In the word. In special skill and courage to prove it. This means that we must look for a way to the word ... Here is one of the levers for cultivating courage, the ability to express and defend one's thought - in action. "Arise" is our teaching principle, deliberately expressed in jargon as the most accurate and concise. It means: do not be afraid to say aloud in the lesson about what worries, but does not lead away from the topic. Impersonal knowledge cannot be moral.

The repetition of what has been studied, the presentation of new educational material by the teacher or the joint search for a solution to the educational problem and any other forms of organization of pedagogical communication are predetermined by the general communicative strategy of the lesson and the specific goals of interrelated learning situations. This issue will be the subject of a separate consideration and the fourth chapter of this section.

For the time being, we confine ourselves to general conclusions. Taken together, the teacher's monologue statements and his replicas in the dialogue constitute the semantic core of the lesson's educational discourse. The complexity of the organization of communication lies in the fact that the speech of the teacher remains such a core, not exceeding the minimum required amount of time. Most of the time, the students should speak. Practitioner and researcher V.F. Shatalov, having made preliminary calculations, formulated the initial data for solving the problem as follows: “The average time for active oral speech of each student during 6 lessons of a working day is two minutes. Finding an evidence-based way to increase this time means solving one of the most important pedagogical problems.”

This directly correlates with the organization of pedagogical communication. Within the framework of the educational discourse, both quantitative characteristics and the interdependence of the speech behavior of all participants are of fundamental importance.

So, the successful implementation of the regulatory and communicative function of pedagogical communication depends on the formation of the teacher's communicative skills and on the installation on the Nordic nature of the very process of organizing educational relationships. A guideline for self-control and assessment of communication skills can be defined as follows: the teacher needs to master not only external methods of dialogizing forms of education, but also verbal ways of influencing the awakening of the student’s thought, predicting its verbal expression in speech.

??? 1. V. A. Kan-Kalik called the initial period in the organization of direct communication with the class (establishment of contact) a “communicative attack”. Why do you think? What should the teacher "win"?

"Arise!" How expressive is this definition of the principle of pedagogical communication? Return to the judgment of E. N. Ilyin and comment on it.
Comment on the manifestation of the organizational and communicative function of communication in the situation of setting a cognitive task:

.“The allied word “which” has a curious property: it can replace other allied words without changing the meaning of the entire sentence. Do other allied words have the same property? (A. A. Semenyuk).

1.4. Educational and communicative function of communication

The special significance of the educational and communicative function of pedagogical communication is reflected in the methodological requirements that apply to lesson planning. It is customary to formulate the objectives of the lesson from three positions: teaching, educating, developing. They are interconnected, interdependent. The realization of the goal of educating and developing is correlated with the educational and communicative function of communication.

Why does the second word, communicative, seem fundamentally significant when defining this function?

“Spirituality develops in “unhurried communication,” said Niktor Astafiev. - Slow, that is, extremely attentive, peering into the world of a person, penetration into the essence of what he said, into the intonational structure of his speech, into the symphony of his movements. And the eyes of a child! How many feelings, states and experiences, motives for certain actions can be read in them. Don't rush, teacher. Your speed reading is tantamount to frivolity and professional incompetence. The slowness of communication excludes indifference. It requires the teacher to look actively, listen actively, think actively, act actively and encourage students to do the same.

The perception of the teacher's speech reveals to the student the beauty of his native language, forms his "sense of the word", linguistic flair. This is well understood by talented teachers: “I would not have the right to be called an educator, if at every step I did not reveal beauty, poetic power, aroma, the subtlest shades, the music of the word, if schoolchildren did not want to express the most beautiful and intimate in the word ... "(V. A. Sukhomlinsky).

Possession of a word - effective, expressive - will help the teacher create an atmosphere of collective aesthetic experience in a literature lesson. That atmosphere, without which it is impossible to fully comprehend and influence works of fiction. This is a special situation of aesthetic communication, when educational communication is predetermined by the specifics of the language of the subject, because in this kind literature remains, first of all, an art form. The artistic style of the studied literary work cannot but influence the speech fabric of the lesson, cannot but form a sense of the word, and not have an ethical and aesthetic impact on the student.

So, all the functions of pedagogical communication are important. A concrete idea of their professional specifics helps to understand the indicative basis of the teacher's effective speech behavior.

??? 1. Turning to the dictionaries, match the semantic meaning of the words "teacher", "mentor", "educator"". Prepare a statement about the organic connection of all communication functions in the professional activities of a teacher.

2. An example of a communicative basis for the formation of an aesthetic assessment (unprepared speech) can be a comparison of works of various types of art - literature and painting.

Comment on a fragment of the text and try to continue the dialogue on the material of comparing "The Tale of Igor's Campaign ..." and V. M. Vasnetsov's painting "After the Battle of Igor Svyatoslavovich with the Polovtsians." (Recording from the lesson.)

Student:...not a furious battle occupied the artist, not the noise of battles, not the ringing of swords... The artist depicted the silence after the battle as a mournful cry for the heroes of Igor's Tale.

Teacher: Complete these thoughts using the text "Words ..."

Student: As a heroic outpost, Igor's regiments stood on the border of their land and perished for its honor.

And Igor said to his squad: “Brothers and squad, it’s better to be hacked to death than captured ...”

Teacher: What new did you learn about the artist Vasnetsov?

Student: The artist knew the text of the old Russian poem very well. He comments on it in detail with his pictorial means. But if the author of the Lay .

Entrance test in the Russian language at the Moscow State Linguistic University. Maurice Thorez (Document)

Kaya N.G., Oleinik V.F. Collection of tasks for the state final certification in the Russian language for general educational institutions with the Russian language of instruction (Document)

Atarshchikova E.N. Theory and Methods of Teaching Russian Language and Literature (Document)

Komarov K.V. Methods of teaching the Russian language at school for children with severe speech disorders (Document)

GIA - 2011. Training work in the Russian language (Document)

State Tests in Russian in Turkey, Spring 2006 (Document)

USE 2011 - Training work in the Russian language (Document)

n1.doc

BBC

81.2R I76

Ippolitova N. A.

Text in the system of teaching the Russian language at school: Textbook for students ped. universities. - M.: Flinta, Nauka, 1998. - 176 p.

ISBN 5-89349-076-2 (Flint)

ISBN 5-02-011332-8 (Science)

The manual analyzes various approaches to the use of text in Russian language lessons, reveals the essence of the principle of studying language units on a text basis and ways to implement it in the practice of school education. The book contains not only theoretical material, but also practical recommendations aimed at improving the methodology for studying grammar at school.

The manual is addressed to students of pedagogical universities, but it is also of interest to teachers of the Russian language.

ISBN 5-89349-076-2 (Flint) ISBN 5-02-011332-8 (Science)

When studying the Russian language at school, the construction of phrases, sentences, their grouping in the process of creating an independent statement, their correct spelling and punctuation are the universal and most common methods for the formation of various skills and abilities.

In each section of the Russian language course, the student is brought to the text, since all the analyzed phenomena are interesting and significant not only in themselves, being facts of such a unique system as language, but also as components of any text that is created or perceived in the course of communication. Consequently, the knowledge of linguistic phenomena in the lessons of the Russian language cannot become an end in itself. It should bring students to a new level in mastering the means of communication: from intuitive command of the language to the conscious, correct, skillful use of various means of the language in solving the corresponding communicative tasks.

However, in our opinion, despite the rich methodological heritage, there is still a situation in the practice of school teaching of the Russian language, when the processes of studying language units and the formation of students' speech skills develop in parallel, little in contact with each other. So, for example, in grammar lessons, schoolchildren receive a sum of knowledge about the meaning, structure, and even about the peculiarities of using all units of this level in speech, but at the same time, as proven by many researchers, even the grammatical structure of students' speech does not change significantly, not to mention the actual communication skills and abilities. As a result, a paradoxical situation arises: students can analyze linguistic phenomena, recognize them among other phenomena, list their features, name their properties and possibilities, but at the same time, all this knowledge is not transferred to the sphere of practical activity. Students are still helpless in solving even elementary tasks of a speech (communicative) nature. Figuratively speaking, the guys in this case are likened to "builders" who know what to build from, are familiar with

The possibilities and features of all building materials, but they can’t build anything from them, they don’t know how. What is the reason for this situation?

Without dwelling on all possible answers to the question posed, we will make only one assumption in connection with this. In our opinion, the text is not used enough as a didactic unit in the Russian language lessons. But it is the text that is the structure, the basis that unites all the elements of the language, all its units into a certain, harmonious system. It is in the text intended for communication that all language units are presented in a natural situation, in a natural environment. In addition, in the text, language units acquire a new color, new text-forming functions. Ignorance of these functions leads to inability to use them in independent speech activity. In a word, the text reveals new properties of the studied language units and presents students with the highest level of their knowledge, opening the way to improving speech skills and abilities. As a didactic unit, the text will merge two important areas in the study of the Russian language at school: knowledge of the language system and knowledge of the norms and rules of communication, speech behavior in various life situations.

Under what conditions does a text become a unit of learning? How to use it to achieve organic unity in the study of language as a system and the development of students' communicative skills? And is it possible to achieve this? One of the possible answers to the questions posed is contained in this manual, which will help draw the attention of students of pedagogical universities to topical problems of methodological science.

Let us consider, firstly, what a text is, and secondly, we will analyze the experience of using the text in Russian language lessons, which has been accumulated in the theory and practice of teaching the Russian language at school.

THE PLACE OF TEXT IN THE SYSTEM OF LANGUAGE

Two approaches to understanding the nature of text

So what is text? Although everyone has an intuitive idea of what a text is (and this idea has developed a long time ago), nevertheless, at present there is no single point of view on what class of phenomena it should be correlated with: whether to consider it a unit of language, the highest level of linguistic system, standing above the sentence, or to consider the text as a purely speech phenomenon, since it is generated in the process of communication and is a product of speech activity.

In this regard, one direction in the study of the text is based on the knowledge of the grammatical nature of the text, the description of its grammatical features, since the text in this case is characterized as a phenomenon that occupies the highest level in the system of linguistic units.

Another direction in the study of the text is associated with its attribution to the phenomena of a speech nature, and therefore, when describing the text, emphasis is placed on such features that reveal its communicative capabilities. This difference in starting positions in text studies is reflected in the definitions of the text, which are contained in the linguistic and methodological literature.

Let's compare some of these definitions. Here is how I. R. Galperin defines the text: “A text is a work of a speech-creative process that has completeness, objectified in the form of a written document, literary processed in accordance with the type of this document, a work consisting of a name (title) and a number of special units ( super-phrasal units), united by different types of lexical, grammatical, logical, stylistic connection, having a certain purposefulness and pragmatic setting” 1 .

The text, according to G. V. Kolshansky, is a connection of at least two statements, in which mini-

0 Galperin I. R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M., 1981.- S. 18.

a small act of communication - the transfer of information or the exchange of thoughts between partners 1 .

“A text is a speech work written in form, belonging to one participant in communication, complete and correctly designed” 2 - this is the point of view of N. D. Zarubina.

L. M. Loseva identifies the following features of the text: “1) the text is a message (what is reported) in writing;

the text is characterized by meaningful and structural
perfection;
the text expresses the attitude of the author to the reported (av
tor installation).

On the basis of the above features, the text can be defined as a message in writing, characterized by semantic and structural completeness and a certain attitude of the author to the message” 3 .

Isolating the features of the text, O. I. Moskalskaya specifically emphasizes the following provisions: “The main unit of speech expressing a complete statement is not a sentence, but a text, a sentence-statement is only a special case, a special kind of text. The text is the highest unit of the syntactic level. And further: “Concrete speech works - texts are based on general principles for constructing texts; they do not belong to the field of speech, but to the system of language or to language competence. Consequently, the text must be considered not only a unit of speech, but also a unit of language” 4 .

An analysis of the above definitions shows that all researchers strive, firstly, to determine the place of the text in the system of language or speech, and secondly, to isolate the actual text categories that are unique to this unit. With all the differences in these definitions, they obviously have a lot in common. First of all, the text is considered as a speech-creative work, as a product of speech, as the main unit of speech. Consequently, for all researchers, it is an indisputable position that the production of texts and their comprehension occurs in the process of communication or in order to achieve a goal.

1 See: Kolshansky G.V. Linguistic and communicative aspects of speech communication // Foreign languages at school. - 1985.- No. 1. - S. 10-14.

^)3arubina N. D. Text: linguistic and methodological aspects. - M., 1981.- S. 11.

3 Loseva L. M. How the text is built. - M., 1980. - S. 4.

4 Moskalskaya O. I. Grammar of the text. - M., 1981. - S. 9.

Lei communication. Further, everyone agrees that the text, as usual, is realized in writing, that the text is a complete, complete work, and, finally, that the text has its own internal structure, a certain structure, has means of connecting its parts that are not allow it to "crumble" into separate sentences.

It would seem that there are no significant differences in approaches to understanding the nature of the text among scientists. However, this impression is deceptive. The differences relate primarily to the solution of the question of which system the text belongs to: to the system of language or speech. No one doubts that this is a speech phenomenon: the text is created to achieve the goals of communication and is always associated with an act of communication. And it is this circumstance that is the main indicator for many researchers in deciding which system the text belongs to. The obvious correlation of the text with the act of communication, its speech-creative nature, the functional orientation of textual activity, it would seem, convince us that the text is primarily a speech phenomenon and only speech.

However, many researchers (I. R. Galperin, O. I. Moskalskaya, E. I. Shendels, and others) adhere to a different point of view. In their opinion, the text is a simulated unit of language 1 , a microsystem functioning "in society as the main language unit", having semantic communicative completeness in communication 2 , "the initial primary value"".

Such an understanding of the text is confirmed by the possibility of typing "the real variety of textual forms and structures of public speech" 4 , a description of such typified contexts, the main communicative types of speech (speech registers), the types of information contained in texts, etc. Here, for example, is how the problem of typification of text structures in the studies of G. A. Zolotova.

Based on the description of the language organization of texts, G. A. Zolotova distinguishes two types of text (speech), or speech registers:

(at Moskalskaya O.I. Grammar of the text. - M., 1981. - S. 11.

2 See: Kolshansky G.V. Communicative function and structure of the language
ka. - M., 1984.- S. 35.

3 See: Shendels E. I.
// Foreign languages at school. - 1985. - No. 4. - S. 16-21.

4 See: Zolotova G. A.

riy. Text and context. - M., 1984. - S. 164.

Pictorial and informative. Each of these registers has certain characteristics. Thus, the pictorial register is characterized by the complexity of temporal values, the observability of specific actions, etc. The speaker reports what he saw. The informative register is characterized by the simplicity of temporary values, the unobservability of the action. The main thing in this case is the message about the result of the action or about the timeless qualities and relationships of objects. The speaker reports what he knows about this or that phenomenon, fact. Based on the correlation of the main features of speech registers with the genres of the text, the selection of which is based on the social and communicative function, G. A. Zolotova identifies the following communicative types, i.e. varieties of pictorial and informative registers: pictorial-narrative, pictorial-descriptive, informative - narrative, informative and descriptive, informative and logical, evaluative and qualifying.

“The speech blocks of the visual and informative registers ... - concludes G. A. Zolotova, - and are those coninstitutional units, from which texts of various communicative purposes are composed (or which can be divided into) 1 .

This approach to the description of texts indicates that the text acts not only as a specific unit associated with a real act of communication, but also as an abstract unit of the language of the highest level, “which is the subject of the theory of the language ability of a native speaker” 2 . For this reason, along with the term text the term appeared in the linguistic literature dis-ZHUyos, i.e., the observed, concrete manifestation of language in speech, the realization of the text in speech. Thus, the text is what exists in the language, and discourse is the text implemented in speech.

Based on the foregoing, it is legitimate to analyze how the text correlates with other units of the language, if we take as a basis the provision on the linguistic (and not just speech) nature of the text. This issue is considered most fully in studies that describe the facts and phenomena of language as “components of

1 See: Zolotova G. A. On the question of the constituent units of the text
// In the book: Russian language. Functioning of grammatical categories
riy. Text and context. - M., 1984. - S. 167-170.

2 Karaban V.I. Perceptual implications of text grammar // In
book: Psychological and linguistic nature of the text and features
ty of his perception / Ed. Yu. A. Zhluktenko and A. A. Leontiev. -
Kyiv, 1979.- S. 76.

Meaningful, purposeful and cognitively correct, meaningful communication” 1 . This direction in linguistics is called communicative linguistics. “The subject of communicative linguistics is the study of the actual structure of the language, the general patterns of organization of speech communication: the interaction of the semantic and syntactic structure of the utterance, the patterns of text construction ..., the structure of the utterance and texts ...” 2 . In other words, the peculiarity of the study of linguistic means in this case is that they are considered in real speech acts.

Due to the fact that in all studies of communicative linguistics the basic unit of not only speech, but also language is recognized as a text, “uniting the units of all lower levels with a common intention, goals and conditions of communication” 3 , the ratio of the text with units of other levels is presented as follows. The meanings of all units of the language are realized in the text, which creates conditions for the existence, manifestation of the meanings of these units. It is in the text that all means of the language become communicatively significant, communicatively conditioned, combined into a certain system in which each of them most fully manifests its essential features and, in addition, reveals new text-forming functions. Consequently, the final purpose of each language unit is "the contribution that it makes to the formation of a text-message" 4 .

This implies another conclusion: the units of the language, combined into a sentence and groups of sentences, form the components of the text, its structural elements. “Words, concatenations of words, concatenations of phrases, connection of sentences, connections of complex sentences - all these language structures have their own logical base, and their functioning in the chain of information exchange is based on the logical-conceptual activity of consciousness” 5 . In communication, all units of language, uniting in a certain

1Kolshansky G.V.
M., 1984.- S. 6.

2 Ibid. - S. 10.

3 Buchbinder V. A. About some applied and theoretical aspects

strange languages. - Kyiv, 1978. - S. 30-31.

4 Ibid. - S. 37.

5 Kolshansky G.V. Communicative function and structure of language. -
M., 1984.- S. 35.

New structures become a link in the process of communication, and not isolated units.

In this regard, it is even proposed to consider the level structure of the language "from above", from the standpoint of the whole text and to see in a new way the correlation of units of language and speech. For example, in the cited work of V. A. Buchbinder, this correlation is described - from the standpoint of the whole text 1 . In this regard, the author, highlighting the levels of the language (phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic), also designates the textual level. Each of the language levels corresponds to language and speech variants. So, at the morphological level, root morphemes, derivational and inflectional morphemes (language variants) function. They correspond to speech variants - allomorphs. The syntactic level is represented by phrases and sentences (language variants), which correspond to syntagmas and phrases (speech variants).

The text level is represented by phrasal units and ensembles that form the text.

Thus, according to the author, linguistic variants are transformed into speech ones, and the text level combines both linguistic and speech properties of various units, which allows it to be qualified both as a unit of language and as a product of speech at the same time.

Consequently, the text is built from speech variants of various levels, into which language units are transformed in the process of communication. It is characteristic that special terms are used to designate speech variants, correlated with the names of the corresponding language variants, but not duplicating these names.

Consequently, for many researchers, sentences and phrases, for example, are not synonyms, but names of different phenomena, because sentences are something that exists outside the text, and a phrase (other names: statement, texteme) is an element of the text, its key unit, towards communication. Even if researchers use the same term to designate a sentence as a unit of syntax and a sentence as a link in the text, then in any case they emphasize the difference in their linguistic nature and functional purpose.

And one more observation based on the analysis of the correlation of units of language and speech. Language options, service-

" Cm.: Buchbinder V. A. On Some Theoretical and Applied Aspects of Text Linguistics // In: Text Linguistics and Education

S. 37.

foreign languages. - Kyiv, 1978. 10

These or those levels of the language, in the process of communication, participating in the construction of the text, acquire new properties and functions and become elements of the text. Thus, the text synthesizes linguistic and speech variants of all levels, “combines linguistic essences and speech properties. He is at the same time a unit of language and a product of speech” 1 . In our opinion, this is a very significant conclusion, convincingly illustrated and of great methodological significance.

The solution of the question of the nature of the correlation of the text with the language system determines some other disagreements of scientists in understanding its nature. Thus, researchers studying the text as an element of the language system consider it as a static object, as a result of speech activity. Scientists who correlate a text with a specific speech act study, first of all, the mechanisms of text formation, the mechanisms of its generation. However, there are no significant contradictions in these approaches.

In fact, everyone recognizes and realizes that the language has a special formation, a special phenomenon, in the words of M. M. Bakhtin, “a connected sign complex” - a text that is built according to the laws of the language, containing the lexical means necessary for this purpose, the corresponding pronouns, temporary and modal forms that can be reproduced and repeated when building other texts. These are constructed texts, imaginary texts, like sentences in grammar, behind which is a system of language. In order to become a unit of communication, this "sign complex" must become a statement, i.e., a unit that has a plan, objective content, completeness, meaning (and not just meaning). The statement requires a reciprocal understanding, and therefore exists only in a number of other statements. “An utterance,” writes M. M. Bakhtin, “is determined ... by its relation ... directly to other utterances within a given sphere of communication. Outside this relationship, it does not really exist (only as a text)” 2 .

Thus, the same "sign complex" can be analyzed in different ways: as a product of speech activity, a text constructed according to a special model that is realized in certain speech situations, and as a statement,

1Buchbinder V. A. About some theoretical and applied aspects
text linguistics // In: Text Linguistics and Foreign Education
strange languages. - Kyiv, 1978. - S. 35.

2 Bakhtin M. M.

M., 1979.- S. 30.

Formed in a number of other statements that are generated in the process of communication and correlate with each other on the basis of a common idea and the desire for mutual understanding of the participants in communication. At the same time, one must proceed from the fact that it is in the process of communication that certain types of statements are formed, i.e., speech genres that, according to the definition of M. M. Bakhtin, have “certain and relatively stable typical forms of building a whole "(highlighted by the author)". Consequently, any connected sign complex can be considered both in the language system, as a grammatical phenomenon, and "as a whole, an individual utterance and a speech genre", as a speech phenomenon. These two points of view "should not be mutually impenetrable to each other for each other and should not simply replace each other mechanically, but should be organically combined ... on the basis of the real unity of the linguistic phenomenon "2. This idea of M. M. Bakhtin seems to be especially fruitful in methodological terms, because it allows you to eliminate the imaginary contradiction in understanding the nature of the text and to find an expedient way of analyzing both individual units of a language and units connected in a sign complex.Therefore, the following provisions of M. M. Bakhtin's research are no less important for us: "We learn the native language - its vocabulary and grammatical structure - not from dictionaries and grammar, but from specific statements ... We learn the forms of the language only in the forms of statements and together with these forms . Forms of language and typical forms of utterance, i.e., speech genres, come into our experience and into our consciousness together and in close connection with each other. To learn to speak means to learn to build statements... Speech genres organize our speech in much the same way as grammatical forms (syntactic) organize it” 3 . Therefore, "the study of the utterance as real unit of verbal communication will allow a more correct understanding of the nature of language units (as systems - words and sentences)" 4 .

Let us add to this that the object of study at school can be, first of all, typified utterances extracted from the situation of real verbal communication, but correlated with it conditionally.

1Bakhtin M. M. The problem of text in linguistics, philology, etc.
in the humanities // In the book: Aesthetics of verbal creativity. -
M., 1979. - S. 257.

2 Ibid. - S. 244.

3 Ibid. - S. 257.

4 Ibid. - S. 245.

Thus, the text (utterance) will be analyzed as a product (result) of speech activity, but taking into account those mechanisms and conditions that determine its structure and content as a whole.

Based on the foregoing, it can hardly be argued that the text is objectified only in the form of a written document. Communication takes place both in writing and orally. Therefore, the subject of analysis should be not only written statements (texts), but also samples of sounding speech that can be presented to students in gramophone and magnetic tape recordings, as well as in the form of excerpts from fiction and journalistic works.

Structural elements of text

All units of the language, getting into the text, contribute to the process of communication. But, of course, the main element of the text is the sentence (statement, phrase, texteme). A sentence in a text is recognized and perceived not by itself, but “in relation to its connections with other sentences, as part of the whole, as a component, a “cell” of the text” 1 . This is the minimum communicative unit of the text, according to G. V. Kolshansky, “the lower link of the text”.

At the same time, it should be borne in mind that when constructing a text, we select sentences “from the point of view of the whole(highlighted by the author) statement, which is presented to our speech imagination and which determines our choice. The idea of the form of the whole utterance, that is, of a certain speech genre, guides us in the process of our speech” 2 .

Thus, by itself, outside the whole statement, the sentence is not a communicative unit, because it, as a rule, does not have a semantic usefulness: “sentences are not exchanged, just as they are not exchanged words ... and phrases, they exchange statements that are built with the help of language units: words, phrases, sentences...» 3 .

1Shendels E. I. Text Grammar and Sentence Grammar //
Foreign languages at school. - 1985. - No. 4. - S. 16-21.

2 Bakhtin M. M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. - M., 1979. - S. 261.

3 Ibid. - S. 253.

In the structure of the text, individual sentences can be combined into groups, which are given different names by different researchers: phrasal units and phrasal ensembles (V. A. Bukh-binder); superphrasal unities; complex syntactic whole; union of texts (E. I. Shendels); prose stanza (G. Ya. Solganik). The most common designation for a group of sentences related in meaning is a complex syntactic whole (STS) and a super-phrasal unity (SFU). These are complex structural units, consisting of "more than one independent sentence", having "semantic integrity in the context of coherent speech" and acting "as part of a complete communication" 1 .

It should be noted that not all sentences in the structure of the text are combined into groups; there are also so-called free sentences that are not included in the group, but nevertheless connected with the group by internal semantic relations.

These are proposals that contain various author's digressions, comments. Such proposals are a link between the two STS (SFU), a means of designating a new micro-theme.

In addition, some researchers distinguish so-called communicatively strong sentences in the text, the understanding of which is possible without referring to the content of other sentences. Such proposals are to a certain extent isolated from the surrounding structures and are not included in the STS (SFU) 2 . However, the semantic content of the text unites all sentences and STS into a single whole.

In turn, groups of sentences are also combined into larger blocks, which are called in different studies either textual or communicative blocks, or predicative-relative complexes, or fragments.

Even larger associations are associated with such segments of the text as a paragraph, paragraph, part, chapter 3.

Of significant methodological importance is the selection of a paragraph, the content and compositional structure of which has great explanatory power and allows students to demonstrate many rules for constructing a text as a whole. In a paragraph, as a rule, only one topic is revealed. With this goal

Liu she is brightly, convexly emphasized in the central sentence, with which all other sentences are closely connected. There are various ways to spread the content of the central sentence, which determine the structure of the paragraph as a whole.

The allocation of STS and paragraphs in the structure of a text (statement) is essential for the methodology of teaching students a language: “STS and a paragraph are intermediate links, without mastering which students experience difficulties in moving from skills and abilities in constructing sentences to presentation and retelling as texts being built according to certain internal (genre) laws.

Superphrasal units, functioning in the whole text, can acquire great communicative significance and be considered (analyzed) as more or less independent speech works. In this regard, the point of view of O. I. Moskalskaya on the structure of the text and the nature of text elements is interesting. O. I. Moskalskaya speak! about the possibility of two approaches to the text and highlights two understandings of it. Firstly, there are so-called microtexts - complex syntactic wholes or superphrasal units, that is, utterance texts. Secondly, there are texts as whole speech works, communicative texts - macrotexts. Microtexts are syntactic units, they relate to i syntactic phenomena. Macrotexts are a concept that cannot be defined within the framework of grammar. It seems that such a selection of micro- and macrotexts once again confirms the position that the text is a syntactic structure, which allows it to be considered a unit of language and a speech product. In this regard, it is also important that microtexts are easily modeled. The model of micro structure can be explained by grammar rules. All this allows us to consider (analyze) the microstructure of the text, abstracting from the conditions of communication, which is important for the formation of students' speech (communicative) skills. I basis of the creation (and analysis) of macrotexts are natural ty, due to communicative principles, which depend on a specific activity situation 2 .

1 See: Galperin I. R.
vanity. - M., 1981.- S. 69.

2 See: Zarubina N. D. Text: linguistic and methodological expert
pects. - M., 1981.- S. 16-25.

3 See: Solganik G. Ya. Text style. - M., 1997. - S. 48-82.

1 Meshcheryakov V. N., Okhomush E. A. Typology of educational texts. - Dnepropetrovsk, 1980. - S. 21-22.

1 Cm.: Moskalskaya O. I. Text - two understandings and two approaches // ] book: Russian language. Functioning of grammatical categories. Tex i context.- M., 1984.- S. 154-162.

So, sentences and groups of sentences are the main communicative elements (units) of the text, forming a chain of communicative units: text - SFU (STS, the union of text topics, groups of sentences, communicative blocks, paragraphs, text ensembles) - sentences (phrases, statements, textemes). It is they, first of all, that make it possible to convey certain content with the help of information contained in the text, to express one or another meaning with the help of sentences-statements and superphrasal units in which a thought or message is enclosed.

What role do all other system units of the language play in the structure of the text? They perform a text-forming function, take part in its design not so much as communicative units, but as building elements 1 . As a rule, they act as means of interphrase communication. “Interphrase communication is a connection between sentences, STS, paragraphs, chapters and other parts of the text, organizing its semantic and structural unity” 2 . The semantic connection between sentences in the text is provided by appropriate lexical and grammatical means. Most often, sentences in the text are connected by a chain or parallel connection. The chain connection is realized by repeating in one form or another any member of the previous sentence, deploying part of its structure in the subsequent sentence. Repetition in this case expresses the structural correlation of sentences, their closest connection.

“With a parallel connection, sentences do not link with one another, but are compared, while due to the parallelism of constructions, depending on the lexical “filling”, comparison or opposition is possible” 3 .

It is obvious that not only individual sentences, but also groups of sentences - STS (SFU) should be connected in the text. Communication between groups of sentences, between parts of the text is carried out remotely, that is, through the most informative, communicatively significant parts of the text. Thus, the distant connection plays an essential role in the compositional design of the text, in the designation of its parts that serve the most optimal expression of the content or its perception.

1 See: Shendels E. I. Text Grammar and Sentence Grammar
// Foreign languages at school. - 1985.- No. 4. - S. 16-21.

2 Loseva L. M. How the text is built. - M., 1980. - S. 9.

3 Solganik G. Ya. syntactic style. - M., 1973. - S. 132.
16
Each of these types of communication is implemented using the appropriate language tools. So, to connect parts of the text, groups of sentences, conjunctions, particles, introductory words, interrogative sentences, etc. are used.

Syntactic repetitions, synonyms, pronouns, words with temporal and spatial meaning, etc. are used to implement a chain connection between individual sentences in the SCS (SFU). For the implementation of parallel communication, such a means as parallelism in the construction of sentences, expressed in the use of verbs with a single tense plan, the same word order, anaphoric elements, etc., is appropriate.

Even from this superficial analysis of the features of the connection between the communicative elements of the text, it can be concluded that linguistic units, functioning in the text, acquire new functions, new features. They cannot be discovered when considering the structural and semantic characteristics of individual, isolated sentences.

Thus, the text has a certain structure, expressed in the relationship of individual sentences and parts of the text. Any text has an appropriate compositional design, which is manifested not only in complete, complete speech works, but also in the structure of the STS (SFU).

Usually STS (SFU) have a three-part composition: beginning, middle part, ending. In the beginning, the theme (micro-theme) of the text (statement) is formulated, in the middle part this theme is developed, in the end, the disclosure of the theme is summed up, which is emphasized by special language means. Special language means are also used in the middle part of the STS, and, what is especially important, in the beginning. There are certain stable forms of expressing the beginning of a thought, the transition from one thought to another, the completion of the topic (micro-theme) of the statement. All of them are described in more or less detail in the relevant linguistic and methodological literature 1 .

The compositional design of the text helps to more optimally reveal its content and meaning, which, as a rule, are indicated (or can be indicated) in the title (heading) of the text.

1 See: Loseva L. M. How the text is built. - M., 1980; Velichko L.I. Work on the text in the lessons of the Russian language. - M., 1983; Solganik G. Ya. syntactic style. - M., 1973; Zarubina N. D. Text: linguistic and methodological aspects. - M., 1981; Burvikova N. D. Typology of texts for classrooms and extracurricular work. - M., 1988, etc.

about-.1210 1 J

And, finally, any text created in the process of communication must be literary processed: it must be given an appropriate genre design, depending on the nature of the information that underlies its content (narration, description, reasoning), and an appropriate stylistic coloring - depending on the goals and conditions of communication.

As a rule, genre features and stylistic coloring of the text are also expressed by appropriate linguistic means.

Thus, in narration, to convey actions in their temporal connections, first of all, the possibilities of tense forms of the verb are used, the means that provide a connecting enumeration of events. In the description, which is based on spatial relations, linguistic categories are used that reveal the juxtaposing features of facts, phenomena, objects: nominal constructions, present tense forms of verbs, words with qualitative and spatial meanings. For reasoning, which reveals causal relationships between facts, phenomena, events, the use of rhetorical questions, subordinating conjunctions, emphasizing the nature of causal relationships between sentences and parts of the text, is typical.

The stylistic coloring of the text is also created using certain language units. So, for example, literary texts are characterized by the use of elements that emphasize the author's attitude to what he is talking about: emotionally colored vocabulary, figurative and expressive means of language, words and constructions in a figurative sense, etc. On the contrary, scientific prose is dominated by categories that contribute to the objectification of information (indefinitely personal constructions and constructions with the meaning of action compatibility), as well as forms and constructions that ensure consistency and evidence of reasoning (rhetorical questions, introductory and modal words, etc.).

Thus, in order to create a correct text corresponding to the goals and conditions of communication, one must strive to ensure that the following conditions are met: “... correspondence of the content of the text to its title (title), completeness in relation to the title (title), literary processing characteristic of this functional style, the presence of superphrasal units united by different ... types of connection, the presence of purposefulness and a pragmatic attitude” 1 .

1 See: Galperin I. R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M., 1981.- S. 25.

The following text categories have been identified and described in the literature: informativeness, completeness, integrity, coherence, retrospection, prospection, presupposition, sequence.

Let us briefly characterize some of these categories of text.

The category of information content is inherent only in the text and is the most important among other text categories. As you know, it is expressed in the genres of narration, reasoning, description. The content of any complete text is information, i.e. “the ratio of meanings and messages, giving a new aspect of phenomena, fact, event. This ratio is subject to change as the text progresses” 1 . I. R. Galperin identifies the following types of information contained in the text: content-factual (SFI), content-conceptual (SCI), content-subtext (SPI). Content-factual information contains messages about facts, events, processes. Content-conceptual - reveals the author's understanding of the relationship between these phenomena, facts, events. This is the intention of the author and his meaningful interpretation. Content-subtext information reveals a hidden meaning extracted from the description of facts, phenomena, events.

While cognizing the text, we strive to reveal its conceptual information, to penetrate into its deep structure 2 .

Adequate understanding of the text is provided by presupposition. This is a special text category, a situational background that ensures the perception and understanding of the text, "revealing connections between statements and based on certain assumptions of the semantics of words, phrases and sentences included in the text" 3 .

The text conveys a certain sequence of facts that unfold in time and space according to special rules depending on the content and types of the text.

In this regard, in the process of creating and comprehending a text, such textual categories as retrospection are implemented (elements that ensure the return of the reader or listener to

1 See: Galperin I. R. Text as an object of linguistic research
vanity. - M., 1981. - S. 38.

2 Ibid. - S. 27-37.

3 Kolshansky G.V. Contextual semantics. - M., 1980. - P. 86.

"PROSPECT RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH Course of lectures PROSPECT" Moscow UDC 811.161.1:808.5 (075.8) BBC 81.2Rus-923 I76 Ippolitova N. A., Knyazeva O. KH, ... "

-- [ Page 1 ] --

ON THE. Ippolitova, O.Yu. Knyazeva, M.R. Savova

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

AND CULTURE OF SPEECH

Lecture course

AVENUE

ON THE. Ippolitova, O.Yu. Knyazeva, M.R. Savova

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

AND CULTURE OF SPEECH

Lecture course

AVENUE"

UDC 811.161.1:808.5(075.8)

BBK 81.2Rus-923

Ippolitova N. A., Knyazeva O. KH, Savova M. R.

I76 Russian language and culture of speech: a course of lectures / ed.

N. A. Ippolitova. - M.: TK Velby, Prospect Publishing House, 2007. -344 p.

ISBN-10 5-482-01237-9 ISBN-13 978-5-482-01237-6 The manual covers all topics of the course "Russian language and culture of speech".

The theoretical foundations of the culture of speech, the specifics and types of speech activity are considered, and the characteristics of speech mechanisms are given. The structure of the presentation of the material will allow you to quickly restore previously learned material in your memory, prepare for an exam or test.

The manual is written in accordance with the state educational standard of higher education of the Russian Federation.

For students, graduate students and teachers of higher educational institutions.

UDC 811.161.1:808.5(075.8) LBC 81.2Rus-923 Educational edition Natalya Aleksandrovna Ippolitova, Olga Yurievna Knyazeva, Marina Robertovna Savova

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH

Course of lectures Signed for publication on 19.09.06. Format /^ Print l. 21.5. Add. circulation 3000 copies. Order No. 15458 (Kp-sm,.

OOO TK Velby

107120, Moscow, Khlebnikov per., 7, building 2.

Printed at OAO Smolensk Printing Plant.

214020, Smolensk, st. Smolyaninova, 1.

© N. A. Ippolitova, O. Yu. Knyazeva, ISBN-10 5-482-01237-9 M. R. Savova, 2007 ISBN-13 978-5-482-01237-6 © OOO Prospekt Publishing House, 2007 Preface This textbook is addressed to students - non-philologists studying the course "Russian language and culture of speech" within the framework of the disciplines of the humanitarian cycle. The form of presenting the educational material presented in questions and answers serves as an additional means of structuring it and is designed to facilitate the work of mastering the theoretical part of the course.

It seems that the main goal of this course is to increase the level of speech culture of future specialists in various fields in the process of mastering and understanding some speech concepts and improving communication and speech skills.

The textbook implements a new approach to the selection and interpretation of the content of speech material. This is primarily due to the interpretation of the basic concept of the course - the "culture" of speech.

The authors of the textbook consider the culture of speech as a culture of speech activity, which makes it possible to describe, present and analyze such components of the basic concept as communication, communicative qualities of speech, norms of the Russian literary language in a new way.

Understanding the culture of speech as a culture of speech activity is due to the inclusion in the structure of the manual of such sections as "Ethical and communicative norms", "Culture of non-verbal speech", "Text as a unit of communication". The chapter devoted to the analysis of text as a unit of communication examines the specifics and types of speech activity, gives a brief description of the main mechanisms of speech, which makes it possible to show how linguistic and speech, ethical and communicative norms provide the process of creating and perceiving a text message.

The chapter "Culture of non-verbal speech" describes the specifics of gestural and mimic behavior in the process of communication, the role of voice and intonation in communication, and emphasizes the need to comply with the norms associated with the use of non-verbal means of communication.

Thus, the content of the concept of speech culture is revealed in full, at various levels, taking into account the specifics of all components and means of communication that ensure its effectiveness and, most importantly, efficiency.

The chapter "Culture of oral and written speech" analyzes the features and properties of oral and written speech, the requirements for oral and written statements, and characterizes some oral and written genres. When selecting and structuring the material in this case, the authors were guided by such criteria as the specifics of students' educational activities, the characteristics of their speech practice, the nature of the tasks associated with the professional activities of future specialists. In this chapter, at a new level, material is summarized that reveals the essence of the culture of speech as a culture of speech activity.

In connection with the above, we emphasize that the social status of a person, his belonging to culture as a whole, is manifested primarily in the ability to communicate effectively in the process of life, which implies the ability to create and understand texts that are significant for people's professional activities.

The development of this ability begins with the formation of the level of speech culture necessary for the implementation of communication goals, which ensures the development of the most important communicative and speech skills.

These provisions are reflected - directly or indirectly - in the content of the textbook, primarily in the chapters "Culture of Speech" and "Culture of Communication", as well as in all its other sections.

The theoretical material in the textbook is presented in such a way as to intensify the mental activity of students, lead them to think about the essence of human communication, about the moral and ethical values that underlie it.

It seems that the approach implemented in the textbook to presenting the foundations of the culture of speech will make it possible to successfully solve the most important educational and methodological tasks within the framework of the new university discipline "Russian Language and Culture of Speech".

Introduction What is the relationship between language and speech?

Language and speech are different concepts, but they are not so much opposed as closely related as two sides of the same coin, since speech is always language in action. And although there is no complete coincidence between them, speech rarely does without verbal language, and language functions only in speech.

Therefore, speech and language are closely related. They are so interconnected that sometimes even linguists cannot accurately and unambiguously determine whether they are considering a linguistic or speech phenomenon. For example, such concepts as "linguistic competence", "linguistic personality" imply that a person meaningfully uses a particular language. This means that these are linguistic concepts, since the basis of human knowledge and skills is language. But if we are dealing with the implementation of linguistic knowledge, and even a specific personality, then we are already talking about “language competence”, “linguistic personality” as speech concepts. This is another confirmation that language and speech do not exist (with rare exceptions) without each other.

Those who seek to achieve a high level of speech culture, which is impossible without conscious and purposeful possession of all the components of speech, including language, therefore need to know what connects and what distinguishes language and speech. Culture always involves a meaningful attitude to what needs to be cultivated and what to get rid of. At the same time, “man and culture are inseparable. Each person belongs to a certain culture, a historically established culture, and at the same time he feels that this culture belongs to him. This feeling arises because the fundamental level of culture is formed by language. A native speaker is a person who is unable to arbitrarily change it. And at the same time, the language belongs to a person who is fluent in it, and the beginnings of spiritual creativity are rooted in the free construction of texts.

A text is a reproducible sequence of signs or images that has a meaning, in principle accessible to understanding.

(A. A. Brudny).

Knowledge of language and speech helps first to understand what is meant by the culture of speech, and on the basis of this understanding, to learn and master the ways to achieve a high level in it. But for this you also need to know that language, speech, and the culture of speech, in turn, are components of culture as a whole. Therefore, we need to consider and reveal all these concepts in the aspect that interests us.

1. LANGUAGE What is language?

A language is a system (from the Greek systema - a whole made up of parts, a connection) of signs, which are assigned a content corresponding to their sound image.

Let us explain what understanding is invested in the keywords of this provision.

Language is a system of signs. These are the most important words that characterize the language. A language becomes a language only when behind every sound, word or sentence of this language there is one or another meaning that can give this sign a certain meaning. For example, the sounds [yes] in Russian matter - they can, with the appropriate intonation, express agreement.

Language is a system of signs, that is, these units of language are not random, they are interconnected, they form a unity that functions only as a whole. Moreover, each unit of this system is a particle of the whole. The system of any national language consists of units united at the appropriate levels: phonemes (sounds of speech) form the phonemic level, morphemes (parts of the word) - morphemic, words - lexical, phrases and sentences - syntactic. In turn, each level includes the corresponding units of the language: sentences are made up of words, words are made up of morphemes, and morphemes are made up of phonemes. Complex relationships arise between all these and many other units of the language, which determine the unity and integrity of the entire language system, designed to perform various diverse functions of the language.

At the same time, each unit of the language has a certain and universally recognized meaning, which allows the use of this language as the main means of sending and receiving information, transmitting and perceiving social experience, preserving national culture, which is inseparable from the language.

The role of language in the life of every society is enormous, since the emergence and existence of a person and his language are inextricably linked with each other. “Language is intended to serve as a tool for human communication, and is designed to be a naturally acquired and adequate means of exchanging information and accumulating it. Its structure is subordinated to the tasks of communication, which consists in the transmission and reception of thoughts about the objects of reality ”(Russian language. Encyclopedia).

Human language differs from the so-called language of animals, which is a set of signals-reactions to a situation, primarily in that with the help of language people convey to each other not only specific, but also abstract information, which is the fruit of thinking, and also in that the main the rules of using a language are not only felt by the native speakers of that language, but are also consciously observed. Thus, a person is distinguished from other living beings not only by the fact that he can think (homo sapiens) and that he is a creative person (homofober), but also by the fact that he is a talking person (homo eloquens) and a communicating person (homo communicans ).

The mind of a person and his need for languages that can most adequately express meaning in all areas of human life have led to the fact that a person uses both national languages - natural, existing from time immemorial:

Russian, English, Japanese, etc., as well as new ones created by him - artificial ones. Artificial languages are now very diverse, they serve various areas of life, they are international, since they are not limited by national boundaries. Artificial languages include, first of all, international ones created on the basis of natural national languages: Esperanto, Volapuk, etc. In addition, artificial languages are the symbolic languages of science: the languages of mathematics, logic, chemistry, etc. The languages of human-machine communication are also artificial languages - programming, database management, etc.: Fortran, Algol-60, etc.

What functions does the natural national language perform?

The main purpose of the language is to serve as the main means of information exchange (that is, to perform a communicative function). In other words, for communication. We speak to each other in Russian, thus transmitting and perceiving a wide variety of information.

The second most important function is to be the main form of reflection of the reality surrounding a person and oneself, as well as a means of obtaining new knowledge about reality (that is, to perform a cognitive, or cognitive, function).

Thus, any natural human language is intended primarily for communication and cognition of reality. Therefore, based on knowledge of the language as a system, in this course we will study what rules for using the language help it most effectively fulfill its main functions in our speech.

The main functions of language also include emotional (to be one of the means of expressing feelings and emotions) and metalinguistic (to be a means of researching and describing language). The emotional function of language is very important for a person, because it helps him express his inner world, his impressions, feelings, assessments, etc. most adequately, especially since most statements in a particular language contain not only logical, but also emotional information . The metalinguistic function plays a lesser role in everyday life, but this book and other written and oral texts about language perform this function to a large extent.

As part of the main functions, others stand out. So, the implementation of the communicative function is facilitated by the actual (contact-establishing), assimilation of information, influence, as well as the cumulative function (creation, storage and transmission of information). In addition, the language also has an aesthetic function, which suggests that speech itself and its fragments can be perceived as beautiful or ugly, that is, as an aesthetic object, and axiological (evaluation function), etc.

And all these functions are united by the fact that the language is intended and exists not for an individual, but for a certain society, in which this language acts as a common code, with the help of which people are able to understand each other.

However, language performs these functions only when it is used in the process of speech to create an utterance. Thus, the language is designed to perform these functions, but the language itself, without the efforts of the speaker or writer, cannot fulfill this role, like its other functions.

What is the value of language for society?

The language itself exists independently of anyone, from someone's consciousness and from whether they use it at all. The language may even be "dead", that is, one that is not spoken (for example, Latin). The form of existence of a language is very conditional, abstract, since it is fixed in dictionaries, reference books, in the minds of people, but it reveals itself in speech and only through it fulfills its communicative purpose.

An important property of the language is that it is relatively stable, it has a base part that is almost not subject to change, and a periphery that is gradually changing (mainly in vocabulary). This stability is very important, because language is the common thing that binds people, is the common property of society (it is no coincidence that the existence of a single language or languages is considered a condition for the existence of a nation). In addition, the stability of the language, the fact that the language does not depend on specific situations of communication and the meanings of words in it are strictly defined and fixed by dictionaries, is designed to ensure mutual understanding between all speakers (and writers) of this language.

All these properties of language explain why any society considers language as a significant value, since just as language does not exist outside of society, society does not exist without language. Suffice it to recall the legend of the Tower of Babel, where people were deprived of a common language and they lost their commonality, even though they had a unifying goal.

In addition, the language has become a guarantee of the unity of society not only as a means of communication, but also as a means of creating, storing and accumulating information, which allows you to feel and continue the connection of different generations and people of different eras.

Language has a pronounced social character both in terms of all its functions, and in properties, and in terms of internal organization, and according to the laws by which it exists and develops. Language is not only a system of linguistic means that act as a kind of resource for meaning expression, but it is also a system of rules for the use of these means. And in all these respects, language is a phenomenon of culture.

The national language, as a single developed system of signs, reflects the level of development of the people, conveys the characteristics of its culture (both material and spiritual), but at the same time, the variety of different areas in which it functions.

It distinguishes such varieties as literary language, territorial (local) and social (professional, slang, etc.) dialects, vernacular, etc.

What is literary language?

The highest written form of the national language is the literary language. Literary language is the main form of language, which is characterized by processing, versatility, reflects the stylistic features of a particular sphere of communication and, which should be specially noted, has normalization. This literary language differs from all other varieties of language.

At the same time, the literary language covers all the main areas of communication: everyday (everyday), scientific, official business, public and the sphere of the art of the word. And in all these areas, the literary language not only provides mutual understanding, but also raises the general level of culture, helps to achieve greater speech efficiency through the use of both general literary and language-specific means. This is reflected in the branched system of functional styles of the Russian language, corresponding to the main areas of communication.

Why, then, is the main form of the Russian language called the literary language?

Literary language does not mean "the language of fiction". The literary language covers not only the sphere of the art of the word, but also all the others, and it is called so because the basis of its creation is the selection of all the best that is in the language and that needs to be preserved and developed, that is, the culture of the language. What exactly deserves to be cultivated is a difficult question, in the solution of which both linguistic knowledge itself and linguistic taste, linguistic flair play a decisive role, which, among all native speakers, primarily distinguishes writers who are most demanding in the selection of the most accurate, capacious and harmonious words. , expressions and speech constructions. In the works of writers and poets, therefore, the aesthetic function of language is embodied to a greater extent, and these works themselves become a kind of landmarks of what heights can be achieved with the help of language. But in order for the literary language to become the basis of the national language, the main thing is not the aesthetic function itself, but the main methods that provide it, that is, correctness (normalization), thanks to which the literary language is distinguished from non-literary.

What are language rules for?

The unity and stability of the language is supported by an extensive system of norms - rules and regulations that regulate the main cases of the use of certain language units or their forms. These are the norms of pronunciation of words (orthoepy), spelling of words (spelling), punctuation marks (punctuation), etc.

The normalization of a language is a sign of its high development and a guarantee of its stability, integrity and general intelligibility, as a result of which the language even better provides mutual understanding between people who speak it. At the same time, both the language itself and speech as a whole become a value and the attitude towards them arises accordingly - as a value, and the value attitude is already a sign of culture. Since culture has a selection mechanism and strives to preserve the best, it is always characterized by evaluativeness. Regarding normalization, the main criteria for evaluating the facts of a language are “correct” / “incorrect”.

Thus, norms are a mechanism for maintaining the stability of a language and a guarantee of its proper development in the future.

In turn, compliance with the norms affects the personality of a person who speaks this language. Linguistic professor Yu.

a) the degree of structural and linguistic complexity, b) the depth and accuracy of the reflection of reality, c) a certain target orientation. Thus, when considering the problem of linguistic personality, the problems of language become inseparable from the problem of using and mastering the language. At the same time, the use of a language is understood as any level of knowledge of the language and its means, and language proficiency implies only a high level of development of a linguistic personality, in which a person speaking a given language effectively and expediently uses various means of the language to create effective texts, that is, in his speech.

So, the language is a branched system of signs, in which there are various means for the performance of all its functions.

2. SPEECH

What is speech and how is speech different from language?

The word “speech” denotes a specific human activity, therefore, to characterize both of its sides, this word in linguistics is used in two main meanings: speech is the process of speaking (in oral form) or writing (in writing), and those speech works (statements, oral and written texts), which are a sound or graphic product (result) of this activity.

We began the introduction to this textbook with the fact that language and speech are closely interconnected, since speech is language in action, and that in order to achieve a high culture of speech, language and speech must be distinguished.

First of all, by the fact that language is a system of signs, and speech is an activity that proceeds as a process and is presented as a product of this activity. And although speech is built in one language or another, this is the most important difference, which, for various reasons, determines others.

Speech is a way to implement all the functions of the language, primarily communicative. Speech arises as a necessary response to certain events of reality (including speech ones), therefore, unlike language, it is intentional and focused on a specific goal.

Speech, first of all, is material - in oral form it sounds, and in writing it is fixed using appropriate graphic means (sometimes different from the given language, for example, in another graphic system (Latin, Cyrillic, hieroglyphic writing) or with the help of icons, formulas, drawings, etc.). Speech depends on specific situations, unfolds in time and is realized in space. For example, your answer to one of the subjects you are studying will be structured differently depending on how familiar the material is to you, how difficult it is, how long you can talk or how much time you have to prepare, in which room and at what distance from the addressee of the speech you will pronounce it, etc. Speech is created by a specific person in specific conditions, for a specific person (audience), therefore, it is always specific and unique, because, even if it is reproduced with the help of those or different records, circumstances change and it turns out the same thing, about which they usually say: "You cannot step into the same river twice." At the same time, theoretically, speech can last indefinitely (with and without interruptions). In fact, our whole life from the moment we start speaking until we say the last word is one big speech in which circumstances, the addressee, the subject of speech, the form (oral or written), etc., change, but we keep talking (or writing). And with our last word, speech (only already written or not our oral) will continue.

In this plan, speech unfolds linearly, that is, we pronounce one sentence after another in a certain sequence. The process of oral speech is characterized by the fact that speech proceeds at a certain (sometimes changing) pace, with greater or lesser duration, degree of volume, articulatory clarity, etc. Written speech can also be fast or slow, clear (intelligible) or fuzzy (illegible ), more or less voluminous, etc. That is, the materiality of speech can be illustrated by various examples. Language, unlike speech, is considered to be ideal, that is, it exists outside of speech as a whole only in the minds of those who speak this language or learn this language, and also as parts of this whole - in various dictionaries and reference books.

Speech is, as a rule, the activity of one person - speaking or writing, therefore it is a reflection of the various characteristics of this person. Consequently, speech is initially subjective, because the speaker or writer himself selects the content of his speech, reflects his individual consciousness and individual experience in it, while the language in the system of meanings expressed by it fixes the experience of the collective, the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it. In addition, speech is always individual, since people never use all the means of the language and are content with only a part of the language means, choosing the most appropriate ones according to their level of knowledge of the language and the conditions of a particular situation. As a result, the meanings of words in speech may differ from those that are strictly defined and fixed in dictionaries. In speech, situations are possible in which words and even individual sentences receive a completely different meaning than in language, for example, with the help of intonation. Speech can also be characterized by indicating the psychological state of the speaker, his communicative task, attitude towards the interlocutor, sincerity.

On what grounds can speech be described and analyzed?

The difference between language and speech can be seen, as in a kind of cut, in comparing the sentence as a unit of language and the utterance as a unit of speech. M. M. Bakhtin distinguishes these concepts in the following way: “A sentence as a unit of language has a grammatical nature, grammatical boundaries, grammatical completeness and unity. (Considered as a whole statement and from the point of view of this whole, it acquires stylistic properties). “A sentence as a unit of language ... is not limited on both sides by a change of speech subjects, it does not have direct contact with reality (with an extra-verbal situation) and a direct relationship to other people's statements, it does not have semantic usefulness and the ability to directly determine the response position of another speaker , that is, to evoke a response. In turn, the statement differs from the sentence in that it is always associated with a speech situation, focused not only on someone else's statement, but also on the presence of the addressee and his active response position, the statement also has semantic completeness and clearly defined boundaries between statements of other speech subjects.

In addition, speech is not limited to linguistic means. The composition of speech means also includes those that relate to non-linguistic (non-verbal, or non-verbal): voice, intonation, gestures, facial expressions, posture, position in space, etc.

All these differences between speech and language relate primarily to speech as a process of using language, therefore, although with a stretch, they are grounds for opposing them, since in this respect the creation of speech as a process proceeds largely in stages and partially coincides with the boundaries of the largest unit of language : with sentence boundaries. If we talk about speech as a result of this process, that is, as a text, then the description of speech at this level, in principle, cannot have common criteria with the language, since they are completely inapplicable to the language.

Namely:

Speech can be external (spoken or written) and internal (not voiced or recorded for others). Inner speech is used by us as a means of thinking or speaking internally (speech minus sound), and also as a way of remembering.

Speech-utterance takes place in certain speech genres, for example, writing, speaking, saying goodbye, etc.

The speech-text should be built in accordance with one or another functional style: scientific, official business, journalistic, colloquial or artistic.

Speech as a text reflects reality and can be considered from the point of view of its truth and falsity (true / partially true / false).

Aesthetic (beautiful / ugly / ugly) and ethical assessments (good / bad), etc. are applicable to the speech-text.

Thus, we see that all the functions of the language are realized in speech. And the language turns out to be the main, but not the only means of its creation. Speech is always the result of the creative activity of the indgvid, and therefore it is necessary to approach the analysis, evaluation and methods of creating speech in a completely different way than to language. This is especially important when considering speech from the point of view of its culture.

3. CULTURE

What is culture?

The very word culture originated in ancient Rome. “As you know, the word “culture” has as its original Latin “cultura”, which meant both “cultivate” (land), and “improve”, and “revere”. In the later use of the word "culture" these shades were preserved, but it is curious that originally "culture"

meant a change in nature in the interests of man, more precisely, the cultivation of the land. And in parallel, a metaphor used by Cicero arises - “culture (improvement) of the soul”, “spiritual culture”, - writes A. A. Brudny.

What is the meaning of this concept now?

In the most general sense, it includes all the achievements of human society in various areas of life, and a high level of development of any particular branch of activity, and enlightenment, education, well-read, and the existence of living conditions that meet the needs of an enlightened person, and breeding, cultivating any or plants.

In other words, culture is inseparable from the process of choosing something that is the most successful in any area, caring for it, cultivating it, bringing it to a high level of quality in the pursuit of perfection. This process presupposes the awareness and purposefulness of all relevant actions, the development and storage of techniques and methods - the rules of effective activity.

In modern studies on culture, “a reasonable idea of culture is gradually being formed as a certain form of human relations, objectified by value” (A. A. Brudny). Or: “Culture is a universal form of simultaneous communication and being of people of different cultures, each of which is a universal form of simultaneous communication and being of people ... and in this communication of cultures there is communication of individuals” (V. S. Bibler).

This means that culture is a process of special communication between people, the facts of culture (in which scientific discoveries, household items, works of art, etc. are recognized as values) are the result of this activity and a means for the emergence of the process of interpreting and understanding these facts and the beginning a new response process for creating your own “replica”

in this never ending process.

What are the most important characteristics of culture?

The most important characteristics of culture are:

1) the significance of all its constituent elements;

2) the dialogue nature of the process and the focus on the dialogue of its products (facts of culture);

3) the existence of many cultures and types of cultures that enter into a dialogue;

4) its continuity as a process;

5) branched criteria for evaluating the facts of culture;

6) mechanisms for the protection of cultural facts, etc.

All these properties of culture, in turn, are closely interconnected. Their interdependence can be sketched in the following way.

Culture in this sense is “an expression of human relations in objects, actions, words, to which people attach meaning, meaning, value. Pay special attention to the essential side of the phenomena of culture: the connection between them is the connection between their meanings. The essence of cultural phenomena is that they matter to people; and what matters to people gradually turns into a sign, ”A. A. Brudny explained this property of culture.

Any sign, in turn, is aimed at understanding, therefore it needs a different subject, different from itself, which will “decode” the meaning of this sign in the process of understanding it (at one level or another) and somehow react to it. Thus, the dialogueness of culture manifests its essence.

Naturally, a dialogue is possible only between subjects that are different in some way, therefore two opposite, but mutually dependent processes arise in culture: firstly, awareness of one’s individuality, and secondly, isolation, delimitation of oneself in one’s integrity and dissimilarity to others from other, different cultures.

These processes, together with dialogue, make culture continuous.

At the same time, the significance and differences of different cultures make it necessary for the emergence of a dialogue between them to identify and designate criteria for evaluating different aspects of cultural facts, that is, creating a mechanism for selecting what should be cultivated and what should be disposed of.

This, in turn, helps to understand what and how to protect and preserve.

As a result of such mechanisms, culture is always associated not so much with the material world as with the spiritual. And it has not only a communication, but also a symbolic, symbolic nature.

This means that the meaning of delimiting culture from non-culture is that any fact of culture, even physical or material, is filled with meaning, filled with an element of spirituality - those associations, those events with which it is associated and of which it is a sign.

Culture gives each sign a context - that wider frame in which any fact of culture is perceived not in isolation, but in relation to the rest. These relationships also imply causation when you ask the question "Why?" and look for an answer to it - that is, you interpret the facts of reality. These interrelations become a source of comparisons, comparisons, analogies - everything that underlies both the logical and figurative perception of the world.

All these initially disparate meanings require ordering. Therefore, structuring is an obligatory attribute of culture, and already, according to the law precisely formulated by Yu. M. Lotman, it leads to an increase in information precisely due to the increment of meanings. Structuring is a way of giving additional meanings by updating the usual logical connections and associations. The history of civilizations shows that the development of culture was largely due to the development of systems for coding and structuring meanings. And now the inclusion of an element in a certain system also leads to a significant increase in its information potential.

Thus, any culture is multi-layered and diverse, and at the same time it necessarily implies the organization and orderliness of all its constituent objects, that is, structuring, which leads to an increase in information due to an increase in meanings. This allows the culture to accumulate a rich heterogeneous potential and constantly develop.

What forms does culture take?

Culture has three forms: physical, material and spiritual. Every fact of culture combines them all. What exactly is meant by each form of culture, Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky described as follows:

“Physical culture is the preparation of a person for any kind of activity, which consists in the development of motor-coordinating abilities, the inclinations of mental activity, ethical and aesthetic ideas, as well as the ability for self-observation, self-preservation, procreation ....

Material culture is a system of material objects that form an artificial (technical) human environment, selected for eternal storage and designed to serve people as models of technical creativity....

Spiritual culture - a collection of facts of spiritual social life that characterize the moral, emotional, mental development of mankind, the development of styles and style requests of people, their systematization and dissemination through all types of education and enlightenment, works of art, crafts, literary monuments, etc. The content of spiritual cultures are morality and morality, examples of scholarship and wisdom, achievements of scientific and technical, legal and medical, economic and sociological theories, works of artistic creativity, the conquest of state and military, philosophical and religious thought ”(according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky. Glossary of terms) .

Thus, even physical culture, not to mention its material and spiritual forms, implies a spiritual and intellectual beginning, introspection and self-improvement, etc.

Therefore, culture is always associated with activity - be it physical, material or spiritual culture. Culture is both a process of activity and its result - a certain product that arises as a result of this activity. But, unlike non-culture, activity is always conscious and purposeful. In addition, the combination in each fact of culture of all three of its forms suggests ethical and aesthetic components as integral to each of them.

What types of culture exist?

Culture always goes beyond the property of one person.

Therefore, the main form of culture is spiritual, and therefore culture always belongs to a person or a multitude of people.

Accordingly, three types of culture are distinguished:

The culture of a society is the totality of the facts of culture, the exclusive possession or use of which has no right to claim either an individual or any separate group;

The culture of the collective (families, firms, organizations, etc.) is the experience of the activity of this collective, fixed in signs and material objects, and is a direct source of the activity of this collective;

Personal culture consists of knowledge of the facts of culture, skills in their profession, the ability to use culture and personal experience. Personal culture serves both as a source of personal achievements and as a source of creating the culture of the team and the culture of society (according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky. Glossary of terms).

Despite the fact that there is also a culture of the individual, “culture, first of all, is a collective concept. An individual person can be a bearer of culture, can actively participate in its development, however, by its nature, culture, like language, is a social phenomenon, that is, a social one. Consequently, culture is something common to any collective - a group of people living at the same time and connected by a certain social organization. It follows from this that culture is a form of communication between people and is possible only in the group in which people communicate” (Italics by the author. - Lotman Yu. M. “Conversations about Russian culture”). Accordingly, the culture of communication implies the highest level of communication that meets all three forms of culture.

Moreover, culture is not only something common to any collective, but culture is also the creator of both this collective and the common that unites it: “the main “work” of culture ... is in the structural organization of the world surrounding a person. Culture is a generator of structure, and by this it creates a social sphere around a person, which, like the biosphere, makes possible further life, though not organic, but social” (Yu. M. Lotman).

This means that the three types of culture do not conflict with each other, but only complement and mutually enrich. At the same time, the social nature of culture necessarily implies that individual culture is possible only when it is perceived as an element, part of the general culture (of a collective or society as a whole), as a personal contribution to it of someone, but not as a manifestation of antagonism to it, because culture is inherently characterized by tradition and continuity.

What determines the development of culture?

One of the most important concepts that convey the essence of culture and become a mechanism for implementing its continuity is memory. Memory in culture implies the continuity of the moral, intellectual, spiritual life of a person, society and mankind. Memory, on the one hand, captures the facts, events and achievements of culture and thereby preserves them, on the other hand, forward movement, improvement is impossible without a developed memory, and culture is not only the fruit of human development, but also its engine.

An important property of culture is the implementation of interaction between its various types. Academician D.S. Likhachev described these processes as follows, considering the corresponding levels of memory: “The culture of the individual is formed as a result of the active memory of one person, the culture of the family is the result of family memory, the culture of the people is the result of people's memory. But we have long since entered an era when the common culture of an individual, society and people needs the active memory of all mankind. And just as the culture of the family does not destroy, but improves the personal culture, so the culture of all mankind improves, elevates, enriches the culture of each individual people. (D.S. Likhachev). And at the same time, the achievements of an individual are not opposed to the culture of the collective and the whole society, but, being prepared by them, in turn, enrich them.

This mutual influence and mutual enrichment of various components of culture is determined by its main properties, among which Yu. M.

Lotman singled out the following contradictions, which are the driving force for the development of culture:

1. On the one hand, the orderliness of both the external and internal organization of culture. On the other hand, dynamism: the need for constant self-renewal, in order to remain oneself, become different, is one of the main working mechanisms of culture.

2. On the one hand - the unity of a certain culture, on the other - the plurality of cultures and components within a single culture.

As a result of these contradictions, culture is ruled by the principle of alternativeness, when the choice and combination of various elements provide inexhaustible opportunities for its development.

It is important that opportunities for development are provided not only by the spiritual form of culture, but also by the material one.

Why and how is it important to preserve culture?

The dialogue of cultures of different peoples and different generations is often possible only due to the fact that certain cultural facts have been recorded and preserved. Literature, architecture, sculpture, painting, music - all these are stopped moments.

And all of them represent a kind of symbolic “code”, which sometimes cannot be adequately deciphered and understood outside of the meanings that the authors put into them, and out of context. And speech occupies a special place in this series, because only it is capable of preserving and transmitting spiritual information in the most adequately decipherable form. Therefore, written speech is not just a form of the existence of speech, but a form of life of culture.

For example, the development of culture, associated with an increase in the volume of its facts, is also stimulated by “various technologies for creating speech:

Oral speech;

Written (handwritten) speech;

printed speech;

Speech on electronic media.

Each historical layer of culture differs from another in that a more advanced technology of speech makes it possible to fit into the memory of a person, collective and society a greater amount of information about the facts of culture.

So, oral speech allows you to store the facts of culture only in the memory of people, which is limited. Written (handwritten) speech allows you to record information in writing in such a volume that many times and infinitely exceeds human memory, but handwritten speech is difficult to consistently systematize content and has limited opportunities for disseminating cultural facts through the correspondence of manuscripts. Printed speech has the possibility of limitless dissemination of cultural facts, is characterized by a market mechanism for selecting the facts of the culture of society, but is limited by the language in which books are written, and by the very form of the book, which gives rise to certain problems in systematization, storage and use. Electronic technology gives rise to the possibility of the widest extra-regional accumulation of cultural facts and their fastest use.

(according to Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky. Dictionary of terms).

That is why written texts play a decisive role in the development of culture.

Another important aspect of culture is the need to preserve it. We are talking about preserving not only individual facts of culture, but also its boundaries, as well as the mechanisms of reproduction and development. Therefore, the special task of culture must be recognized as the education of culture both of society as a whole and of its individual representatives. And the culture of society as a whole is achieved by increasing the culture of its constituent individuals. The education of culture is aimed at the respectful and widespread use of the experience of social development, the collection, storage, classification of all cultural facts and the creation of effective cultural use.

What is the basic culture of the individual?

Recently, they have begun to talk about the elementary level of personality culture - the basic culture of personality, that is, the necessary minimum of a person’s general abilities, his value ideas and qualities, without which both socialization and the optimal development of genetically given personality talents are impossible (O. S. Gazman ). The main components of the basic culture of the individual are also determined: a complex of knowledge, skills, qualities, habits, value orientations. This assumes, first of all, knowledge of the basic facts of the culture of a particular people or world culture.

With regard to speech culture, this especially applies to knowledge of the so-called precedent texts (the Bible, myths, peaks of world literature, etc.), since “knowledge of precedent texts is an indicator of belonging to a given era and its culture, while their ignorance, on the contrary, is a prerequisite for rejection from the corresponding culture” (Yu. N. Karaulov).

A cultured person is always an educated person. But, in fact, culture involves not learning, but the education of the individual. And it is not by chance that these two words differ in meaning. In this regard, a trained person differs from an educated person in that he did not receive knowledge, but the ability to obtain, apply and transfer this knowledge. He did not learn someone's thoughts, but learned to think himself. He not only can repeat who said what and how to speak in a given situation, but he himself is able to create his own speech. All this can be formulated as follows: a cultured, educated person is not only a person who knows and can do a lot, but, above all, is creative.

Therefore, the culture of the individual necessarily involves the mastery of not only some of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, but - personally mastered in the activity of cultural values. Consequently, education is based on the process of cognition - finding relationships between various phenomena and their structuring. And then the structure suggests gaps - white spots that also require filling. Thus, knowledge, as a component of culture, is also dialogic, because there is a movement from ignorance to incomplete knowledge, and then to relatively complete knowledge.

Culture in its most general form presupposes the existence of individuality in a person and the desire to manifest this individuality. And at the same time, recognition by this individuality of the right of other people to their individuality and respect for this individuality of theirs. Not the isolation of the individual, but the realization that individuality is a separateness within the whole - society.

This involves the ability to look at the situation from the standpoint of another, to understand the course of his thoughts, his feelings, etc. All this again manifests itself in dialogical activity, namely, in the process of communication. The general culture of both society, and the team, and a person is unthinkable without a culture of communication.

Thus, culture is a system of human achievements in all areas of life, which appeared and develops due to the purposeful and conscious activity of a person and society as a whole in the material and spiritual spheres. This activity is of a unifying communicative nature, aimed at achieving the highest level of quality, and therefore is accompanied by a system of restrictions, due to which there is a purposeful selection of what is worthy for continuation and development.

Chapter 1

1. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION

What is the meaning of the term "communication"?

Communication permeates all spheres of human activity, therefore it is studied by many sciences, within each of which scientists approach the phenomenon of communication from their own positions. Sociologists, psychologists, philosophers, linguists understand communication as “the process of generating new information and what their commonality produces” (M. S. Kagan) or “a special form of human interaction”, etc.

Otherwise it can not be. Because, first of all, “common for people is the reality ahead of them” (N. I. Zhinkin). This common reality includes a common language, and a common memory, and common concepts, and common mechanisms of thinking developed as a result of a common culture, and more, thanks to which communication becomes not only necessary, but also possible.

Psychologists distinguish three levels of analysis of the structure of communication:

1. Communication of the individual as part of his lifestyle (macrolevel).

2. Separate acts of communication, separate contacts (conversation, dispute, etc.) - the mesolevel.

3. Separate elements of the act of communication (means of expression) - micro level.

In this chapter, we will look at communication at the macro level.

Academician D.S. Likhachev very accurately expressed the essence of communication: "Communicating, people create each other." These words emphasize precisely the reciprocity of people's influence on each other and their need for each other to realize their individuality and for the development of each. Such an approach and such an understanding emphasizes the conditionality of communication as the main element of culture.

This explains the main means of communication - speech. Therefore, communication is a real activity that unfolds procedurally, that is, in the same way as speech, and proceeds mainly in the form of speech (in its verbal and non-verbal components).

Communication is an activity. At the same time, activity is not only the communication that occurs during the joint solution of any subject-practical problems, but also spiritual communication, during which spiritual and informational interaction takes place. Communication as an activity requires conscious goal-setting, choosing the best means to achieve the set goals, constantly monitoring the actions of partners and making the necessary adjustments for each of their own behavior and, of course, responsibility for the result of this activity. The process of communication always has a spiritual component of content as the consciousness of the need to interact with another person, and hence the need for him as a partner in achieving a common goal. This need turns into a specific attitude, that is, into a readiness to harmonize one's personal behavior with the behavior of a partner, into a desire for commonwealth, cooperation, etc.

What are the main functions of communication?

The main functions of communication are formulated by different scientists, taking into account the science in which they consider communication, therefore, from different positions. We give the classification of the psychologist A. A. Brudny, who deals with the issues of understanding, since this approach, in our opinion, allows us to most adequately consider communication in the aspect of culture.

A. A. Brudny identifies four main functions of communication:

1. Instrumental, that is, communication as an auxiliary component of a joint objective activity (for example, car repair or cleaning).

2. Syndicative (association), when communication involves the creation of a unity of the participants who have entered into it.

3. The function of self-expression, which in its essence is focused on mutual understanding, on contact.

4. Translational function - the transfer of specific methods of activity, evaluation criteria and programs (for example, training).

This means that for the implementation of any function of communication, a subject is needed that carries out this communication.

In turn, within the framework of communication as an activity, the person himself as a subject of communication also performs various functions:

communicative (providing interconnection), informational (mutual expression), cognitive (mutual knowledge), emotive (experiencing relationships), conative (mutual manifestation, management), creative (mutual influence, transformation).

Thus, communication satisfies (should satisfy) the various needs of the individual. These needs are characteristic of all people, since a person is primarily a social creature. All these needs are fundamentally cultural in nature: they are associated with values and value attitudes towards oneself and others, with dialogism, with the processes of cognition and self-knowledge, with creative activity, etc. But, depending on the level of culture of a particular person, those or other social needs take precedence.

Communication is also one of the basic conditions for the existence of culture. It is organic to culture in that in the process of interaction, as well as in culture as a whole, there is a clash of contradictory tendencies between association and isolation, socialization and individualization, which also becomes the driving force for the development and enrichment of all participants in communication. “Only in communication, in the interaction of man with man, is the man in man revealed both for others and for himself” (M. M. Bakhtin).

Consequently, the recognition of the need for the "other" for the existence of the individual gives communication a value character, makes communication part of the culture as a whole.

What are the main goals of communication?

The main goals of communication are related to the direction and features of the interaction between the communicants. Philosopher

M. S. Kagan proposed the following classification of communication goals:

1) the purpose of communication is outside the interaction of subjects;

2) the purpose of communication lies in itself;

3) the purpose of communication is to familiarize the partner with the experience and values of the initiator of communication;

4) the purpose of communication is to introduce the initiator himself to the partner's values.

The first goal is solved mainly in the process of joint actions of communication partners. The second consists mainly in self-knowledge and self-expression through dialogical activity and in mutual understanding of the participants in communication. The third and fourth goals speak for themselves - this is, first of all, the value interaction of partners, in which one of them takes on the role of initiator.

All these goals are achieved only in the process of dialogue, therefore, according to M. M. Bakhtin, “in the process of real speech activity, people become “speech subjects”, and their verbal interaction is not an exchange of monologues, but a dialogue, that is, oriented towards each other statements." At the same time, dialogue is understood not only as a form of speech that involves a change of speech subjects, but broadly, that is, as a collision, the interaction of different points of view, different positions, different minds, different understandings, different interpretations, etc.

2. COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION

What is the difference between the terms "communication" and "communication"?

Dialogue, on the one hand, and the ways of its implementation, on the other hand, in real communication can differ significantly. This difference is largely reflected in the shades of meaning that the words "communication" and "communication" have. In scientific literature, both words are used as synonyms. At the same time, the word “communication” is more often used in linguistic works, and “communication” is used in psychology studies. What are the features of the meaning of each of these terms and which of them is more appropriate when analyzing speech from the point of view of its culture?

Communication is an information connection of a subject with a particular object.

Speech communication (from Latin communicatio - I make it common, connect, communicate) is one of the meanings that the word “communication” has in modern Russian.

Communication is called both ways of communication (for example, water communication), and forms of communication (telegraph, radio, telephone), and communication, communication between people to transmit and receive information, and mass communication - the process of communicating information using technical means - mass media (print, radio, cinema, television) to numerically large dispersed audiences.

Communication (according to the Dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov) - mutual relations, business or friendly relations.

These concepts are united, made synonymous with speech, which connects people and serves as the main means of transmitting information in its various types and forms. Therefore, we will consider the concepts of "communication" and "communication" only in relation to speech, to a speech situation.

In this sense, "communication" refers to the transmission of speech information from the sender to the recipient and the receipt of this information by the recipient from the sender. And under "communication" - verbal interaction between people.

Is it possible to say that, in relation to speech, the concepts of "communication" and "communication" are completely identical? Yes and no.

If the features of this or that situation of communication, these or those relationships between the communicants are insignificant for us, then we will use these terms as full synonyms. But if it is important to take into account these features for a full-fledged description of the process, then it is necessary to keep in mind significant differences in the meanings of these terms (these differences were analyzed by M.S.

Kagan in the book "The World of Communication"):

1. “Communication” in its direct meaning is an exclusively informational process addressed to a person, animal, machine (it can also be carried out in artificial languages), and “communication” is always two-layered (it has both a practical and a spiritual (informational) character).

2. "Communication" implies the informational connection of the subject with this or that object. In this case, both a person and an animal or a machine can act as an object. "Communication"

is possible only between subjects, that is, between people who feel their individuality and uniqueness.

3. “Communication” is primarily a process of information transfer. In this respect, he is one-sided and monologue.

"Communication" is a process of interaction, it is two-sided and dialogic (according to M. S. Kagan. The world of communication).

Thus, the distinction between the shades of the meaning of the words "communication" and "communication" is based on the features of the relationship between the participants in this process.

What types of relationships between the participants in the interaction in the process of speech underlie communication and communication?

Features of the relationship between the participants in the interaction in the process of speech have three main varieties. MM.

Bakhtin described them as "three types of relations:

1. Relations between objects: between things, between physical phenomena, chemical phenomena, causal relations, mathematical relations, logical relations, linguistic relations, etc.

2. Relations between subject and object.

3. Relations between subjects - personal, personalistic relations: dialogic relations between statements, ethical relations, etc. This includes all sorts of personified semantic connections. Relations between consciousnesses, truths, mutual influences, discipleship, love, hatred, lies, friendship, respect, reverence, trust, distrust, etc.

In other words, it can be schematically and conditionally assumed that if the relationship between the participants in the information exchange process is based on the “subject-object” relationship (which means that there is not communication, but communication), then even if this object is a person, it acts exclusively in the role of an ".objective" recipient of some ready-made, general, information not adapted for him personally. And, since this recipient in this sense is only an object, it means that he does not have personality traits, therefore, he perceives information “objectively”, that is, it is not distorted by his personal interpretations. At the same time, please note that in communication there is a sender of information and its recipient, we are dealing with a unidirectional process, information flows only in one direction, and - according to the laws established by communication theory - the amount of information decreases in the course of its movement from the sender to recipient (or, in the absence of transmission loss, the information remains unchanged). (More details can be found in the already mentioned book by M.S. Kagan.) But the response information from such an “object” will most likely not follow, or it will also be “objectified”.

If communication takes place, which is based on the relationship of subjects, then the situation becomes fundamentally different. Each subject is always unique, and therefore each requires an individual approach to himself. According to the laws of the functioning of culture, it is their non-identity that determines the need for communication for everyone and, taking into account the personal (relevant in a given situation) characteristics of each, makes it unique. At the same time, since in a full-fledged multidimensional communication there is no sender and recipient of messages - there are subjects, individuals, interlocutors, they do not send their information to each other in turn, but simultaneously interact, that is, they not only transmit and receive any information, but process it, discuss it, becoming partners in their common cause - the joint development of the resulting information. It turns out that in communication information circulates between partners, since both of them are active (although sometimes to varying degrees), and therefore information does not decrease, but increases, enriches, expands in the process of its circulation due to structuring and increment of meanings in the process of understanding.

Let us illustrate what is meant by this enrichment of information and its increment in the process of communication with a quote from the book “The World of Communication” by M. S. Kagan: “They often refer to the judgment of B. Shaw:“ If you have an apple and I have an apple and if we exchange these apples, then both you and I have one apple left. And if you have an idea and I have an idea and we exchange these ideas, then each of us will have two ideas.” But if Bernard Shaw's thought about apples perfectly reflects material interaction, then the second part, which refers to the exchange of ideas, can be recognized as true only in relation to communication, since the exchange of ideas not only does not take into account the personal characteristics of the participants, proceeds alternately and monologically, but also in as a result, nothing arises for everyone, except for the arithmetic summation of the available and received information. Communication, on the other hand, implies that the clash of ideas generates fundamentally new products - for example, knowledge about the practical application of these ideas. Thus, communication partners at the end of their discussion may no longer have two ideas, but three or more. It is then that we can talk about the increment of meanings as a result of communication. Of course, this model of communication is not applicable to all its manifestations, but only communication gives such an opportunity. Thus, communication is the process of developing new information that is common for communicating people and gives rise to their commonality or increases the degree of their commonality while maintaining the unique individuality of each.

Thus, if communication is intended for the transmission and reception of information, that is, for its preservation, then communication performs another function in culture - the function of not only storing, but also developing information in the process of dialogue. In addition, communication is limited to information exchange as a product of previous mental and speech activity, and communication involves the process of developing joint information. This process of interaction is characterized by two-sidedness (multilateralism) with respect to the participants in this communication. At the same time, it is characterized by a meaningful two-layeredness, since in addition to logical information, that is, the subject of speech, communication always contains emotional and evaluative information about the attitude towards this subject of speech and about the attitude towards communication partners.

What types of information are typical for communication?

The difference between the meanings of the concepts of "communication" and "communication" is largely based on the nature of the information that connects the communicants. Information is information that is the object of storage, processing and transmission.

We emphasize that facts are not information in themselves, but only as an object of the corresponding activity. It is generally accepted that information is divided into logical, having an objective character, and emotional-evaluative, expressing predominantly subjective meanings, assessments and relationships. Communication always involves the communication of some information: logical or emotional-evaluative. This is the main and only goal of "pure" communication. Communication necessarily includes one more side - non-informational, or, according to the accustomed term, phatic.

The phatic component of communication means understanding not so much the meaning of the statement - the main one or their combination, as understanding the person himself (the author of this text) and establishing personal relationships with him. As a rule, exclusively phatic communication, that is, communication for the sake of communication, “talk for the sake of talking”, occurs when there is no task to convey any information or when the task of establishing or maintaining certain relationships at a certain level becomes the main one. (Read more about the specifics of phatic communication in this chapter when characterizing the types of communication.) But most often communication combines informational and non-informational (phatic) goals. In this, communication also differs from communication, in which the phatic side is not present.

What form of speech activity prevails in communication, and which - in communication?

Communication and communication are also distinguished by the predominant form of speech activity of the participants in the process: a monologue in communication, and a dialogue in communication. It is customary to distinguish dialogue and monologue mainly from formal positions, that is, by the number of speakers: if one speaks, this is a monologue, and two or more enter into a dialogue. However, for the study of differences between communication and communication, this approach does not always justify itself. In accordance with the dialogic nature of communication, its main form is dialogue. At the same time, the monologue in this aspect becomes not so much a form of speech based on the presence / absence of a change of speech partners, but a detailed replica within a general dialogue with this partner (even if the response form is silence). At the same time, the main purpose of communication is to transmit or receive information. Therefore, communication, unlike communication, does not always imply a response, and if it does, it often represents a response to a request for information or a request for the provision of new information, that is, the exchange of information occurs alternately, like an exchange of monologues, and not mutually and simultaneously, as is typical of dialogue. Therefore, communication is inherently monologue in contrast to communication. (More about monologue and dialogue as types of communication will be discussed later in this chapter.) Communication and communication also differ in the degree of activity of the participants. In communication, one is always active, while the other (the rest) play the passive role of recipients of information. These roles may change, but the pattern itself remains. In communication, all partners are simultaneously active (to a greater or lesser extent), since listening or reading, during which the speech of the speaker (writer) is perceived, in this case includes not only the reception of information, but also its interpretation and active response. Therefore, since activity is a product of awareness and independence, communication as a process requires the individual to realize his individuality and demonstrate it. Communication involves a certain contribution of efforts, ideas, etc. on the part of everyone to obtain a common product. Thus, communication determines the speech creativity of each as a prerequisite for participation in communication.

How do differences in communication and communication affect different aspects of speech effectiveness?

Communication, as a predominantly one-way process, usually lends itself to precise planning. If you need to inform someone about something and there are all the necessary conditions for this (this person can listen to you or read your written notice), then you will surely fulfill your task. Communication, being a process of interaction between individuals, is always improvisational and often unpredictable. For example, you are worried about some problem, you go to someone to discuss it. As a result of this discussion, it may turn out that you are working out some kind of joint solution, that your communication partner (partners) support your proposed solution to this problem, that you are convinced that your proposal is unacceptable or that this is not at all the problem that you need to worry. It is impossible to know in advance exactly and definitely what the outcome of such a discussion will be.

In addition, communication can be axial (from lat. axis - axis), that is, exactly addressed to a specific recipient, iretial (from lat. rete - network, seine), in other words, in this case, information is sent without a strictly designated addressee - all at once. At the same time, the number of recipients of information does not affect the nature of communication (axial or retal), because a large group can act as a specific addressee, and advertising, which is often perceived one by one, can serve as an example of retial communication.

Communication, on the other hand, always presupposes the mutual exact addressing of the speech of all partners.

Communication and communication are also distinguished by the presence / absence of understanding as a mandatory result of the process that has taken place. In communication, its effectiveness is assessed by the degree of adequacy of the information sent and received. If there is no loss, communication efficiency is 100%.

If it happened, it can be calculated in units of information. But in communication it is not set as an obligatory goal of understanding this information by the recipient. Moreover, the sender does not always understand what he is transmitting. For example, a student at an exam or a schoolboy at the blackboard can “rattle off” complex textbook material. Does the respondent always fully understand what he is saying? Thus, understanding in communication may not occur. In communication, effectiveness is evaluated, first of all, by how the partners understood each other. In this case, “understanding” includes both the informational and phatic sides of communication, that is, you can understand the information that is in speech at one of the levels of understanding, or understand the person himself, his position on some issue that the addressee does not understand . Understanding can be realized only if the communication partners have something in common, if the new information complements the previously known. The result of understanding is not the ultimate truth. The same message can be understood in different ways, and, depending on this, the response may be different, but without understanding, communication is impossible, because in this case the community between the partners will either not arise or be destroyed. This means that for communication, understanding is optional (although in most cases understanding presupposes it), but for communication, it is mandatory.

So, the main purpose of communication is not only to transmit or receive information, but also to create, support, transfer to a new, higher level of relationships between people. And the main thing in this is to achieve understanding.

What may dictate the need to choose one or another method of interaction - communication or communication?

We consider "communication" and "communication", as they say, "in pure" form, but in reality there are many forms of their mutual transitions from one to another. First of all, these are official and business situations, as well as other situations in which the individuality of a partner is neglected, when the personal characteristics of people are leveled, they are desubjectivized, making them an easily replaceable social object. This is reflected in the differentiation of levels of communication.

And yet, both of these forms - communication and communication - are necessary for a person, social development and culture, since they have different areas of application and mutually complement each other. And accordingly, each person must be able to combine the positions of the subject and object of activity, quickly switch from the role of a listener to the role of a co-author and back, from the role of a performer to the role of a partner and vice versa, etc.

Thus, the terms "communication" and "communication" have their own shades of meaning, which reflect two main groups of situations:

1. Situations when the purpose of a communicative act is the transfer of constant information.

2. Situations when the goal of a communication act is to generate new information.

Situations of the second type, when the purpose of a communication act is to develop new information, have their own characteristics. “Here the value of the system is determined by a non-trivial shift of meaning in the process of moving the text from the transmitter to the receiver. We call non-trivial such a shift in meaning that is unambiguously unpredictable and not specified by a certain text transformation algorithm” (Yu. M. Lotman).

The text resulting from such a shift will be new not only for the addressee, but also for its author. "The possibility of forming new texts is determined both by accidents and errors, and by the difference and untranslatability of the code of the source text and the one in the direction of which the recoding is performed." That is, a new text is a text that cannot be adequately reversed "translated" into the original one, since in the process of communication a recoding system occurred that violated the identity of the original and final texts. Please note: Yu. M. Lotman does not give an unambiguous assessment of this non-identity on a good / bad scale due to various reasons for such inadequacy. We will return to consideration of these causes in other chapters, but now we emphasize that the emergence of new texts of this kind is more characteristic of communication than of communication.

Thus, the specifics of the situation and the goals facing the communicants in each particular case dictate the need to choose one or another way of interaction - communication or communication.

We will more often use the term "communication", which to a greater extent reflects the specifics of the culture of speech in our understanding.

What is the culture of communication as an obligatory element of the general culture of a person?

The culture of communication, like any manifestation of culture, is characterized by all its features, therefore the concept of "culture of communication" must first of all be "delimited" from the anti-culture of communication, that is, from everything that consciously separates people, violates the integrity of communication, its traditions, etc. etc., and from non-culture, the causes of which are in ignorance or half-knowledge, in ignorance in general.

3-1D)1D)CI|||1ol11N)ia 33 The creative component of communication allows individuals to transfer the situation from communication to communication and vice versa, to create the framework of communication by themselves, to determine its duration, to choose communication partners themselves. And at the same time act not only jointly, but also in the common interest.

Both the process and the result of communication are aimed at creating or strengthening their unity, their community, therefore, in every culture and in every social group, rituals of delimitation of “us” from “them” arise. All forms of communication specific to each group: rituals, ceremonies, traditions that govern the relationships between different generations, professions, groups, etc. serve to consolidate and at the same time fence it off from other groups, that is, affirm its internal integrity, cohesion and its originality, uniqueness . This is especially evident in speech, because the main purpose of the literary language, professional, dialect or jargon is to be a means of distinguishing representatives of a given social group from the rest.

The culture of communication also implies a delimitation from anti-communication (pseudo-communication). Pseudo-communication is deception or self-deception in which communication appears to occur when in reality it does not. As a rule, in such situations there is no main sign in communication - interaction.

Even if both (or several) people perform verbal or other actions, they proceed independently of each other and remain isolated. It is important that in such cases, communication as a process of interaction is often opposed to non-communication not neutrally as the absence of this interaction, but as a refusal to interact or opposition, active or passive. And in this regard, non-communication is perceived as open or covert aggression. Pseudo-communication destroys the unity and integrity of relationships, and therefore belongs to anti-communication.

Boundaries in communication perform different functions. This is the delimitation of different situations of communication, this is the definition of the “circle” of participants in communication, this is the establishment of a framework for communication, including one or another distance between them, this is the delimitation of types of communication, etc.

3. TYPES AND FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

What are the main types of communication?

Types and forms of communication serve as important "milestones" in orientation regarding the framework of communication and in their creation. The choice of optimal types and forms of communication, taking into account all the features of a particular situation, is also an important element of culture.

Like culture as a whole, communication is multifaceted and multilayered, so the types of communication characterize it for various reasons. We are based on the classification of N. I. Formanovskaya, which distinguishes the following types of communication:

By purpose: phatic (that is, non-informational) - informational (non-fatal).

According to the sign system used in communication: verbal (verbal, that is, usually natural national language) - non-verbal (non-verbal - gestures, facial expressions, etc.).

According to the form of language: oral - written.

According to the constant / variable communicative role of the I-speaking and you-listening: monologue - dialogic.

According to the position of the communicants relative to each other in space and time: contact - distant.

By the presence / absence of any mediating "apparatus": indirect - direct.

By the number of participants: interpersonal - public - mass.

By the nature of the relationship between the communicants and the atmosphere of communication: private - official.

In relation to compliance / non-compliance with strict rules for constructing and using the finished text: free - stereotypical, etc.

Let us characterize the main types and forms of communication in more detail.

What underlies the distinction between phatic and informational communication?

For informational (non-fatal) communication, the main goal is always related to information. In the course of such communication, something new is reported or listened to (read) for a given addressee.

Phatic (non-informational) communication is not aimed at transmitting or receiving information, but at establishing and maintaining verbal contact with the interlocutor, at regulating relationships, at satisfying the need for communication: speaking in order to speak out and meet understanding is the main goal of such communication. "Fatika" is closely related to the spiritual side of communication (but not equal to it). Therefore, within the framework of phatic communication, there are both aimless, meaningless chatter "from nothing to do" and serious, thoughtful, and finally, just an interesting conversation. A typical example of the first is a long conversation of women on the phone, when it seems to men that this whole conversation is “about nothing”. Or small talk, conversations at a party at the table, when people talk about a little bit of everything, but most often something everyone knows is discussed. All of these are variants of phatic communication. Thus, phatic interaction is always characteristic only of communication and cannot be related to communication.

This also determines other features of phatic communication.

If information communication is usually purposeful and devoted to the discussion of a single topic throughout the communication, then phatic communication is distinguished, according to the results of the study by T. G. Vinokur: a) unpreparedness, spontaneity; b) dialogic form; c) thematic freedom, "because the theme is not as important as its processing"; d) consequently, the colloquial style. We emphasize that phatic communication belongs mainly to oral speech and is most clearly manifested in dialogue.

At the same time, it is important to note that phatic communication is not only a pleasant pastime, it has two main strategies - dissonance and unison. We are only interested in the second one. Phatic communication includes both cooperative and conflict communication with different forms, tonality, relationships (degree of closeness) between partners. This may be a situation that requires sympathy, empathy, condolences. This is “clarification of relations”, etc. In other words, in phatic communication, the general speech task of the communicants may vary depending on close or non-close relationships.

Consider typical situations with clarification of the speech task, depending on the degree of proximity of communication partners:

1. Between strangers - make acquaintances, pass the time in conditions of forced joint stay (in transport, etc.).

2. Between unfamiliar people - to strengthen acquaintance.

3. In case of a casual acquaintance, observe the rules of polite behavior when it is awkward to be silent.

5. Between close friends or in the family - to pay tribute to the habit of exchanging opinions, to express emotions on any occasion in which there is no informational need.

Phatic communication is also distinguished by a set of typical topics that are discussed in the process of such communication: health, weather, family affairs, sports, impressions of what they have read, seen, discussion of the merits and demerits of mutual acquaintances, etc. or situationally determined topics - the work of transport, recent city (local) news, etc.

At the same time, phatic communication often accompanies informational communication, therefore, usually in speech, an informative-phatic balance is observed as a norm of speech behavior. The first thing a person does when he sees another is to perceive and evaluate him. Depending on whether we want to enter into communication with this or that person, we unconsciously “turn on” or “turn off” the phatic side in communication. And then, as a rule, interaction combines a phatic and informational component. Because, even if we enter into communication with a specific goal (for example, to learn something), then by fulfilling it, we can complete the communication. But we don't always do it. Therefore, having completed the informational phase of communication, we can move into an exclusively phatic one, as is usually the case with people who are pleasant to each other.

Thus, phatic communication is an attribute of any culture. It exists in many variants - from the chatter that accompanies any activity to the art of conversation and pursues the goal of creating a community in various socially conditioned situations.

What is called verbal and what is non-verbal in communication?

Verbal and non-verbal communication also most often accompany each other, since verbal communication is verbal communication, that is, in one of the natural national languages. Non-verbal communication is non-verbal communication, in which the system of signs is: in oral speech - a combination of posture, gestures, facial expressions, intonation, etc., and in writing - the location of the text, fonts, diagrams, tables, graphics, etc.

Each of these types of communication corresponds to one of the two existing types of information presentation - linear and fenestration (from Latin fenestra - "window"). Signs following one after another represent information linearly (this is how verbal speech unfolds). Signs grouped in such a way that their semantic perception is, if possible, simultaneous, unified, represent information in a different, fenestration, form (non-verbal speech and other signs are perceived in the same way - an emblem, coat of arms, order, road sign). Usually these types of information presentation complement each other (A. A. Brudny).

In fact, in this case, we mean two different, but almost always combined languages: verbal and non-verbal. Usually, in relation to the culture of communication and the culture of speech, it is customary to talk about the verbal side, but, taking into account the importance of non-verbal communication, we have singled out the conversation about the culture of non-verbal speech in a separate chapter.

Please note: the division of the verbal and non-verbal sides of speech is very conditional and is possible only for the convenience of description, since both the verbal and non-verbal sides of communication very rarely exist without each other. Accordingly, in relation to communication, it is more correct to speak of verbal-non-verbal balance as the norm of verbal communication.

How is oral communication different from written communication?

These types of communication correspond to two main channels of communication: oral-auditory and written-visual, and similar forms of speech: oral and written.

The specificity of oral and written communication is determined by two main groups of reasons:

1. Features of situations of oral and written communication.

2. Features determined by the form of speech.

Situations that require oral communication are usually characterized by the fact that personal contact is possible between the participants in communication: both visual (visual) and acoustic (auditory), that is, partners see and hear each other, or acoustic, when people only hear each other, for example, on the phone or in the forest, in the field in the fog, in another room, etc.

If such personal contact is impossible or, for some reason, inappropriate, then they usually resort to a written form of speech (letter, note, telegram, electronic message, SMS message, etc.).

The communicant's choice of oral or written form is also influenced by how quickly he needs to get a response and whether he needs to get it at all. If the response is important and needs to be received as soon as possible, then an oral form of speech is preferable, in which the response follows immediately. If an answer is not needed (there is communication, not communication) or a quick answer is not needed, then a written form of speech can be chosen.

In addition, the choice of a particular form of speech is dictated by the characteristics of the information. In oral speech, sometimes the meaning is not of words, but of intonation and other non-verbal means of speech, while in written speech the main meaning is conveyed verbally. Sometimes the choice of the form of speech is determined by the importance or volume of the transmitted information, namely: since oral speech is pronounced once ("The word is not a sparrow, you will fly out - you will not catch"), and the written text is often focused on repeated rereading, then important and complex information or information of a large volume It is more convenient to convey, based on a more adequate understanding, in writing, and easier to understand - in oral form.

To decide which form of speech to prefer, it is necessary to know who this speech is intended for, and under what conditions it can be perceived most adequately. Oral speech is spoken to a specific listener (listeners) and in a specific communication situation, while written speech can be addressed both to a specific person (letter, note, personal diary, etc.) and to a hypothetical reader (book, instruction, etc.) , while the possibility of changing both the addressee and the conditions under which the reading takes place is not excluded.

These are just the main features of the communication situation that can affect the choice of oral or written form of speech. At the same time, the features of these forms of speech must also be taken into account in order to achieve an optimal result.

It should be taken into account that:

Oral speech, due to its one-time and, often, improvisational ™, is limited in the selection of linguistic and non-linguistic means to express a certain meaning, while written speech usually involves a complete and complete expression of the idea;

Oral speech, as a rule, is created at the moment of speaking, and unfixed text leaves room for additions and changes, up to “I didn’t mean to say that at all /”, while written speech requires a polished, precise fixation of the text;

Oral speech, in accordance with the law of redundancy, contains more repetitions and generalizations, while in writing there are fewer or none at all.

All these features together determine the choice of the appropriate speech genre for the purpose of communication. You will learn more about the culture of oral and written speech, as well as the genres characteristic of each of these forms of speech, from the special chapters of this textbook.

What distinguishes monologic communication from dialogic?

There are two types of oral speech according to the number of persons producing speech - monologue and dialogue. Accordingly, the types of communication that differ in the constant / variable communicative role of the speaker and you-listener are called monological and dialogic (N. I. Formanovskaya).

Dialogue (from the Greek dia - “through” and logos - “word”, “speech”) is a direct exchange of statements between two or more persons, a monologue (from the Greek monos - “one” and logos - “word”, “ speech") is the speech of one person, which does not involve the exchange of remarks with other persons. Sometimes polylogue is also distinguished as a conversation of several persons, but this is terminologically incorrect, since the need for this term is based on the false assumption that part of the word “dia” is translated as “two” and, therefore, a conversation of a larger number of participants in communication needs a special designation.

Monologue and dialogic communication as special types are distinguished because each of these varieties has its own characteristics. However, it is important to distinguish between dialogue as a property of any culture (that is, a constant orientation towards a partner, towards understanding, towards the “other”, for whom speech is created) and dialogue as a form of speech in which the speech roles of the speaker and listener change. Dialogue also includes a monologue, which most often involves a certain answer.

The response may be: 1) a verbal response with new content; 2) action (non-verbal); 3) retelling the content of the message to another, that is, to a “third party”; 4) default or lack of action (Yu. V. Rozhdestvensky). In addition, the answer can be written, delayed in time, etc. Thus, dialogue accumulates both types of communication - monologue and dialogic.

Dialogue as a form of speech best meets the desire of the communicants for dialogue, since dialogue involves special cooperation of communicants based on mutual interest (M. M. Bakhtin, L. P. Yakubinsky). M. M. Bakhtin believed that “dialogue in its simplicity and clarity is a classic form of verbal communication. Each remark, no matter how short and abrupt it may be, has a specific completeness, expressing a certain position of the speaker, which can be answered, in relation to which one can take a reciprocal position. This constantly renewed need to take a reciprocal position is, in many ways, the driving force behind the development of dialogue and communication in general. At the same time, the replicas of the participants in the dialogue are not a formal combination of the statements of each: they are closely related to each other in meaning. Often, replicas form inseparable pairs: question - answer, statement - objection, statement - agreement, offer - acceptance / non-acceptance of this proposal, etc.

This property of the dialogue explains why it is more characteristic of oral speech and why in the dialogue it is necessary to constantly monitor the interlocutor's thoughts.

Features of the dialogue determine the boundaries of its possibilities.

It is believed that dialogue is an older, natural form of speech. A monologue is a product of culture. What caused the need for a monologue in ancient times and what determines its cultural value today?

The reasons for the appearance of a monologue are probably due to the fact that it allows the speaker to be more independent than in a dialogue in choosing the content and form of his speech. A monologue is longer than a replica of a dialogue, so a monologue is usually more detailed than a replica. This allows the author of the speech to express more complex thoughts in the most appropriate form for this.

Monologue as a form of speech differs from dialogue primarily in that the listener or reader is not directly involved in the creation of speech. Their response (agreement, objection, this or that level of understanding, etc.) is only guessed (or predicted) by the speaker. Therefore, it is believed that a monologue speech is most often a public speech, that is, one that is addressed not to one or two, but to a large number of listeners. But it is not always the case.

The following characteristic features of monologue speech are usually distinguished:

1) continuity (the statement is not limited to one phrase, but is a superphrasal unity of a certain volume);

2) consistency, logic of speech;

3) relative semantic completeness;

4) communicative orientation of the statement;

5) thematic (development of one theme);

6) syntactic complexity, etc.

In other words, the monologue assumes that it is based on a text - a coherent, complete, thematically integral statement.

Thus, both dialogue and monologue have their own characteristics, which determine their capabilities and advantages in achieving certain goals.

What determines the choice of contact or distance communication?

These types of communication reflect the position of the communicants relative to each other in space and time, that is, the presence of direct contact (from Latin contactus - contact) between partners, or its absence and the existence of a spatial distance between them (from Latin distantia - distance).

In contact communication, interaction occurs simultaneously, partners are next to each other, as a rule, they see and hear each other, so contact communication is almost always oral. This makes it possible to communicate using not only verbal, but also non-verbal means. In contact communication, the situation allows partners to use in speech not descriptions, but indications of objects, actions and phenomena, as a result of which understanding is achieved much easier. For example, “We need to go over there”, “Please give me this thing”

or “Well, the weather is today!”. Outside of a specific situation, the meaning of these and similar remarks is not clear to us, and in contact communication, the curtailment of situationally determined elements of speech can reach a level at which it is possible to understand each other "with a half-word" or "without words".

Distant communication occurs when partners are separated by space and time. For example, reading a book assumes that the author is separated from the reader by both.

Sometimes the participants in a conversation are separated by one of these components of the situation:

for example, space (they are talking on the phone or having a dialogue on the Internet, etc.) or time (there is an exchange of notes in the audience). Always distant communication in letters, etc.

With distant communication, the share of non-verbal means of communication is significantly reduced, its liveliness and instantaneous response are lost. However, in situations in which direct contact is optional or undesirable, it is preferable.

In turn, communication at a distance involves the use of auxiliary means as information carriers or means that help maintain the channel of information transmission. In this regard, indirect-direct communication is distinguished by the presence / absence of any auxiliary "apparatus".

Indirect and direct varieties of communication are closely related to contact and distant, since, as a rule, contact communication that does not require additional means for its implementation is direct communication. And communication at a distance or when some time passes between the "replicas" of partners requires "intermediaries", that is, it is mediated. The means that provide the possibility of distant communication include: telephone, letter, book, newspaper, tape recorder, video, radio, television, computer, etc. All of them can help in the transmission and reception of information.

Each of these types of communication has its own purpose and its own “niche” in communication.

What is the difference between interpersonal, public and mass communication?

These types of communication are distinguished depending on how many partners take part in communication.

If two people take part in communication (the formula “one + one”), then this communication is interpersonal. At the same time, the degree of closeness in the relationship between these partners can vary significantly, therefore, within it, personal communication is distinguished as communication at a greater “internal” distance (official or semi-official) and personal communication, indicating friendly, closer relationships. This subspecies of communication is characterized mainly by dialogue. Personal communication is more often direct contact, in which a significant proportion of information comes through non-verbal means. It differs in that the phatic side of communication is necessarily present in it (often it even prevails even when it occurs remotely and indirectly, for example, personal letters or video messages). Personal communication usually gravitates toward communication, that is, the informational side of interaction comes to the fore in it, and the phatic side is not present at all or is weakly expressed.

If several people take part in communication (the formula “one + a few”), then its features depend on how many people interact in total and what is the situation of communication as a whole. It can be 3-4 people of friends in an informal setting - then their communication is close to interpersonal (with a small number of people communicating, their interaction is called group), or maybe 20-50 people, in which case it becomes unconditionally public even in an informal environment. Group communication is characterized by the fact that a dialogue is still possible in it (if not between everyone, then with many), but in such communication a leader is already needed who will regulate this communication - encourage some to speak, interrupt others, etc. this happens, for example, at the table, where the host or toastmaster manages the communication.

Public communication (classroom, meeting, etc.) usually takes the form of a monologue. It always requires structuring, because people in such cases come together to achieve some important goal. Without a structural organization of communication, this goal is unlikely to be achieved. In public communication, a different, higher degree of responsibility for speech arises, and one of the main requirements for it becomes purposefulness and content. In this case, the level of requirements for the design of speech, for the observance of ethical and communicative norms in it, for its correctness and aesthetics, also increases.

Responsibility for speech and its consequences increases even more when mass communication is realized. It is believed that mass communication occurs when the audience exceeds 100 people (formula "one + many"). It can also be in oral speech - a speech at a representative rally, congress, with a concert at a stadium, etc., but most often this kind of communication is characteristic of newspapers, television, etc. More precisely, this is usually no longer communication, but communication . Therefore, the corresponding means are called mass media. In mass communication, the addressee loses its concrete outlines - it, as a rule, exists in the imagination of the speaker in a generalized form. Accordingly, a mass audience requires not only an accurate selection of speech means, but also necessarily technical means: microphones (megaphones) to amplify the sound of a voice, television cameras and television screens to transmit (or enlarge) images, etc.

But no matter how many people participate in communication, their interaction depends on the degree of officiality of this communication. Usually they talk about two extremes - about official and unofficial communication, but there are many transitional forms between them.

What distinguishes formal communication from informal communication?

According to the nature of the relationship between the communicants and the atmosphere of communication, private (informal) and official communication are distinguished.

Official (official) communication is interaction in a strict business environment, therefore, in compliance with all rules and formalities. Private communication is a relationship that is not limited by the strict framework of a business situation and official speech roles.

The distinction between these types of communication is due to the presence of certain areas of communication, social roles and relationships between communication partners.

Official communication takes place in the sphere of production and business relations, that is, where it is possible for a person to perform one or another official role (boss, subordinate, colleague, representative of authority, etc.). In this case, a person acts not as a separate person, but as a representative of some organization, group, etc. Accordingly, his communication in general and speech in particular are built - an official (a person "on duty") must strictly observe his role, be as predictable and understandable as possible in the performance of this role. Therefore, communication in official situations approaches the “object-object” and is, rather, communication. And the speech of an official (oral and written), in accordance with this, is built according to a template, which in official communication is designed to ensure the adequacy of understanding in typical situations. This applies both to genres that are built according to a rigid scheme (for example, a statement, summary, explanatory note, memorandum, report, etc.), and turns of speech.

Informal, that is, private, communication flows more freely and obeys only the general laws of speech interaction.

What is the difference between free and stereotyped communication?

The stereotypical form of communication is used primarily when it comes to observing established rituals, that is, about typical behavior in typical situations. These can be both formal situations (the beginning and end of a meeting, greeting guests, etc.) and informal, everyday situations (situations at a doctor's appointment, at a store counter, etc.). Usually, in such cases, recommendations of speech etiquette act as a guide to verbal and non-verbal action. It includes certain rules of conduct and ready-made verbal expressions (formulas of greetings, apologies, requests, condolences, congratulations, etc.), as well as response speech clichés for speech behavior corresponding to each typical situation in the main areas of communication.

In other situations, communication is more free and involves creativity both in building relationships and in verbal design.

3. HOW TO ACHIEVE OPTIMAL COMMUNICATION

What is the role of typical scenarios in speech behavior?

Speech is both a form of individual behavior and a form of human culture. This is the very contradiction that is common to any form of culture and ensures its development. Therefore, stereotypes and the manifestation of the originality and individuality of the author are necessarily combined and intertwined in speech.

Stereotypes are an integral element of everyday consciousness.

A stereotype accumulates a certain standardized collective experience that helps an individual to navigate in various situations of communication and respond to them adequately to the expectations of other participants in communication. The attachment of certain speech manifestations to certain communicative behavior allows you to create one or another image for all participants in communication. The stereotypical construction and speech constructions are characteristic of every genre and style, but especially the official business one. But if a person builds his speech behavior only stereotypically, he thereby levels himself as an individual, does not model communication in accordance with his goals, and does not manifest himself as a creative person.

Speech in situations of extended communication (not ritual) must necessarily include a creative component. This is the dignity of communication - for the sake of creativity, in order to create something new together, people enter into communication. But when in the process of communication we encounter speech creation, then the problem of mutual understanding arises, which is complicated by the fact that our speech is full of “echoes of previous statements” (M. M. Bakhtin), not all of which can be known and adequately understood by our addressee, in as a result, the problem arises both of understanding our speech in itself, and of understanding our speech in a context (given or more general) and its interpretation.

The situation is even more difficult with the understanding of highly emotional speech, the main purpose of which is the expression of these emotions. This speech is often incoherent, and its author himself often does not know what he is leading to, what he wants to say, what way out of the situation he prefers. Therefore, communication should be regulated in order to maintain the necessary balance between the stereotypical, common to all, side of speech and the manifestation of individuality, the creative component in it. This is served by the typical "scenarios" of behavior developed in each culture, within which the realization of the personality is carried out with a greater or lesser degree of creativity, and knowledge of various scenarios, "recognition" of them in the process of communication and following them or imposing one's own script largely determines the ability communicate.

What are the barriers to communication?

The ability to communicate also depends on how a person is able to overcome the barriers of communication. Barriers are barriers that prevent communication. Sometimes they need to be overcome, sometimes - to take into account and go past them. Communication barriers can be conditionally divided into internal and external.

Internal barriers that may arise in one of the participants in communication or in several are feelings, thoughts or states in which communication becomes difficult. For example, if a person is absorbed in something else (business, thoughts, excitement), then it can be very difficult for him to adjust to communication on a different topic. A barrier of this kind can be fatigue or poor health, fear of communication in general or with a given partner, etc. But there are internal ethical barriers when “primitive interpersonal reactions,” as A. B. Dobrovich described them, prevent full communication. First of all, these are ambitions, complacency, envy, gloating, aggression, indifference.

Barriers to communication of the external plan are, rather, communicative in nature. These can be obstacles associated with the lack of contact itself (visual or auditory, or both), lack of attention (all this can be attributed to the conditions of communication), etc. Barriers can also be caused by the nature of communication: its monotony, monotony, lack of information, lack of content or not satisfying in terms of content due to incompetence, lies, lack of necessary knowledge of both the speaker (writer) and the listener (reader).

Communication barriers can also be caused by speech reasons proper: ignorance or insufficient knowledge of the language, illogicality or inaccuracy of speech, its poverty, etc.

The existence of these and other barriers in a given communication situation makes speech inaccessible and / or inappropriate.

Thus, in order to optimize and regulate communication, and sometimes even for its implementation, such norms are necessary, the observance of which would help to overcome all communication barriers.

At what levels can communication take place?

These norms will depend on the levels of communication, since interaction at different levels can differ significantly both in purpose and in nature. There are various classifications of communication levels. We are based on the classification of V. P. Tretyakov and Yu. S. Krizhanskaya, who distinguish three levels of communication: ritual, manipulative and friendly.

1. The ritual level of communication is the level of communication that implements the “object-object” relationship, when individuality is not manifested by communicants, and contact is made at the level of the process of “accepting and playing roles”, or at the level of interaction of “masks”. A mask is a set of signs (verbal and non-verbal), the supply of which ensures “smooth” and safe interaction in a human group (R. Jacobson). The ritual level of communication is almost entirely regulated by speech etiquette.

The meaning of ritual communication is that we need at least a minimum of information that we are “seen” and recognized, and not ignored. And even better - we are approved by their benevolence. In this regard, the theory of "social strokes" by Eric Berne is interesting and productive, based on the fact that each person in the process of communication needs positive incentives. And elementary courtesy can be seen as an exchange of "strokes" - a greeting in response to a greeting, etc.

The ritual level of communication serves to confirm that the participants in communication are members of some social group. This is the level of formal phatic communication.

2. Manipulative level of communication. (Manipulation - from lat.

manipulus - manual technique, action - a series of actions with hands, performed with a specific goal.) The manipulative level of communication involves interaction based on "subject-object" relations: one partner considers the other as a means or an obstacle in relation to achieving his goal. They talk about the manipulative level when the main thing for communicators is to achieve the effectiveness of speech at any cost. This reveals another shade of the meaning of the word manipulation: "fraud, deceit." Very often, the partner feels like a rival in the game. The purpose of such communication is a gain, if not material, then psychological.

The general principle of manipulative communication lies in the hidden influence on the interlocutor, in ignoring his will. In speech manipulation there is always a moment of inequality, disrespect for a person, for his personality, therefore the main part of conflict relations refers to this level of communication. Conflict manipulation is a speech act, the purpose of which is to feel superior to the interlocutor by demonstrating to him his imperfection, inferiority. Or, in other words, to self-affirmation at the expense of a partner. Such a speech action is close to the phenomenon of indirect aggression. But manipulation is different in that it is always accompanied by a hidden motivation for some action (K. F. Sedov).

At this level, communication is intertwined with management-execution relationships. Therefore, the main problems with understanding the explicit and hidden speech intentions of communicants are associated with this level.

The level of manipulative communication is heterogeneous. This idea is given by other classifications of communication levels, which, in fact, contain more detailed characteristics of such an understanding of manipulative communication. For example, A. B. Dobrovich distinguishes the following levels of communication: primitive, manipulative, standardized, conventional, playful, business and spiritual. The primitive and spiritual levels correspond to the ritual and friendly levels, while the rest reflect various situations of communication, in which the informational component predominates. The phatic component of communication at this level serves as one of the means to achieve the main goal.

3. Friendly level of communication. This level is characterized by the interaction of subjects with a large share of phatic communication, since the main thing in such communication is understanding and acceptance of a person as a person. The friendly level is the level at which you can not care about the "technique of speech production", that is, there is a deep understanding of speech: not at the level of individual words, but understanding at the level of the whole person. It was about such communication that A. Saint-Exupery spoke of as “the luxury of human communication”, since it is dominated by spiritual and, consequently, creative communication.

It is the spiritual aspect of verbal communication that makes it a necessary component of culture, since communication in its essence is a way of existence of culture, and not just a means of fixing transmitted information, storing it and broadcasting it from generation to generation. At the same time, it is assumed that the spiritual orientation of communication already implies the ethically impeccable goals of the communicants.

In order to communicate at this level, you must first of all be attentive to your partners, develop the ability to communicate.

In fact, all levels of communication reflect the idea of how communication is built - how a partner is perceived: as a subject, that is, as a person, as an equal, having the right to his point of view, to speech, to participate in the development of a joint decision, etc. ., or as an object deprived of these rights and forced to act only in accordance with the role assigned to it by the addresser (M. M. Bakhtin).

What promotes optimal communication?

At all levels of communication, the ability to communicate is determined by three main components:

Skills related to the perception and understanding of another person and, at the same time, the ability to present oneself, express oneself;

The ability to bring together points of view - one's own and the interlocutor;

The ability to manage communication (according to S. B. Elkanov).

Based on the foregoing, we will give a definition of optimal communication.

Optimal communication is such an interaction that creates the best conditions for the development and implementation of non-contradictory communicative goals of all communication partners, for creating a favorable emotional climate due to overcoming various kinds of barriers, and also for maximizing the disclosure of everyone's personality.

How to achieve optimal communication?

1. Improve your own culture, strive to be a highly cultured person. And this means - to combine external and internal culture. External culture is manifested in the fact that a person acts according to all the rules only when he is in sight or when this act of his becomes known to people in front of whom he plays the role of a cultured person. The internal culture consists in the fact that a person always acts as required by the moral laws of this society.

A cultured person is a person who consciously goes to some restrictions related to the observance of norms accepted in society.

2. Learn to constantly think about the interlocutor in the process of communication: monitor whether they understand you; strive to anticipate the response of the interlocutor; constantly recreate his internal psychological situation according to external signs; take care not to create barriers in communication.

For this, humanity has developed communication norms and speech norms, which help to make communication optimal.

Norms are tools for achieving optimal communication.

The goals of harmonious and effective communication (and this is optimal communication) have a leading influence on the formation of the very types of communication norms (ethical, communicative and speech).

Norms are mechanisms that help coordinate all aspects of communication: cognitive (how you see other people and how you understand them), affective (how you treat them) and behavioral (how you act in specific situations) (T. G. Vinokur). At the same time, it is important to consider that the norm is how it should be. But the norm is also something in between, therefore the norm is the minimum on the basis of which (but not vice versa) you can show your individuality.

There are three types of norms - ethical, communicative and linguistic. These are different types of standards.

Ethical norms relate primarily to the motives of speech, to the field of communication culture - this is goodwill, acceptance of communication partners, compliance with all the laws of morality. These norms can be conditionally attributed to the norms of the strategic level - relations with the world in general and a particular person in particular.

Communicative norms accompany the entire situation of communication in all its phases. These are the norms associated with ensuring the process of communication and its regulation in order to achieve the goals of communication. These are norms that combine strategic and tactical elements, since the choice of a communication situation, partners, the subject of speech can be attributed to the field of strategy, and the specific implementation of the speech plan and regulation of communication can be attributed to tactics.

Speech norms are the means of implementing both ethical and communicative norms.

One of the components of the culture of communication is the culture of speech.

Wherein:

The culture of communication requires not only compliance with the norms and rules of the culture of speech (verbal and non-verbal), but also knowledge of the situations of communication in the broadest sense and speech etiquette (customs, rituals, etc.);

The culture of speech takes into account and shows the culture of the individual and the culture of relationships between people;

The culture of speech may imply such a pragmatic effect, which will be embodied in a non-speech form of a culture of communication;

The culture of communication assumes that the communicants can use not only the literary language, within which the culture of speech is limited, but also other varieties of the language that are outside the literary one.

So, the very essence of culture requires a person to speak, and from a cultured person - fluency in speech, that is, knowledge of linguistic and non-linguistic means that ensure optimal communication, the ability to vary them and choose from them the most effective in accordance with all the components of the communication situation.

Chapter 2

1. WHAT IS SPEECH ACTIVITY

What is speech activity?

A person is engaged in various activities, mastering them in order to live and work, acquire knowledge and master skills, the need for which is determined by the nature of the social role chosen by one or another member of society in the process of solving vital tasks.

Human activity is different in its goals, objectives, content, methods of obtaining results, etc. Thus, it is quite obvious that, say, the nature of the activity of a weaver differs in many respects from the nature of the activity of a journalist, teacher, preacher, administrator, etc.

And these differences are due, among other factors, primarily to the fact that the activities of a journalist, teacher, preacher, administrator are directly related to a person’s ability to communicate, with the ability to achieve their goal with the help of speech actions that are purposeful.

In other words, the activities of a weaver and a journalist can be contrasted on the basis of non-communicativeness-communicativeness, which, of course, is a largely arbitrary opposition.

In real practice, communicative and non-communicative human activity proceeds in unity, since it is difficult to imagine the process of activity without verbal communication between people involved in this activity. However, the degree and significance of the communicative side (its communicativeness) largely determines its character as a whole.

Thus, the ability of a person to communicate, mastering the communicative side of activity is a necessary condition for its effectiveness, efficiency and success.

Khisamutdinov A.A. Russians in America: Problems of Adaptation 9 UDC 94 Khisamutdinov A.A. Russians in America: problems of adaptation1 The Russians in America: problems of Information regarding national legislation in the field of requirements for grain quality and safety, as well as quarantine provisions L.P. SOLOMATINA, A.N. FURIOUS MACHINES FOR HARVESTING AGRICULTURAL CROPS KRASNODAR -2009 Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation Federal state education...» impact on scientific argumentation, contributing to the design and development of a specific style of scientific thinking. Scientific terms not only reflect the peculiarities of...” Scientific journal of KubSAU, No. 97 (03), 2014 1 Gumilyov, Astana The scientific leader ... "by its nature is an ideological, value construct, composed of a limit ... "of students in the spirit of these traditions Comprehension of the ideals of good and b ... "

The manual outlines the main issues of the program of the course "Speech therapy" on the topic "Rhinolalia" (disorder of articulation of sounds and phonation)

The book provides a methodology for speech therapy work in the preoperative and postoperative period to educate correct speech

The manual is designed for students of defectological faculties of pedagogical universities and speech therapists of special institutions

FROM THE EDITOR

This textbook is intended for students of defectological faculties of pedagogical institutes. It deals with the study and correction of speech disorders in children with rhinolalia.

The manual was based on the materials of articles and manuscripts of the prominent Soviet speech therapist A. G. Ippolitova, one of the first who devoted herself to working with this speech disorder. The effectiveness of the methodology outlined in the manual was proved by her in practical work with a large number of children.

The manual consists of six chapters and an appendix. It outlines the main issues of the program on the topic "Rhinolalia". However, the main attention is paid to the description of one of the most common and insurmountable forms - open rhinolalia (although it does not exhaust the variety of rhinolalia). It is this form of violation in speech therapy practice that is the most difficult (see Chapter 2 "History of the study of rhinolalia").

The materials of Chapter 4 (§ 1, 2, 3) show how congenital clefts affect the physical and speech development of the child, it also describes the features of speech with rhinolalia, provides data on the psychological characteristics of children, i.e. gives an idea of the formation of speech activity in these children. The chapter ends with § 4, which discusses the possibilities of correcting a defect in rhinolalia.

The conclusions formulated in Chapter 4 determine the direction of the psychological, pedagogical and speech therapy impact on the formation of speech and personality of a patient with rhinolalia.

Methods of teaching rhetoric Ippolitov read online. From the Editor

N. A. Ippolitova Pedagogical rhetoric in questions and answers

Foreword

Section I Pedagogical communication

Chapter 1 The specifics of pedagogical communication

Chapter 2 Types of communication: professional conditionality characteristics

n1.doc

"PROSPECT RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH Course of lectures PROSPECT" Moscow UDC 811.161.1:808.5 (075.8) BBC 81.2Rus-923 I76 Ippolitova N. A., Knyazeva O. KH, ... "

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

AND CULTURE OF SPEECH

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

AND CULTURE OF SPEECH

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH

FROM THE EDITOR

N. A. Ippolitova
Pedagogical rhetoric in questions and answers

Section I
Pedagogical communication

Chapter 1
The specifics of pedagogical communication

Chapter 2
Types of communication: professional conditionality characteristics