Semantic dictionary of Russian nouns. Russian semantic dictionary
Semantic Dictionary of the Russian Language- Dictionary compiled by Prof. V. A. Tuzov from St. Petersburg State University to solve the problem of semantic analysis of texts in Russian. The essence of the solution lies in the fact that the semantic analyzer, using morphological and semantic dictionaries, removes the shell of the Russian language from the source text and builds an equivalent text in the semantic language. The book describes the semantic language, the semantic dictionary of the Russian language and provides an algorithm for semantic analysis.
Availability
Tuzov's dictionary can be downloaded from the website of the St. Petersburg Institute of Economics and Mathematics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. As of 2007, the dictionary contained 164,000 words distributed over 1,638 classes. Unfortunately, licensing restrictions do not allow you to publish the work on NLPub in the clear. For a complete dictionary and classifier from December 2012, you can contact the representatives.
Structure
Vocabulary basic concepts Russian language contains words that cannot be expressed through other more simple concepts. It contains about 18,000 nouns naming physical and abstract objects, more than a thousand basic adjectives, and about a thousand basic verbs, which were eventually replaced by verbal nouns. The remaining words - more than 90,000 words - are derivatives, that is, their meaning is expressed as a superposition built from basic functions and basic concepts. The whole set of concepts is divided into a hierarchical system of classes.
The dictionary entry of the computer semantic dictionary contains the heading word and its interpretation in the semantic language. Many words - and these are usually frequently used words - contain more than one interpretation. The most ambiguous prepositions, the description of some of them contains more than a hundred alternatives.
Example
A typical dictionary entry is shown in the article "On the Benefits of Randomness" published in Computerra magazine.
The word "address" in the explanatory dictionary of S. I. Ozhegov is defined as sending to some address, although for analysis it is desirable, of course, to define it more precisely, namely, to perform the action of moving something somewhere using someone's address; the formula of this statement in the developed semantic language will look like:
N%~ADDRESS$12/0171(PerfCaus(Uzor (!Name,ADDRESS$12/0171(!Date),#), Mov(!Vin, !From, !Through,!Date\!kDat\!To)))
In this formula, the word "address" is written:
- the word is included in the semantic cluster "address" (ADDRESS$12/0171);
- its interpretation: perform an action (PerfCaus) using (Uzor) address (ADDRESS$12/0171) to move (Mov) something (!Vin) somewhere (!Dat\!kDat\!Where);
- the word can be in relationship with nouns in the nominative (!Im) as the agent, dative (!Dat) as the owner of the address (ADDRESS$12/0171(!Date)) argument Mov) and indications of the place in different forms, including in the complex-derivative (!From).
SEMANTICS, -i, f. 1. The same as semasiology. 2. In linguistics: meaning, meaning ( language unit). S. words. C. suggestions. || adj. semantic, th, th.
Watch value SEMANTICS in other dictionaries
Semantics- semantics, pl. no, w. (from Greek semantikos - denoting) (lingu.). 1. The same as semasiology. 2. Meaning (words, turns of speech, etc.).
Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
Semantics J.- 1. Meaning, meaning of a language unit (morphemes, words, phrases, etc.). 2. A section of linguistics that studies the semantic side of the language. 3. A branch of semiotics that studies sign ........
Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova
Semantics- -and; well. [from Greek. sēmantikos - denoting] Lingu.
1. Meaning, meaning (words, turns of speech, grammatical form). C. the word "creation" is connected with the verb to create.
2. = Semasiology.........
Explanatory Dictionary of Kuznetsov
Semantics- - the study of the way words are used and the meanings they convey.
Economic dictionary
Boolean Semantics- a theory that studies the interpretation of logarithmic calculus: the relationship between the language of calculus and the reality it describes - a model of the theory, conditions of existence ........
Semantics- (from Greek semantikos - denoting) -1) the meaning of language units. 2) The same as semasiology, a section of linguistics that studies the meaning of language units, primarily words. 3) One of the main sections of semiotics.
Big encyclopedic dictionary
Constructive Semantics- - a set of ways of understanding judgments in constructive mathematics. The need for special semantics is caused by the difference general principles underlying the traditional ........
Mathematical Encyclopedia
Semantics- in mathematical logic - the study of interpretations of the logical calculus, formal axiomatic. theories; study of the meaning and meaning of formalized constructions ........
Mathematical Encyclopedia
General Semantics- - a method developed by Alfred Kortsibsky (1933), with the aim of overcoming the Aristotelian binary system of thinking (the object exists or does not exist = the third fundamentally ........
Psychological Encyclopedia
Generative Semantics— See semantics generating.
Psychological Encyclopedia
Semantics- (from the Greek semantikos - denoting). There are several types of C.1. Linguistic S. - a branch of linguistics that studies the lexical meanings of words and expressions, changes in their meanings ........
Psychological Encyclopedia
Semantics, Generative— An approach to language learning that focuses on the development of a grammar that generates the basic meanings of sentences and transforms the meanings into real sentences.
Psychological Encyclopedia
Semantics- (from the Greek. semantikos - denoting, sign) - English. semantics; German semantics. 1. Section of linguistics and logic, exploring problems related to meaning, meaning and interpretation ........
sociological dictionary
Cultural Semantics- - specific. problem area of the science of culture, dealing with the study cultural objects with t.sp. the meaning they express. cultural objects any kind....
Philosophical Dictionary
Boolean Semantics- - a department of logic that studies the meaning of language expressions; in a more precise sense, a branch of metalogics. studying interpretations (Interpretation and model) of logical calculus ........
Philosophical Dictionary
The semantic relation is considered to be the fundamental semantic concept in the apparatus we use. A semantic relation is a kind of universal connection seen by a native speaker in a text. This connection is binary, i.e. it goes from one semantic node to another node.
The format of a semantic relation is as follows:
R(А,B), where R is the name of the semantic relation, А is the dependent member of the relation, B is the controlling member of the relation.
For particular A,B and relation R, the direction is chosen such that the formula R(A,B) is equivalent to saying "A is R for B". Accordingly, the formula R(B,A) must be equivalent to the statement "B is R for A". For example, for the phrase Tolstoy's novel the formula AUTHOR(Tolstoy, novel) will be built, and not vice versa, because the statement "Tolstoy is the AUTHOR of the novel" is true, and not vice versa. As a result, in the formula R(A, B) we will sometimes identify R with A.
The semantic relation forms and organizes the text. As conceived by the creators of this set of semantic relations, almost any connection between parts of the text that needs to be revealed during machine analysis of the text can be expressed by some semantic relation or their composition, for example, in the phrase The explosion happened at 2 am the semantic relationship between the situation " explosion" and parameter " two o'clock in the morning" which is called TIME. This is written as follows: TIME(" at two in the morning""explosion").
Among the semantic relations, there are quite a lot of those that are now universally considered universal. The semantic relations used in the DIALING system will be listed below:
| Name | Examples | Structure |
|---|---|---|
| AUTHOR | Roman Tolstoy Decree of the President |
AUTHOR(TOLSTOY, ROMAN) AUTHOR(PRESIDENT, ORDER) |
| AGENT | We have closed the gap | AGENT(WE, CUT) |
| ADR | I gave the chair to my father | ADR(FATHER, GIVE) |
| V-NAPR | pointer to Monino | V-NAPR(MONINO, INDEX) |
| TIME | It happened yesterday | TIME(YESTERDAY, HAPPEN) |
| VALUE | The height of the house is 20 meters | VALUE(20 METERS, HEIGHT) |
| IDENT | House N 20 | IDENT(N 20, HOUSE) |
| NAME | Janitor Stepanov | NAME(STEPANOV, JANITOR) |
| INSTR | cut with a knife | INSTR(KNIFE,CUT) |
| ISH-T | apples from Moldova | ISH-T(MOLDOVA, APPLES) |
| K-AGENT | bought from a junk dealer | K-AGENT(JACK MAN, BUY) |
| QUANTITY | two apples | QUANTITY(TWO, APPLE) |
| CON-T | to go to Moscow | CON-T(MOSCOW, LEAVING) |
| LOC | live in the wilderness | LOC(BACKGROUND, LIVE) |
| SCALE | Bank of Russia | SCALE(RUSSIA, BANK) |
| MATER | leather bag | MATER(LEATHER,BAG) |
| NAZN | book for children | NAZN(CHILDREN, BOOK) |
| ABOUT | destroy the bridge | ABOUT(BRIDGE,DESTROY) |
| OGRN | classify by age | OGRN(AGE, SELECTION) |
| GRADE | treat well | GRADE(GOOD, RELATED) |
| PARAM | house height | PARAM(HEIGHT, HOUSE) |
| PATIENT | arrest of a criminal | PATIENT(CRIMINAL, ARREST) |
| IN THE MIDDLE | finish the report with an anecdote | MID( JOKE, FINISH) |
| PRIZN | beautiful ball | PRIZN(BEAUTIFUL, BALL) |
| OWNED | father's house | OWNED(HOUSE, FATHER,) |
| PRICH | trees felled by the hurricane | PRICH(HURRICANE, TOWEL UP) |
| RESLT | bake a pie | RESLT(CAKE, BAKE) |
| CONTENTS | talk about spring | CONTENTS(SPRING, TELL) |
| WAY | go barefoot | WAY(BAREFOOT, GO) |
| MEANS | whitewash | MEANS(WHITE, DYE) |
| DEGREE | do well | DEGREE( TOTALLY SUCCESS ) |
| SUB | father's love | SUB( FATHER, LOVE) |
| SUBJECT | talk about Moscow | SUBJECT(MOSCOW, SPEAK) |
| GOAL | strike for higher wages | GOAL ( PROMOTION, STRIKE) |
| PART | chair leg | PART(LEG, CHAIR) |
As already mentioned, many of the above relationships can be found in other linguistic theories. To confirm the last statement, we will analyze examples of the use of semantic roles in one article by Paducheva.
| Paducheva | Example | FRAP-POLYTEXT-DIALING |
|---|---|---|
| Agents | Ivan has arrived | AGENT (Ivan, go) |
| Final destination | came to Warsaw | CON-T(Warsaw, come) |
| Destination | tell your father | ADR(father, say) |
| Degree | fill completely | DEGREE(full, fill) |
| Direction of travel | go right | V-NAPR (right, go) |
| starting point | come from Moscow | ISH-T(Moscow, come) |
| Patient | eat an apple | PATIENT (apple, eat) |
| Place | jar swarmed | LOK (bank, swarm) |
| Content | he likes reading | CONTENT(read, like) |
| Posessor | Ivan's beard | ATTACHED(beard, Peter) |
| Tool | open with a key | INSTR(key, open) |
| Result | cut into pieces | REZLT (pieces, cut) |
Here is another list of semantic relations from Apresyan's book:
| Apresyan | Example | FRAP-POLYTEXT-DIALING |
|---|---|---|
| Sub(subject) | the train is moving | SUB (Train, move) |
| Contrag (contractor) | buy from junk | K-AGENT (junk dealer, buy) |
| cap (chapter) | guilt before the team | |
| obj (object) | stroke the hand, shoot the target | OB(hand, stroke) CON-T (target, shoot) |
| Content (content) | know about the departure | CONTENT(departure, know) |
| Adr (destination) | inform the president | ADR (president, report) |
| Recipe (recipient) | give to children, give to people | ADR (children, give) ADR (people, donate) |
| Via (intermediary) | pass through the secretary | INTERMEDIATE (secretary, pass) |
| Is (source) | take at the box office | ISH-T (cash desk, take) |
| Loc (place) | be in the forest | LOK (forest, to be) |
| Ab (starting point) | bring out of the forest | ISH-T(forest, withdraw) |
| ad (endpoint) | drive to town | CON-T (city, carry) |
| Itin (route) | to go on the road | |
| Med (remedy) | nail | MEANS (nails, nail) |
| instr (instrument) | cut with a knife | INSTR (knife, cut) |
| mod(method) | treat badly | ASPECT (badly, handle) |
| cond (condition) | if P then Q | CONVENTION (P,Q) |
| Motiv (motivation) | reward for bravery | PRICH (courage, reward) |
| cause (cause) | rejoice in a gift, flow due to Q | PRICH (gift, rejoice) AND(Q, result) |
| result (result) | turn into water | RESLT(water, transform) |
| Dest (target) | strive for the common good | PURPOSE (good, strive) |
| Asp (aspect) | surpass in quality | OGRN (quality, excel) |
| Quant (quantity) | five people | NUMBER(five, person) |
| Period (term) | vacation for two months | TIME (for two months, vacation) |
| Temp (time) | start at midnight | TIME (midnight, start) |
All the examples given in Paducheva's article and Apresyan's book do not contradict either the examples we have given above or our understanding of semantic valences. This is a fairly weighty argument in favor of the universality of the list of semantic relations that we use.
Despite being generally recognized, the set of semantic relations under consideration has one drawback: some relations are similar to others, but it is rather difficult to show their similarity and difference. Some, for example, may be said to be varieties of others, namely:
- AGENT, AUTHOR - varieties of SUB;
- CON-T, ISH-T - varieties of LOK.
Other correlations between semantic relations will be discussed in the "Hierarchy of Semantic Relations" section.
In the FRAP-POLYTEXT-DIALING system, in addition to the semantically filled relations listed above, there are two more auxiliary relations P_ACT and V_ACT (the first and second actants), which are used to describe the valence structures of relation words (see below "General categorization of vocabulary"). For example, the word part(which denotes the relation PART) valences P_ACT and V_ACT will be assigned, which should disappear at the stage of semantic analysis. For example, for the phrase Moscow is part of Russia first it will be built: P_ACT(Moscow, part), V_ACT(Russia, part), which will then go into the formula PART(Moscow, Russia).
The main semantic classes of the lexeme are ETC.OB, ETC.SIT, ETC, OTN, OPERATOR.
The fundamental division between ETK.OB and ETK.SIT is that the lexemes ETK.OB usually play the role of participants in the situation, which denote words of the category ETK.SIT. For example, in a situation sharpen ( ETK.SIT) may be involved object file(ETK.OB) and object worker( ETC . ABOUT) .
For situations, place and time are defined, which in the text means that the words ETK.SIT can freely take on the circumstances of place and time. For example, the phrase Worker sharpening a detail with a file maybe thrive before the phrase Yesterday in the shop a worker was sharpening a part with a file. However, in a sentence in which more than one word ETK.SIT occurs, ambiguity often arises when it is not clear which situation the circumstance of place or time specifies (see below).
The division of vocabulary into categories can be used in most different situations, for example, to assemble homogeneous noun phrases. According to our calculations, in 90 percent of homogeneous noun phrases, members of a homogeneous series have the same category. That is, for a scientific and technical text, cases of a homogeneous series of the type Volodya and the revolution(ETK.OB and ETK.SIT) are marginal.
| Semantic characteristics |
Semantic characteristics (SH) in the ROSS dictionary play an important role in the semantic description of words. There are about 40 semantic characteristics in the ROSS dictionary. Formulas are built from CX (with logical connectives and, or). Each word is assigned a certain formula made up of CX.
Also, for each word, the valence structure is fixed
When the algorithm attempts to assemble the valence structure of a word, the criterion for establishing a link is the correspondence between the values of the CX and GC fields assigned to the actant and the values of the CXi and GCi fields assigned to the main word. Thus, the valence structure of the word is assembled.
Although CX were originally introduced as simple selective constraints, rejecting some of the links made by parsing, now a certain value is assigned to each of them. Below we give a list of the main SH. For each CX, we will give examples of words containing it in their meaning, as well as examples of words for which one of the CXi contains this semantic characteristic. For example, for CX ART (artifact), words like model, monument, which are actually artifacts, and an example produce cars, where is the second actant of the verb release may be an artifact.
| CX | Comment | Examples of words with such CX | Examples of words with such СХi |
|---|---|---|---|
| ABSTRA | Any abstract noun or adjective | model, plan, trend, circumstance |
implement technology; use plan |
| ART | Artifact. Everything made by man. | machine, bread, monument | produce cars; legal requirement |
| VELICH | Adjectives formed from parametric nouns and from nouns denoting a value on a parametric scale | tall, powerful large |
--- |
| THINGS | Any name for a chemical or something that can be dosed, measured, sold by weight or volume in some way. | ammonia, gasoline, pesticide | sodium weight; concrete house; oilfield |
| POWER | Highest state and military positions and institutions. Any positions related to the direct management of people. | general, president, leader | minister appointed; The Duma ratified; director's secretary |
| VVESTL | Anything that is meant to contain something else. | bag, safe, garage | -- |
| PLAYBACK | all verbs and nouns of perception | listen, see, feel | -- |
| HARM | Everything that a person usually regards as undesirable. | catastrophe, war, overload | eliminate the deficiency |
| GEOGR | Any geographic feature | island, river | River shore run into the sea stand on the hill |
| GOS | Any state name or type of state | republic, Russia | Communist Party of Russia Parliament of Ukraine US politics representative of South Africa |
| MOVEMENT | Verbs of motion (including decausatives) | go, drop | -- |
| MUST | Position, profession, social status | cook, worker | -- |
| D-Device | Device detail | carburetor, roller | -- |
| ISM | Change Actions | build up, reform, build up | -- |
| INTEL | all actions directly related to mental activity | hope, study, decide | -- |
| INTERVL | Time interval | day, week | extend by two days; budget for 2000 |
| INF | Words for information | knowledge, command, statement, news | -- |
| COMMUNIC | Verbs of speech | express, speak, report | -- |
| NOSINF | Information carriers. You can read it and then burn it. | book, newspaper, note | book title posting a note to write an article |
| N-REB | Requirements set. (a kind of NOSINF) | law, instruction | defy the law follow instructions revoke a decree |
| CLOTHES | Field of activity | physics, ballet, life | Minister of Culture |
| ODUS | Semantically animated object | dad, president | father tells Ivan's love |
| org | Any organization | collective farm, school | bank asset institute director bank bonds |
| PREM | Any object (an object that is smaller than the average person). Often it is ART. Unlike DEVICE, it is simple. | brand, binoculars | -- |
| STRENGTH | Extended geographic features | road, border | The river flows into the sea |
| SOBIR | anything that denotes a set of objects of the same type | library, youth | -- |
| SOC | Any situation outside of the same family | rally, corruption, olympiad | -- |
| DEVICE | Any device | computer, elevator | fix a computer dismantle the elevator |
| FIN | Everything related to finance | money, bank, debt | sell for rubles index pension |
| CHORUS | Everything that is evaluated as positive | mutual help, courage | -- |
| EMOC | Usually adjectives that express emotions | miserable, mighty, unfortunate | -- |
| SHOWN | A situation for which it is difficult to find a reason | tornado, terrorism | -- |
Some of the listed characteristics obviously cannot be used on their own. For example, the characteristic SOBIR, which denotes multiplicity, should only be used with some other CX:
CX(library) = SOBIR, NOSINF
SH (youth) \u003d SOBIR, ODUSH.
There are two more non-independent characteristics: OTSUT and KAUZ. Both characteristics act on the CX that follows them in the semantic formula. The first one is the negation operator:
SH (insensitively) \u003d ABSENT, EMOC
SH(stand) = OUT, MOVE.
The second stands for the causation operator:
CX (increase) = KAUS, ISM
SH (to oblige) \u003d KAUS, MOD.
We emphasize that all three "operator" characteristics (SOBIR, KAUZ, OTSUT) act only on the first semantic characteristic on the right.
| Relationships of semantic characteristics |
Some characteristics can be called composite, because. they can be expressed in terms of others. For example:
- NOSINF \u003d INF, PREDM (information carrier is an object containing information);
- H-REQ = AUTHORITY, NOSINF (a requirement set is a media published by an agent labeled AUTHORITY).
Such characteristics are used for convenience only.
There are characteristics that are antonyms. Using them in the same conjunction is prohibited. For example:
- HARM, CHORUS;
- ABSTRACT, PREDM.
There are characteristics that are varieties of others:
- ORG is a kind of ODUS. Thus, any organization is considered to be semantically animated;
- SHOULD - a kind of ODUSH;
- D-USTR,USTR - varieties of ART;
- SOC, FIN - varieties of CLUTTER.
The input to the dictionary is a pair<слово, номер значения>. For each input, a dictionary entry is compiled - a set of pairs of the form<название поля, значение поля>. The "=" sign is placed between the field name and its value. The field name consists of the name itself and (optionally) some set of indices. For example: GC1, CX(1), CX1(2), etc. If the field goes without an index, then it refers to the main word (denoted C), if it has an index n without brackets, then it refers to the actant with number n (denoted An). The meaning of the index in parentheses will be explained in the paragraph relating to the collocation dictionary.
Each field name has a fixed value. Here is a list of the main fields of the ROSS dictionary:
| Field | Decryption | Field Value Examples |
|---|---|---|
| CAT | lexeme category | ETC.OB, ETC, ETC.SIT... |
| CX | semantic characteristic of the word | ODUSH, FIN... |
| CX1,...,CX7 | semantic restrictions of actants (1,...,7) | ODUSH FIN |
| GC | grammatical characteristic of a word | N:IG GL:GG |
| GH1,...,GH7 | grammatical restrictions of actants | c_additional: ROBST_GR: u+R |
| SHAFT | valence word structure | SUB, A1, C |
| LF | lexical functions | Magn: burning |
Domains (lists of constants) are set to record the field value in the dictionary, from which complex formulas can be assembled. From the constants of several domains, you can assemble one so-called. element. For example, the element "c_dop:P" is assembled from three domains (the syntactic relation domain, the colon domain, and the case domain). Below we list the main domains of the ROSS dictionary:
| Domain name | Decryption | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| D_CAT | category | ETK.OB, ETK.SIT,... |
| D_GROUPS | syntax groups | OBST_GR, GG, IG,... |
| D_SIN_O | syntactic relations | k_dop, s_opr, p_dop, rep... |
| D_LF | lexical functions | Magn, Oper, Func... |
| D_CASE | cases | I, R, D, V, T, P |
| D_PO | subject area | fin, inform,... |
| D_SUGGESTION | prepositions | in, on, at, ... |
| D_SEM_O | semantic relations | SUB, IDENT,... |
| D_SH | semantic characteristics | ODUSH, ORG,... |
| D_PART_SPEECH | Part of speech | SUCH, ADJ, NAR, ... |
| D_NUMBER | grammatical number | u, mn |
| D_ACTANTS | designation of actants and the main word in the article | C,A1,...,A7 |
As already mentioned, the format of one element is given by a set of domain names called signature. For example, the element NU:NG is given by the signature D_PART_SPEECH, D_COLON, D_GROUPS.
Now let's move on to the actual field values. Field values are purely formally divided into three types:
- Single (the value of such a field can consist of only one element);
- Multiple (the value of such a field can be a set of elements);
- Formulaic (the value of such a field can be a set of sets of elements).
Each field is assigned to exactly one type. Each type has its own recording format. The value of a single field is written like this:
<значение поля>= element, for example, CAT = ETK.OB.
The value of a multiple field is written like this:
<значение поля>= element.... element
For example:
SHAFT \u003d SUB (A1, C) OB (A2, C).
The formula field is written like this:
<значение поля>= 1 element.... element, 2 element.... element, .... n element.... element,
example field value CX:
CX = 1 MUST FIN 2 MUST SOC
Here, the value consists of two sets (SHOULD and FIN) and (SHOULD and SOC). It is believed that in the fields GH and CX there is a disjunction between sets of elements, and there is a conjunction between elements within one set (except for the case when the first element is "operator" (OTSUT, SOBIR, KAUZ)). Thus, the above record of the value of the CX field means that the word C can be "financial position" or "social position".
It should also be added that the symbol "*" in the record of the field value denotes any element that is possible in this signature in this position.
A complete formal description of the dictionary entry of the ROSS dictionary is contained in Sokirko.
A template entry for a certain class of words is a common part of all dictionary entries of words of this class. We list some of them:
- Relationship words. These words denote semantic relations (for example, part, sign). The CX field must contain the name of the semantic relation to which this word goes back. The VAL field should be:
The second actant of these words is often not directly grammatically expressed (as a dependent or subordinating syntactic actant), so GC2 is not included in this article.
- Adjectives. Most adjectives have one syntactically passive valence to nouns, which goes into the relation RECOGNITION or EVALUATION. This is expressed by the following template article:
- There are quite a lot of words in the dictionary that denote positions (MUST), for example: applicant, air traffic controller, janitor etc. These words almost always have a valence to the actant IDENT or NAME, which is syntactically adjacent to the position being described ( janitor Ivanov, citizen Petrov etc.). For such words, the template article would be as follows:
- Another class of words is transitive action verbs with AGENT in the first valence ( mow, bring down, print...). These verbs have a large lexical fullness. AGENT in the valence structure means that the first participant controls the course of the action itself and its result. Here is a template article for such verbs:
- The class of modal words in ROSS. Modality is one of the most complex concepts in the theory of language, and here we will not touch on the question of defining what a modal word is. We will only say that the modal word establishes a certain relationship between a certain situation and an external or internal participant. The need to separate modal words into a separate semantic group arose due to the fact that the syntactic means of expressing modality are extremely diverse.
Any modal word in the dictionary must be assigned CX MODL. A modal word can have three valences: CONTENT, SUB, OGRN.
CONTENT - this is the situation that the modal word characterizes in terms of reliability / unreliability, possibility / impossibility, desirability / undesirability, etc.
SUB is that animate participant who is in a modal relationship with the situation. The one to whom need, want, necessary, impossible etc.
OGRN - limiting the spread of the modality of the situation:
I need these articles exam preparation.
For some words, the subject of modality may be a participant in the modal situation, more precisely, its first actant, or may not be. However, there are modal words in which SUB is always the first actant CONTENT ( able, right, time).
All modal words in our understanding have SUB valence, OGRN valence may not be ( want, be able).
The obligatory part of dictionary entries for modal words will be:
CX \u003d MOD SHAFT \u003d SUB, A1, C CONTENT, A2, C CX1 \u003d 1 ODUSH
In addition, these articles often include the following fields:
GH1 = 1 k_dop: D GH2 = 1 otpredik: inf DOP = SUB (A1, A2)
| Hierarchy of semantic relations |
Now consider more complex cases of connections between semantic relations:
ADR, V-NAPR, CON-T
All three relations are usually included in the valence structure of some action C. The generality of these relations is manifested, for example, in English at the syntactic level:
I talk to you=> ADR(you, talk)
I go to the town=> CON-T(town,go)
The vane points to the north=> N-NIR(north, point)
The difference between ADR and CON-T lies in the fact that ADResat is a semantically animated participant in the S situation. CON-T, on the contrary, is a semantically inanimate participant. Accordingly, one can expect some reaction from ADR to the action of C, but not from KOH-T.
It is assumed that after the completion of action C, one of the participants in the situation must move to the CON-T or to the ADDResat. For the B-NAPR valency, the last statement is not true. V-DIREC only indicates a direction, not a point.
Apresyan's book assumes that Adr(ADR) can only be a participant in the information process. In the DIALING system, ADR valency is understood more broadly, for example: helping the enemy, rewarding the soldier.
METHOD, INSTR, MEANS, MEDIA
As in the previous case, all four relations are usually used in the context of some action S. These relations are often expressed by the Russian instrumental or English preposition with:
To paint smth. with gray=> TOOL( paint, gray)
The warship was armed with nuclear weapons=> INSTR( nuclear weapons, arm)
You are trying to prove it with your figures => METHOD (figures, prove)
He concluded his address with a poem => MID( poem, conclude)
The relation METHOD is the most general of these four. INSTR differs from FUNCTION in that FUNCTION must be spent in the process of performing action C, while INSTR is not. INTERMEDIATE - a relationship that connects such an object X with an action C, which, in principle, was not intended for action C, but was used in it. The use of MEDIUM for action C does not contradict any natural laws, but it does not itself imply that it should be used for X.
IDENT, NAME
IDENT differs from NAME in that IDENT implies some uniqueness among similar ones. In the example House N 20 identifier N 20 must ensure uniqueness Houses N 20 among all other houses. In the example boy Petya, name Petya perhaps carries some additional connotations. However, in many cases the two ratios should be equated.
SUB, AGENT
It is assumed that the AGENT of any situation always acts with some purpose. He is either a causer, or an initiator, or some other active, goal-setting participant. SUB is not. If the AGENT is usually a participant in an action or process, then the SUB is the first actant of some situation-state.
RECOGNITION, EVALUATION, PARAM
PRIZN is the most general of these relationships. EVALUATION is usually associated with some subjective attribute that varies depending on time, place and person. EVALUATION is often binary (bad - good, beautiful - ugly, etc.).
PARAM is usually associated with a numeric value (the VALUE ratio), i.e. the PARAM(A,B) formula suggests that VALUE(C,A) should be said somewhere. For example, for an offer The height of the house is eight meters, two formulas are built PARAM (height, house), VALUE (eight meters, height). For more information about PARAM, see Semenov.
PURPOSE, DESTINATION
The actant that fills the valency of the NASD indicates why this object was created. The owner of the valence of the NDA is usually not semantically animate, and the valence PURPOSE, on the contrary, occurs in the AGENT, i.e. in a semantically animated subject.
ABOUT, CONTENT.
Despite the apparent difference between ABOUT and CONTENT, they are often used interchangeably. However, CONTENT is usually the whole situation. For example, the second valency of the word to tell CONTENT rather than ABOUT ( say what you think; tell me how to get out etc. ). On the contrary, the second valency of the verb cherish rather OB. Although phrases are possible:
talk about the president(ETC.OB)
cherish love(ETK.SIT), that is, directly opposite examples.
| Multiple actants (MNA) |
A multiple actant occurs where one valence of a predicate is filled by many actants. A syntactic homogeneous series always passes into a plural actant. For example:
Petya and Masha=> MNA and ( Petya, Masha).
In this case, we will call the words Petya, Masha elements of the MNA, and the union and - MNA operator or homogeneity operator.
Multiple actants are a textual rather than a dictionary phenomenon. However, in fact, MHA is included in the valence structures of some words, for example, the words to connect, connect.
This is necessary to implement the following synonymous transformations:
Petya is connected with Masha
Petya and Masha are connected.
The concept of a multiple actant is a generalization of the concept of a symmetric predicate described in the work of Iomdin. In this work, a symmetric predicate is a predicate P such that P(X,Y) ó P(Y,X), where X and Y are of valency P, for example, X fights Y ó Y fights X. In our interpretation, all symmetric predicates have only one valence per multiple actant, rather than two symmetrical valences. With the help of such a valence structure, examples with symmetric predicates, in which the number of participants is either unknown or more than two, are easily explained:
Computers are interconnected.
Petya, Vasya and Sasha are friends.
Thus, a multiple actant is a set of actants that fill the same predicate valency and are ordered among themselves by the homogeneity operator.
RUSSIAN SEMANTIC DICTIONARY RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE INSTITUTE OF RUSSIAN LANGUAGE them. VV VINOGRADOVA RUSSIAN SEMANTIC DICTIONARY explanatory DICTIONARY SYSTEMIZED BY CLASSES OF WORDS AND MEANINGS Under the general editorship of Academician N. Yu. Shvedova MOSCOW 2002 Under the general editorship of Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences N. Yu. Shvedova Compilers: acad. RAS N. Yu. Shvedova, Dr. philol. S. N. Dmitrenko, Doctor of Philology E. S. Koporskaya, Doctor of Philology Sciences M. V. Lyapon, Ph.D. philol. Sciences L. L. Agafonova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences A. S. Belousova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences K. V. Gabuchan, Ph.D. philol. Sciences M. S. Mikhailova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences V. A. Plotnikova, Ph.D. Philology, Sciences Yu. A. Safonova, Ph.D. philol. Sciences E. P. Khodakova, Yu, A. Kaminskaya, M. V. Rogova, V. K. Yunosheva Editors-lexicographers: E. N. Zakharenko, L. N. Komarova ¬ presented with the financial support of the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation (forfeits No. 94-06-19698, No. 96-04-16083) of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Grant Council of the President of the Russian Federation, state support for the leading scientific schools of the Russian Federation, head of the school - academician N Yu. Shvedova; fant No. 96-15-98636) Russian Semantic Dictionary, Explanatory Dictionary, systematized by classes of words and meanings. / RAS. In-t rus. lang.; Under the general editorship. N.Yu. Shvedova. M.; 2002 The Russian Semantic Dictionary is a six-volume publication in which the system of modern Russian common vocabulary is presented in multi-level classes of words. The primary unit of description in a dictionary is the meaning of a word; such meanings are grouped according to parts of speech and further - according to lexico-semantic classes of words and their separate parts. The publication is addressed to linguists, lexicographers, teachers, as well as to a wide range of people who study the Russian language or use a dictionary in search of information about a whole class of words, as well as about a single word, its meaning. The dictionary as a whole covers about 300,000 lexical units - the meanings of words and phraseological units. Each volume of the dictionary is a separate finished work and can be used as an independent lexicographic study. 3 Institute of the Russian Language VV Vinogradov RAS: executive editor N.Yu. Shvedova, team of authors, 2002 ISBN 5-88744-008-2 VV VINOGRADOVA RUSSIAN SEMANTIC DICTIONARY Volume II NOUNS WITH SPECIFIC MEANING. EVERYTHING CREATED BY THE HANDS AND MIND OF A HUMAN (SETTLEMENTS, CRUSHED AREAS, ROADS; MATERIAL PRODUCTS OF WORK); ORGANIZATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS. NAMES OF OBJECTS BY FORM, STATE, COMPOSITION, LOCATION, USE 40 OOO words and phraseological expressions MOSCOW 2002 Reviewers: Doctor of Philology Professor A. N. Baranov Doctor of Philology Professor V. V. Vorobyov Editor of Volume II Yu. A. Safonova Authors- compilers of the second volume; M. S. Mikhailova: “Countries. States. Administrative-territorial units”; "Cultivated areas. Ways, roads. Road structures”: “Material (objective, material) products of labor” (except for the sections written by V. A. Plotnikova and S. N. Dmitrenko). V. A. Plotnikova: “Clothes and related items. Jewelry: Items associated with worship, with cult rites. Temple arrangement. Attire of clergymen. Temple incense. Cult food”: “Names of various objects according to their form, state, composition, location, non-permanent function or use”. L. L. Agafonova; ^Organizations. institutions. Enterprises. parties. Society". S. N. Dmitrenko; ".Food, domestic consumption." A. S. Belousova: "Army". The work was carried out within the framework of the federal target program "Russian Language in 2002". Approved for publication by the Academic Council of the Institute of the Russian Language. VV Vinogradov of the Russian Academy of Sciences Russian Semantic S. Yuvar. Explanatory Dictionary Systematized by Classes of Words and Meanings / RAS Institute of Rus. lang.; Under the general editorship. N.Yu. Shvedova - M., 2002. ISBN 5-88744-008-2 Volume 2: Nouns with a specific meaning. Everything created by the hands and mind of a person (populated areas, cultivated areas, roads; material products of labor; organizations and institutions). Names of objects by form, condition, composition, location, use. M., 2002.- XXXP, 762 p.; ill. (97 schemes). ISBN 5-88744-030-9; ISBN 5-89285-023^ The second volume of the "Russian Semantic Dictionary" contains nouns (words and individual meanings) that name the material products of human activity. This is vocabulary related to the names of populated areas, cultivated areas, roads, organizations, institutions, and the names of material products of labor. This volume also includes the names of objects according to their form, condition, composition, location, and use. Lexical units are grouped according to lexico-semantic classes, sets and subsets, the structure of which is reflected in the attached diagrams. This volume includes 40,000 words and phraseological expressions. At the end of the volume, an alphabetical word index and a summary order of schemes are given. ISBN 5-88744-008-2 © V.V. Vinogradov RAS: ISBN 5-88744-030-9 executive editor N.Yu. Shvedova, team of authors, 2002 ISBN 5-892.85-023-4 (2 vols.) with a specific meaning: everything created by the hands and mind of a person Populated areas, cultivated areas of the area; country roads. States. Settlements. Administrative-territorial units. Processed and used places. Ways, roads. Buildings related to roads 9 General designations: regions, various points, places, boundaries 9 Regions. Habitats. Borders 9 Regions. Habitats. Plots 9 Borders. Frontiers 9 Places, points according to their location, type, property 10 Countries. States. Settlements. Administrative-territorial units 11 Human settlements 11 Countries. States 11 General designations 11 Different countries, states 13 Administrative-territorial units and associations 14 Cities and other settlements 15 Cities and suburban settlements. Urban-type settlements (15): City, its parts. Place occupied by city (15): City; places occupied by him (15); Urban areas, parts of the city (16). Settlements adjoining the city or serving for its foundation (17). Settlements of non-urban type. Traces of settlements (17): Rural settlements (17): The settlements themselves (17), Parts of non-urban settlements and rural estates (18); Non-urban places of temporary residence or special purpose (18). Traces of settlements (18). Parts of cities and towns (19) Land holdings: allotments, land plots, households 20 Land holdings. Allotments 20 Allotted land plots, allotments 20 Estates. Households 22 Temporary places of residence. Names of residential places by function, quality .... 22 Temporary places of stay 22 Names by function, quality 23 Cultivated and used places 23 Specially equipped or cultivated areas for agricultural needs, for plants, for animals. Plantations. Gardens. Parks. Places associated with forestry 23 General designations 23 Livestock areas. Places of residence of livestock, accumulations of animals 23 Gardens. Parks. Crop plots. Plantations. Places and structures for special cultivation and study of plants 25 Plots, territories associated with the cultivation of land; their parts (25), Crop plots. Plantations (26); Gardens. Parks. Places and facilities for special breeding and study of plants (27); Sites associated with forestry, hunting (27) Sites associated with the technical processing of the soil, with excavations, with the extraction of minerals. Places - traces of fire, fire 28 Sites associated with technical or industrial processing of the soil, with excavations 28 Sites associated with the extraction of minerals; structures in such areas 28 Places-traces of fire, fire 29 Areas built on the water. Channels 30 Places for treatment, recovery. Places for ceremonies, rituals.. 30 Places for treatment, healing 30 Places for ceremonies, rituals 30 Places for construction, for auxiliary practical needs 31 Ways. Roads. Road facilities 31 Ways. Roads 31 General designations 31 Own ways, roads (31); Their sections, parts (33) Roads FOR pedestrians, cars, carts 33 Pedestrian roads, trails, clearings. Their parts (33): Street, garden roads (33); Forest paths, trails (35); Roads for cars, carts (35): The roads themselves (35); Their parts (36); With additional characteristics in terms of quality, purpose (36): Characterized by coating, by method of construction (36); Characterized by quality or design (36) Rail tracks 37 Roads themselves (37); Their parts (37) Air and waterways, their parts 37 Road facilities. Stops 38 General designations 38 Road constructions. Stopping points for cars, carts 38 Railway stations. Their parts are 38 Ports. Air, water stations 38 Material (subject, material) products of labor General designations 43 Actually general designations. Equipment, accessories 43 Things, items as goods, cargo 44 Raw materials. concentrates. Blocks. Samples 46 Samples, Models. Benefits. Substitutes 46 Models. Layouts. Benefits 46 Copies, Substitutes 47 Collections. Collections 47 Structures, buildings 51 General designations: buildings, structures, structures. Their internal parts 51 The structures themselves, buildings and their parts 51 The buildings themselves, structures (51), Complexes of structures (51); Characterized by some quality, view, location (53); Temporary or dilapidated buildings (53); Light and temporary buildings (53); Dilapidated, crumbling buildings (53) Interior spaces, parts 54 Interior spaces proper (54): Interior spaces themselves. Floors (54); Different interior spaces and rooms (54). Characterized by some appearance, quality, function (55): By appearance, condition, quality, location (55); Special rooms (55): Vaults, storerooms, treasuries (55); For domestic needs or temporary use (56) Architectural and construction details 56 Components of structures, their foundations and details (56): Foundations. Coatings, coverings. Flooring. Arches, openings (56): Foundations, foundations (56); Coatings. Sheds. Flooring (56); Ancillary building structures (59); Walls, floors. Arches, openings. Doors. Their details (59). Construction details (61). Add-ons, extensions. Outputs, inputs and transitions; galleries. Stairs. Balconies (63): Entrances, exits. Stairs (63): Entrances, exits (63); Stairs, steps (63). Superstructures, extensions, passages, galleries (64) Fences 65 Fences themselves (65); Fencing parts. Fences (65) Cult, ritual, memorial structures. Monuments 66 Religious buildings, premises, their parts and architectural details 66 Ritual, memorial buildings. Monuments. Their parts 68 Residential buildings, premises. Their parts. Home stoves and hearths 69 Residential buildings themselves, premises. Their internal parts 69 Buildings proper (69): General designations (69); Palaces, rich buildings, premises (71); Country, rural houses, dwellings (71); Temporary, transportable, portable dwellings. Barracks (72). Internal parts of residential premises: rooms, groups of rooms, apartments (72): General designations (72); Apartments, rooms. Groups of rooms for various purposes (73) Home and household hearths 73 IX Proper names (73); Parts of domestic hearths, and tayuke of other combustion devices (74) Buildings and premises for public, medical and recreational, commercial, administrative purposes, Warehouses 75 General designations 75 Structures, premises of a public, educational nature 75 Structures and premises of a medical, hygienic, health-improving nature 77 Medical and health facilities, premises (77); Buildings, premises for hygienic purposes. Toilets (77) Trade facilities, premises 78 Premises in places of detention. Their parts 78 Technical structures. Ancillary office premises 79 Associated with the maintenance, work, repair of vehicles, aircraft 79 Associated with the use of water, water power, water resources 79 Hydraulic structures. Bridges 81 For transportation, transmission over a distance of energy, liquids, waste. Pipelines. Communication lines 82 For technical devices, for individual production processes.... 83 Ancillary, guard rooms 83 Warehouse facilities, rooms. Structures for storing, sorting something 84 Technical furnaces and their parts 84 Buildings, premises, structures for various household, agricultural needs, for keeping animals, for breeding and studying animals, plants 85 For storage, processing of crops, for various household needs 85 For keeping, breeding and studying animals, plants 85 General designations (85); For livestock, domestic animals (85); For birds, fish, insects, larvae (87): For birds, fish (87); For insects, larvae. Parts of such buildings (87). For various animals, for embryos (88); For plants and fungi (88) Spectacles, sports facilities and facilities. Buildings for games, entertainment, recreation. Space for creative work. Decorative buildings 89 For spectacles, entertainment, for creative work 89 Buildings themselves, premises (89); Parts of such buildings, premises (89) For sports, exercise, bathing. Their parts 92 Military, fortifications, buildings 93 General designations 93 Defensive, fortified structures 93 Shelters, shelters. Military depots 94 Vehicles. Machine tools. Mechanisms. Devices. Instruments. Devices 97 General designations 97 Actually machines, mechanisms, devices 97 X Their combinations 99 Names by function or appearance 99 By function, action produced or effect (99); By appearance or device (100) Complex machines, machine tools, units. Knots 101 General designations 101 Various complex machines, machine tools. Aphegates. Complex tools. Knots 102 Agricultural machines and mechanical implements. Self-propelled machines for earthworks, road works. Construction equipment. Devices for lifting and moving goods (102); Self-propelled and non-self-propelled machines for construction, excavation, road works. Logging machines (102); Agricultural machines, devices; implements for tillage (104); Machines, devices for lifting, moving goods (105). Printing machines, devices; related items (106). Apparatus, machines, tools associated with the use of gas, water, liquid. Machines, apparatus, tools for processing something. crushing, grinding, drilling, impact, for smoothing. Presses. Engines. Generators (107): Devices related to the use of air, gas, water, liquid (107); Devices for processing, drilling, crushing, pressure, impact, cutting, smoothing (108); Engines. Generators (109). Technical containers (110) Parts and details of machines and mechanisms 111 General designations (111): Parts for various purposes (111); By form, by appearance (113), by function (115); Materials. Blanks (116). Devices for the passage of electric current, for the accumulation, conservation, use of energy. Details of engines, generators (116); Details, parts of devices, machines, directly related to the processing of materials. Grippers Buckets (118); Turning on, off, switching devices. Devices for starting, controlling, accessing somewhere. Valves, faucets, keys (119); Connecting, fixing and separating parts. Details that convey movement. Levers. Coils, shafts, rods, shuttles, springs (120); Covers, cases, coverings (122) Radio, television, video, film equipment. Sound recording and reproducing devices. Optics. Electronics 122 General symbols 122 The apparatuses themselves, devices (122); Parts of apparatuses, devices (124); Information carriers (124) Telegraph. Phone and other devices that transmit signals. Their parts... 125 Sound-recording, sound-amplifying, sound-reproducing devices 127 Video-recording, video-reproducing devices 128 Electronic computers. Their parts. Electronics 128 Optics 130 General symbols. Optical instruments and devices Laser technology (130); Lenses. Items for vision correction (131); Photographic equipment (132) Signal devices. Mechanical sound-reproducing devices. Horns. Calls 132 Measuring, counting devices. Medical devices 133 General symbols 133 Devices, devices for measuring time 133 To measure weight, quantity of something. Calculators.. 135 XI For measuring weight (135); For quantity measurement (135); Calculating, calculating and arithmetic devices (136) For measuring distance, length, height, depth, size, angles, level, speed, direction, for orientation 136 The simplest devices (136); Apparatus, instruments (136) For measuring the pressure of a liquid, gas, the density of bodies, the quality of mechanical and physical strength, current strength, radiation 138 Medical devices. Devices for the protection of the body 138 Elementary devices for diagnostics and medical procedures, operations Their parts (138); Devices that protect the body. Stabilizing bandages. Prostheses. Life-saving appliances (139) Heating, cooling, lighting devices 141 General designations 141 Technical heating and cooling devices. Related items 141 Lighting devices, devices 141 General designations (141), Technical lighting devices (143); Various lamps (143) . Hand tools, devices. The simplest tools of physical labor. Fishing tools. Pet care items 144 General symbols: tackle 144 Fastening, locking devices. Related items 144 Fasteners (144); Locks, locks. Related items (146) Tools for squeezing, grasping, splitting, splitting 146 Tools for cutting, chopping, planing, grinding, forging, screwing 147 For cutting, chopping, forging, planing, grinding, pointing. Shovels (147); For drilling, drilling, screwing (150) Devices for stirring, removing liquids, gases, for screening, for applying paints, solutions 150 The simplest and oldest devices for making and maintaining fire. Related items 151 Devices for handling or placing any. items; specially equipped workplaces; ladders 152 Way devices, devices, signs 153 Fishing gear 154 For catching animals, aquatic animals (154); Fishing tackle (155); Lures, bait. Devices for luring and scaring away birds, animals (156) Items for pets, for their driving, care 157 Hand tools and tools for rural work 158 Ropes. Harnesses. Cables. Chains 158 Poles. Rods. Sticks 159 Weapons and related items. Means of defense and attack. Weapons of impact, punishment 164 Weapons and related items 164 XII General designations 164 Hand and specially hunting weapons 164 Firearms (164); Chopping, piercing and percussion (165); Throwing (166) Artillery guns 167 General designations (167); Firearms, throwing and other (167) Shells. Ammunition 168 General symbols (168); The shells themselves, ammunition (168) Details, parts of weapons, tools 170 Devices, tools for detecting and neutralizing shells, ammunition 171 Military equipment and protection. Military armor 171 General designations 171 The military means of equipment and protection themselves 172 Accompanying items 172 Instruments of execution, torture, blow, punishment 173 Instruments of execution, torture. Fetters 173 Weapons of impact, punishments 174 Transport 176 General designations. Sets of vehicles 176 Miscellaneous vehicles: land, overhead, underground, air, water. Aerostats and other aircraft. Space vehicles 176 Ground, elevated, underground transport 176 Rail (176); Trackless (178): Mechanical (178): Aggregates (178); Proper vehicles: self-propelled and non-self-propelled. Names by brand (178): Names proper (178); Special purpose (181); By carrying capacity, method of movement, possibility of use (181). Horse-drawn, pack. Teams. Harness. Wagons. Means for manual transportation (182): Horse-drawn, pack. Teams. Sets of mount animals in a harness. Wagons (182): Aggregates (182); Wagons (182): General designations (182); Various wheeled vehicles (182): Cars and traveling carriages (182); Freight wagons (184); Multi-seat passenger and rental crews (184); Military and ritual carts (184), Sledges, drags (185). Teams. Mounted animals in harness (185). Devices for carrying and manual transportation of weights, people (185). Carriage parts. Harness (186): Their parts (186); Harness (186) Air transport. Balloons and other special aircraft. Spacecraft 188 General designations (188); Aircraft, Helicopters (188): Aggregates (188); Various devices (189), Balloons. Parachutes and other special flying devices. Their parts (189); Rockets. Spacecraft (189) Water transport 190 General designations (190): Aggregates (190); Proper names (190), Miscellaneous vehicles (192): Proper vehicles: motorized, sailing, manually operated (192); By the nature of the mover or by their purpose (194): By the nature of the mover (194); According to their purpose (194) Parts of different vehicles 194 Mechanisms, parts of mechanisms. Propulsion 194 General designations (194); Railway, road transport (196), XIII Aircraft (197); Water resources; their movers; gear (198) Corps, internal premises, their parts. Improvised means 199 Corps, its parts (199); Internal premises. Improvised means (200) Military vehicles. Combat vehicles. Missiles 201 General symbols 201 Ground 201 Air 201 Aggregates (201); Themselves air vehicles and combat vehicles (202) Water 202 Their parts and mechanisms 203 Names of vehicles by purpose, by method of movement, by their quality 203 Products of dressing and processing 207 Primary products and fees of agricultural production 207 Seeds. Crops. Harvest 207 Harvested, stacked products of the harvest 207 Waste, harvested, processed residues 207 Pomace, siftings, residues after threshing (207); Miscellaneous other waste. Leftovers on the vine (209). Fertilizers 209 Basic building materials. Wood. Paper 209 General designation 209 Hardening durable materials 209 Building ceramics. A rock. Crushed stone. Materials for light buildings and decoration 211 Wood materials 212 General symbols 212 Boards. Planks. Plywood 212 Log and its parts 214 Wood as a material for products 215 Paper, cardboard 215 Fuel 216 Fabrics and their components. Fiber, thread. Lace. Sewing. Embroidery. Knitting. Leather. Furs 216 Fabrics. Sewing materials and their components 216 General symbols 216 Miscellaneous fabrics and sewing materials; common names of products from such fabrics, materials 218 Cuts. Fabric texture 222 Fabric cuts (222); Fabric texture (223) Fiber. threads. Braid. Ribbons 223 Fiber. Threads, Yarn 223 Ribbons. Braid 225 Lace. Sewing. Knitting. Embroidery 225 Sewing. Darning 225 XIV Embroidery. Knitting. Lace 226 Skins. Skin. Furs 226 Skins. Skins 226 Skins. Their parts (226); Leather; its imitations (227) Fur. Fur. Down 227 General designations (227), Various furs (227) Compositions. Mixes. Fluids and related formations. Powders. Paints. Preparations 228 General designations 228 Proper designations 228 By function 228 By method of production, by property, condition 230 Glass. Ceramics. glazes. Enamels 231 Bonding mixtures, compositions, putties 232 Paints. Varnishes 232 General designations 232 Paints, dyes, dyes. Compositions for painting, drawing 233 Combustible, incendiary, explosives 234 Synthetic polymers. Plastic materials 235 Pharmacological, tonic agents and forms. Laboratory preparations. Grafts 236 General designations. Dosage forms 236 General designations (236) Dosage forms themselves (236) Various medicinal, tonic and strengthening agents 237 Toxic substances. Antidotes 238 Other various compositions, mixtures; .239 Generalized names of products from different materials 241 General names of products from alloys and metals 241 Common names of products from glass, ceramics 243 Wastes of industrial processing, dressing. Waste 244 General designations 244 Remains of food, smoking, rags 244 Industrial waste, dressing. Emissions 245 Waste. Trash. Sewage 246 Food and domestic consumption. Clothing. Household items, letters, clerical work 249 Food products and domestic consumption 249 Food products, feed 249 General designations (249); Food stuffs, food, drinks (249): General designations (249): Actually food, products (249); By the time of eating, by appointment (251): By the time of eating (251); By appointment (251). Grade-titles (251). Food, drink, meals; their components (253): General designations (253); Actually eating (253); Dishes and their components made from different products; sets (253); Food, dishes by shape, by consistency, by method of preparation (255): By shape (255); By consistency (255); According to the method of preparation (256). Bread, bread products XV. Flour, cereals; products from them (256); General designations (256); Groats, flour; cereals, flour (not bread) products (256); General designations (256); Groats; dishes from cereals, flour (256); Dishes prepared from different cereals (257). Bread. Bread products (258): General designations (258); Pasta, dishes from them (258); Bread and flour products (258); Snacks with bread (260). Other miscellaneous (baked, boiled, fried) dough products (260). Milk, dairy products. Eggs, egg products. Fats (261): Milk, dairy products (261); Egg, egg dishes (262); Fats (263). Meat. Fish. Meat and fish dishes, dishes (263): General designations (263): Actually meat, bones (263); Dishes made from different meats (265). Meat of mammals, birds; dishes from it (265): The meat of mammals itself (265); Parts of meat carcasses (266); Internal organs and glands of animals used for food; dishes from them (266). Meat dishes (267): Dishes from any meat (267); Beef or pork dishes (267). Poultry meat (268). Fish meat. Fish products (268): Fish meat (268); Fish dishes; parts of fish meat (271). Meat of molluscs, reptiles, crayfish (271). Vegetables. Legumes. Melons. Mushrooms. Vegetable, mushroom dishes (271): Vegetables. Legumes. Melons. Mushrooms (272); Vegetable, mushroom dishes (274). Soups and other (first) courses (274): General designations (274); First courses (275). Drinks (275): General designations (275): General designations proper (275); General designations of alcoholic beverages (277). Various wines, vodkas, liqueurs, tinctures (277); Non-alcoholic drinks (279): Tea, coffee and other drinks to the table (usually hot), products for their preparation (279); Refreshing, tonic and medicinal drinks (279). Seasonings Spices Sauces. Starter cultures. Pickles Marinades (280): General designations (280); Spices (280); Starter cultures (281); Seasonings. Sauces Pickles. Marinades (282). Sweets. Powdery and sugary products. Fruits. Berries. Fruit and berry dishes. Nuts (283): Flour and sugar products, their components (283): General designations (283); Components (283); Flour confectionery (285). Candies. Paste. Jam (285): Candy (285); Paste. Souffle. Ice cream. Creams (286); Jam. Jam (287). Fruits. Berries. Fruit and berry dishes. Nuts (287): Fruit. Berries (287): General designations (287); Fruits. Berries (287). Fruit and berry dishes (290); Nuts. Seeds (291). Animal food (291). Products for internal consumption, not for food 292 Infusions, tinctures (292); Products for smoking, inhalation, chewing (293) Clothing and related items. Jewelry 297 General notation 297 Various underwear. Wearable underwear. Parts of them 297 Miscellaneous clothes (297): General designations (297): Actually general designations (297); Designations by material, by condition, by appearance (298): By material (298); By condition, by appearance (298). Miscellaneous outerwear and light clothing (298): General wear (298): Street wear (298): Antique and foreign clothing (298); Modern streetwear (301). Other outerwear and light clothing (302): Antique and foreign clothing (302); Modern light clothing (303): Suits, jackets, dresses, sweaters, sweaters (303): Suits, dresses (303): Suits (303); Women's light dress (303). Jackets, sweaters, shirts, sweaters (305): Shirts, sweaters, blouses, vests (305); Jackets, sweaters (306): Jackets, jackets (306); Warm knitted sweatshirts (306). Trousers, skirts (306): Trousers (306), Skirts (307) Clothing for special purposes (307): Uniforms, sportswear (307): General designations (307); Military, service clothes (309); Sportswear. Swimwear (309). Work, home and protective clothing (310): Home clothing, morning and evening wear (310); Work clothes (310); Clothing protecting parts of the body (310); Ritual clothes: royal, class, mourning; robes (311); Clothing for theatrical, sports and variety performances, masquerade (311). Wearable underwear (311): Men's, women's underwear XVI (311); Underwear for babies (312), Corsets, covers, suspenders (313). Parts of clothing and underwear (313); Sewn, tailor-made pieces of clothing (313); Sewn-on, overhead parts of clothing. Inserts. Complementing and decorating details (314): Complementing and decorating parts of clothing, as well as details for special purposes (314); Sew-on, overhead, lining parts of clothing (316); Cut, style, cuts; devices that determine the style, clothing line (317). Shoes. Stockings. Gloves 317 Footwear, parts thereof (317): General designations (317); Modern men's, women's and children's shoes (319); Special footwear: work, sports footwear (320); Old, peasant, foreign shoes (320); Shoe parts (321). Stockings, socks, gloves. Their parts (321): Stockings, socks, windings. Their parts (322); Gloves, mittens. Their parts (323). Hats 323 General designation (323); Modern men's, women's, children's hats (323); Antique, old peasant, foreign headdresses (325); Headwear uniform, protective, special purpose (325); Scarves, shawls (326); Parts of headdresses (326). Items that complement clothing and related to it. Jewelry 327 Items that complement clothing and accompany it (327): General designations (327); Laces, fasteners especially for clothes, buckles (329); Scarves, belts, ties, muffs (329); Canes, umbrellas, fans, handbags (329). Jewelry (330): General designations (330); Precious jewelry, bijouterie, beads (330); Jewelry from flowers, fabrics, feathers (331) Household, household, everyday life items 334 General designations 334 Receptacles, packaging. Dishes, household utensils. Household items 334 General designations (334); Receptacles. Packaging, bundles. Crockery, vessels. Serving (336): Receptacles, containers, vessels, packages, bundles (336): Various containers, vessels for liquid and bulk (336); Miscellaneous non-liquid containers (338); Bundles Packing (341). Crockery, vessels Serving (342): Various tableware. Serving (342); Cookware (346); Antique village utensils, as well as generally belonging to the old way of life (347); Special dishes (349). Parts of utensils, dishes (350) Items for food preparation. Heating, cooling devices (350): Items for cooking (350); Winding, cooling devices (351). Devices, objects for cleaning, cleaning, for ventilation. Items of household sanitation (352): Devices for cleaning, cleaning, ventilation (352); Items for cleaning, cleaning (352); Items of household sanitation (353). Table linen, bed linen. Sleeping accessories. Towels. Tablecloths (354): Table linen Towels. Tablecloths (354); Sleeping accessories. Bed linen (354). Primitive kitchen (as well as general household) items (355): Items for sewing, knitting, weaving, weaving (355); Other auxiliary household items (356). Furniture and related items 357 General designations (357); Furniture for various purposes (359); Special and children's furniture (361): Special purpose (361); Children's (362). Furniture parts (362); Related items. Carpets, curtains, mirrors. Interior decorations. Flower decorations (363). Body care items. Hairstyles. Cosmetics. Auxiliary health aids. Means that affect the body. Smoking items 364 Body care items (364); Hairstyles (365); Cosmetics, fragrances. 2 - Russian. semantic sl. vol. 2 XVII Detergents (366); General designations (366); The actual aromatics. Detergents (366). Auxiliary health-improving and other means affecting the body (367); Smoking items (368) Items for writing, drawing, painting, drafting, stationery 368 Writing paper and similar materials 368 Notebooks. Envelopes. Related items 370 Miscellaneous items for writing, drawing; writing instruments. 370 Items for writing, drawing (370); Subject] for drawing, marking, signs, inscriptions, for drawing or erasing what is written (371); items to copy. Stamps, seals (372) Items associated with worship, with cult rites. Temple arrangement. Attire of clergymen. Temple incense. Cult food; food of mythical gods, biblical heroes 376 Items of cult worship. Objects symbolizing worship, devotion to faith 376 Structure and decoration of the temple. Church utensils. Goddesses. Lamps. Temple incense 377 Vestments of church and clergymen (clothes, headdresses). Conditional features of appearance 378 Items related to baptism, marriage, burial. Items dedicated to church holidays 380 Cult food. Food of mythical gods, biblical heroes 381 Printed publications. Manuscripts. Polygraphy 384 Printed publications. Manuscripts 384 Books. Printed publications 384 General designations (384): Books. Manuscripts (384), Collections of publications, books, manuscripts (386). Miscellaneous books: textbooks, reference books, collections, albums (386): Textbooks. Guides. Dictionaries (386); Reference books. Catalogs. Albums. Calendars (386). Periodicals and one-time publications Announcements (388): Periodicals, repetitive publications (388); Disposable editions. One-time informative texts (390): One-time publications (390); Ads. Posters (390) Manuscripts. Letters 391 Originals. Their draft and white versions (39!); Ancient manuscripts. Diplomas (391) Design elements for printed publications, manuscripts. Proofreading. Prints.. 391 Elements of decoration of text 391 Elements of technical design of publications, manuscripts 392 External design of publications, manuscripts (392), Design of printed or handwritten text (393) Proofreading. Reprints. Circulations. Parts of publications 394 Signs. Emblems. Money. Documents 397 Signs. Fonts. Emblems. Conventional records 397 General designations 397 Systems of symbols. Descriptive marks. Fonts, styles, features 397 Features, lines, styles (397); Symbols Ciphers (399); Character outlines. Fonts (399); Descriptive characters (399): Conventional written characters. xvm Numbering. Punctuation marks (400); Ligatures. Elm (402) Insignia and distinctions. Elements of the symbolism of the uniform. Regalia 402 Insignia. Symbolism of uniform (402); Marks of Excellence. Orders, medals (403); Regalia (404) Symbols. Emblems. Prizes. Flags, banners 404 Symbols. Emblems. Their parts (404); Prizes. Awards in competitions (406); Flags, banners. Their parts (406) Labels, badges, labels. Prints. Labels. Identification marks. Badges 406 Notches, serifs, marks (406); Labels, trademarks. Labels (407); Seals, signs-imprints (407); Badges (408) Tables, drawings. Conditional entries. Recording instrument readings 408 Means of payment. Money. Securities. Expenses. Payouts. Financial, accounting, settlement documents 409 Means of payment. Money. Securities 409 Monetary units and signs. their equivalents. Coins (409): Money proper Paper money. Currency. Payment signs (409); Monetary units (411); Coins (414): General designations. Sets of coins (414); Russian coins (414); Miscellaneous other coins (416). Common and colloquial names of money (417) Securities; value indicators (418) Expenses. Income. Payments. Payments 419 General designations (419); Appropriations. Fees. Expenses. Income. Rates (421): Attachments. Compensation Contributions. Issues (421); Taxes. Fees. Penalties. Deductions (422); Income Supplements. Profit (423); Expenses. Guarantee payments. Additional fees (424); Gambling losses and winnings. Rates (425). Benefits. Labor payments. Boards (425); Non-payments. Losses (428) Financial, accounting, settlement documents 428 State, political, diplomatic documents. Miscellaneous business documents. Evidence. Tickets 430 General designations 430 Laws. Documents state, political, diplomatic 432 Laws, normative acts. Codes (432); Diplomatic, political, public documents. international treaties. References (433) Current business documentation. Certificates, tickets. Instructions, schedules. Questionnaires. Medical documents 434 General designations (434); Decisions, conclusions, orders, resolutions (435); Documents official, economic (435); Documents legal, notarial. Forgiveness (437): Notarial, investigative, judicial documents (437); Petitions, complaints (437); Official permits, certificates of entitlement (438) Official notices, certificates, tickets; personal documents (439): Personal documents (439); Official notices, certificates, tickets (440). Graphs, registers. Questionnaires. Instructions (442) Postal, telephone, courier items 443 General designations 443 Types of items 443 Items related to sports, spectacles, games. Musical instruments 446 Items related to sports, outdoor games. Toys 446 2* XIX General designations 446 Items related to outdoor games, training. Related items 446 Sports equipment and items related to sports exercises (446). Apparatus for artistic gymnastics (446); Manual gymnastic equipment. Giri. Rods. Athletics equipment (448); Sports equipment for running, jumping, riding, skating, swimming, flying (448): Equipment for running, skating, jumping (448); Projectiles for driving, swimming, flying, high-speed movement on water (451) Target items. Facings, barriers (451); Safety devices. Subject; related to sports refereeing (452). Items for mobile (sports, folk) games. Hitting devices (453) Items for play, entertainment 454 General designations (454); Toys. Devices for Ifa, fun (454); Items related to holidays, masquerades (455) Items related to board games, task games. Playing cards, roulette 456 For problem games, chess, checkers (456); To the card game, roulette (457); For children's and other board games (458) Musical instruments 458 General designations 458 Wind instruments 459 General designations (459); Instruments themselves (459) Stringed 461 General designation (461); Instruments themselves (461) Percussion 462 General designation (462); The instruments themselves (462) Electromusical and mechanical 464 Parts of musical instruments. Items related to musical instruments 464 Scene items. Props 465 General designations 465 Actual objects of the scene, props 466 Organizations. institutions. Enterprises. parties. Society. Army Organization. institutions. Enterprises. parties. Societies 469 General designations 469 Miscellaneous institutions. Enterprises. Institutions. Their departments 472 General designations of institutions, production organizations 472 Power, administrative, legal, law enforcement and financial institutions 476 State, power, management structures, institutions 476 Highest power state structures; their divisions 476 General designations, as well as designations of institutions in the USSR and Russia (476); Foreign and old institutions (478) Bodies under the highest power state structures and other administrative institutions; their departments 479 XX Diplomatic institutions. International representations 482 Legal and law enforcement agencies. Places of detention 483 General designation 483 Supervisory authorities. Investigative, judicial, correctional, notarial institutions 483 Supervisory bodies (483); Investigative, judicial institutions (483): General designations (483); Actually investigative, judicial institutions. Notarial institutions (484). Places of detention (485) Security and investigation bodies. Police. Police 486 Financial and credit institutions 487 Production, mining, processing, procurement enterprises; their departments. Construction. Repair. Transport. Connection. Agricultural, forestry, hunting enterprises 488 General designations 488 Production, mining, processing, procurement enterprises; their departments. Construction. Repair. Transport. Communication 491 Industrial enterprises; their departments. Production workshops. Mining, oil and gas fields and other mining enterprises. Power plants. Heating plants 491 Miscellaneous industrial enterprises Manufacturing workshops (491); Mining, oil and gas fields and other extractive enterprises (492); Power plants. Heating plants (493) Construction, repair enterprises 493 Processing, procurement enterprises 493 Enterprises producing, processing foodstuffs (493); Enterprises producing, processing other miscellaneous products (495); Procurement, supply enterprises (495) Transport. Communications 496 Transport companies (496): General designation (496); Railway stations, ports, stations (496); Various other transport companies. Repair enterprises, parks (498) Communication enterprises (498): General designation (498), Various types of enterprises, communication institutions (499) Agricultural, forestry, hunting enterprises 500 General designations 500 Agricultural plant growing, livestock enterprises 500 Plant growing. Growing fibs (500); Animal husbandry (501) Forestry and hunting 502 Public service establishments: trade, public catering, hotels, workshops, sanitary and other services. Medical institutions 503 General designations 503 Trade enterprises, their departments 503 General designations 503 Grocery stores 505 Shops for industrial and other non-food goods 506 XXI Catering establishments 506 General designations 506 Canteens. Restaurants. Cafe 506 Snack bars. Sandwiches. Buffets 507 Drinking establishments, liquor stores 507 Hotels, hostels 508 Sanitary service establishments. Hairdressers, beauty salons 509 Workshops. Car service. Transagency. Utilities. Rescue services 509 General designations, as well as various workshops 509 General designation (509); Various workshops (509) Car service. Transagency 509 Utilities. Rescue, emergency services 510 Funeral and various other enterprises 510 Funeral enterprises 510 Various other public institutions 510 Medical institutions. Boarding schools, shelters 511 Medical and diagnostic institutions proper 511 Sanitary and hygienic institutions 512 Sanatorium-prophylactic, health-improving, resort institutions... 512 Boarding schools, shelters 513 Educational, educational, educational and scientific institutions; their divisions. Scientific institutions 513 Educational, teaching and educational, educational and scientific institutions; their divisions 514 General designations 514 Educational and educational institutions: preschool, primary, secondary 514 Preschool institutions (514); Primary, secondary schools. Gymnasiums. Lyceums (516); Educational institutions. Boarding schools (516) Higher educational-research and educational-scientific institutions; their divisions 517 Universities, institutes, academies (517); Higher specialized educational institutions (517); Subdivisions, departments of higher educational institutions (5)8) Special secondary educational institutions 518 General designation (518); Technical, agricultural, medical secondary schools (518); Military, sports educational institutions (519), Spiritual, pedagogical, musical, artistic educational institutions (519) Scientific institutions: academies, institutes. Research, scientific and practical, scientific and educational institutions. Laboratories 520 Research institutions. Academies, institutes 520 Scientific-practical and scientific-educational institutions. Laboratories 520 Cultural, educational, entertainment and sports institutions XXII. Institutions involved in information, mass broadcasting 521 General designations 521 Cultural and educational institutions. Museums. Exhibitions 521 Entertainment institutions: 524 Institutions dealing with information, mass broadcasting 525 Entertainment institutions. Sports facilities 526 Bases. Warehouses. Repositories. Collectors 527 General designations 527 Trading, industrial, weapons, agricultural bases, warehouses, storage facilities 527 Repositories of cultural, historical values 527 Unions. Religious organizations and communities. parties. Society. Movement. Circles.. 528 General designations 528 Cult managerial, church-administrative institutions, organizations. Monasteries. Religious societies, communities 530 Religious administrative, church-administrative institutions, organizations 530 Monastic communities, monasteries 531 Religious communities; their departments. .. 531 Games. Political and public organizations. Groups, factions. Movement. Societies 532 General designations 532 Parties. Political groups, factions. Unions. Movements of 533 Society. Public organizations 534 General designations (534); Public organizations, associations based on professional, class, territorial interests (535), Circles (536); Youth, children's organizations (536) Army 538 General designations, as well as names of types and branches of troops 538 Actually general designations 538 Types and types of troops 538 Chosen troops 540 Military units 541 General designations 541 Separate military formations 541 Specialized, security, reconnaissance units, and also units performing temporary functions 543 Troops, combat formations, orders, front sections 544 Military bodies, institutions 545 Places equipped for military purposes 546 Places equipped for military testing 546 Places associated with the deployment of troops, using military equipment ... 546 Names of various objects according to form, state, composition, XXIII according to location, according to a non-permanent function or according to use in relation to possession, by addition 554 Actually general designations 554 By value or rarity of discovery I; Treasures 554 Valuable items, rarities 554 Non-valuable items 556 According to property characteristics, material value 556 According to content in something, according to something, according to addition to something 556 According to content in something, according to something -n 556 By adding to something 557 Names by shape, by schematic drawing, by size, by appearance or state 557 By shape, composition of something 557 Objects resembling a line, a geometric figure or a circle, a ball, ring, oval, star 557 Objects of various other shapes 562 By composition 566 By schematic drawing, imprint 567 By appearance or condition, by weight, size, material 568 By size 568 By weight 568 By appearance, acquired condition 568 By material 569 Names bases and parts of the whole 569 Base, base; axis 569 Parts of an object 571 General symbols 571 Beginning, end, middle; top, bottom, side, edge 571 Miscellaneous other parts of the object 574 Small parts, small parts of the object 575 Broken off, cut off part of something 575 General designations 575 Fragments. Flaps. Fragments 576 Names by location, in relation to the place 576 General designations 576 By being in place, by the state of the place, in relation to the surface, its shape, integrity: 578 Surface areas, places on the surface 578 According to the acquired appearance: bends, depressions, protrusions. XXIV roughness 580 Integrity, safety of the surface. Holes 583 By inseparability, integrity 585 Names of objects by function, purpose, ability to something, and also by likeness to something 585 An object named after its own function 585 An object as an original or as a copy, imitation, duplicate, fake 592 Object as an original, sample, standard 592 Object as a copy, imitation, forgery 593 Object as an acquisition, gift or loss 593 Object as an acquisition, gift, alms 593 Object as a loss, loss 595 Object as decoration, decoration, decoration 595 General designations 595 Object as a decoration, decoration 595 Names according to a permanent or random state, according to readiness for something, according to consistency, natural formation, according to the state of incompleteness, incompleteness 596 According to a permanent state 596 According to an accidental state, according to readiness for something 598 According to the method manufacturing 598 By consistency, natural formation; according to taste 598 According to the state of unsuitability, destruction 600 Names of masses, sets, compounds, groups 600 Connections, sets, groups of objects 600 Names with an element of evaluation 602 Names of both objects and living beings, organisms 606 By the ability to produce something, transmit , represent something 606 By purpose, functions 606 By singularity or non-singularity, by count, by aggregate 607 By physical property, appearance, appearance 607 Applications 609 Index 611 Summary order of schemes 675 XXV Specific nouns described in the first "and in present (second) volumes of the "Russian Semantic Dictionary", refer to the names of things and objects belonging to the material world and perceived physically - visually or tangibly. The signified (denotation) here is an object accessible to direct perception. When comprehending and interpreting of a specific noun, the consciousness of a lexicologist, as well as the consciousness of any native speaker, is to a real, physical image and finds it in the world of physical things. The second volume of the Dictionary includes specific nouns that name everything created by the hands and mind of a person (populated areas, cultivated areas, roads, material products of labor, organizations, institutions), as well as words that name an object by form, state, composition, location, use. Accordingly, the material is divided into two large groups: “Objects created by the hands and mind of a person” and “Names of objects by shape, condition, composition, location, use” . The structure and composition of these two large sections of the vocabulary are presented in the attached diagrams and are described in the corresponding sections of the Dictionary. These two sections of name words are located at the same level of classification as the original sections of the first volume (see vol. I, scheme 7). Each of the lexical classes included in these sections is characterized by a complex organization and is a lexical tree diverging into multiple and complex descending branches, ending with finite lexico-semantic rows of word meanings. The first of the named segments at the next step of division splits into two parts; 1) “Inhabited places; cultivated areas of the area; roads. Material (objective, material) products of labor” and 2) “Organizations. institutions. Enterprises. parties. Society. Army". This is followed by a division into descending steps - large classes of words. The second large area at the first step of partitioning is divided into several sets that unite units according to features: the shape of the object, the whole and its part, location, purpose, permanent or temporary state, entry into sets (aggregates); then follows the partitioning into descending steps. The meanings of words included in these sets are formed by abstracting similar features from different physical objects: behind the signifier (word) there is a set of separate things united by one feature or another, which turns out to be dominant in the semantics of the word. Such words combine the materiality of the meaning of a specific name and the abstract indicativeness of an abstract name (see, for example, such words as edge, edge, "The first volume of the Russian Semantic Dictionary" (M., 1998) includes words indicating (pronouns) and specific nouns, naming all living things: Earth, space m 3>> > Ш ■°< s = - * Ш Ш =
The Russian Semantic Dictionary is a six-volume publication in which the system of modern Russian common vocabulary is presented in multi-level classes of words. The primary unit of description in the Dictionary is the meaning of the word; such meanings are grouped by parts of speech and further - by lexico-semantic classes of words and their separate sections.
The publication is addressed to linguists, lexicographers, teachers, as well as to a wide range of people who study the Russian language or use a dictionary in search of information about a whole class of words, as well as about a single word, its meaning. The dictionary as a whole covers about 300,000 lexical units - the meanings of words and phraseological units. Each volume of the Dictionary is a separate finished work and can be used as an independent lexicographic study.
Descriptive words (pronouns).
The section of the "Russian Semantic Dictionary" "Words indicating (pronouns)" contains a description of the lexical system of Russian pronominal words. The use of the proposed Dictionary assumes preliminary familiarization with this commentary to this section and the diagrams attached below.
The problem of the semantic classification of words indicating, analysis and description of their sets is much more complex than the problem of the corresponding description of words that name - names, adverbs and verbs. This is due primarily to the high degree of abstraction of pronominal meanings, and also, in some cases, the absence of more or less definite, perceptible boundaries between the individual meanings of a polysemantic word. The difficulties that the lexicographer faces here are the same as in the semantic analysis of prepositions, conjunctions or particles: their division into meanings is unusual and may seem artificial. The compiler of the actual semantic dictionary is faced with a choice: either to accept the description that is traditional and quite often repeated in all grammars and explanatory dictionaries, or, expecting reproaches for the unusual and difficult classification, try to delve into the structure of the pronominal word and identify those meanings that unite the individual meanings of different pronouns. into single branches of the lexical tree. It is this second task that should confront the researcher of the semantic structure of the pronoun.
Free download e-book in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book Russian Semantic Dictionary, Explanatory Dictionary, systematized by classes of words and meanings, Shvedova N.Yu., 2002 - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.
- Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language with the inclusion of information about the origin of words, Shvedova N.Yu., 2011
- Toponymic Dictionary of Central Russia, Smolitskaya G.P., 2002
- Dictionary of difficult cases of the use of consonant words in the Russian language, Surova N.V., Tyumentsev-Khvylya M.V., Khvylya-Tyumentseva T.M., 1999
Two heads and six legs; four walk, and two lie still
Self-esteem - what is it: concept, structure, types and levels
Cassandra's Path, or Pasta Adventures War on Earth and Underground