Language as a systemic structural phenomenon. Language as a system-structural formation
TOPIC 11. The concept of the system and structure of the language.
71. ... is a set of language elements of any natural language, which are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain unity and integrity.
Language levels
Language structure
Language hierarchy
Synchrony and diachrony
– Language system
72. ... is a system of word forms that form one lexeme, ... are words, a group of words, whole sentences, closely related in meaning and expressing one concept in a given context and situation.
– Syntagma
– Paradigm
Supra-phrasal unity
73. ... is a generalization of properties characteristic of a group of words with an abstract from lexical meanings words.
– Grammatical meaning
word form
Conversion
74. ... illustrated the importance of the grammatical structure with non-existent words: "The glamorous kuzdra shteko budmanula bokra and curls the bokra".
Baudouin de Courtenay
A.A. Potebnya
L.V. Shcherba
Ferdinand de Saussure
W. Humboldt
75. ... is a minimal linguistic sign, that is, a language unit in which a certain content (signified) is assigned to the phonetic form (signifier) and which is not divided into simpler units, is not used independently.
– Morpheme
76. The main features of the grammatical structure:
– Sustainability
– Abstraction (generalization)
Abstraction from lexical meanings
77. The language content plan is:
– Semantics
Syntax
Morphology
78. Syllables like "ma", "bi", "dzu" refer to:
introverted
voiced
– open
79. Affixes before the root of a word are called:
Infixes
Suffixes
– Prefixes
80. Repetition in the word of the root, stem or repetition of the whole word is called:
Composition
– Reduplexing
Constriction
81. Phoneme is:
- meaningful sound
Feature of individual pronunciation
82. Phonology, grammar, vocabulary are:
Separate sciences
– Language levels
Elements of speech
83. Words: over-, tomorrow consist of:
- one morpheme
Two morphemes
Three morphemes
84. The word "fist" consists of:
Two morphemes
– Three morphemes
One morpheme
85. ... is a morpheme that has a real meaning, a common part all related words:
- root
affixes
Prefixes
Infixes
Suffixes
86. specific feature inflection is:
- Serves to link words into phrases and sentences
Used to form new words
- Serves for the formation of new forms
87. Supletivism is ...
– Grammatical forms are expressed by heterogeneous words (man - people; take - take; good - better)
Full or partial doubling of the base (mother, woman, long-long)
88. Zero morpheme(morpheme without morph) in words:
89. The formation of new words and forms serves ... in the words: ru / ki - hands /, heads / lov - heads / , water / dy - water / , cut / zat - cut / t, for / mok - zamo / k, by / lki - shelves /
– stress
Flexion
Conversion
90. According to the ... principle, when classifying words into parts of speech, it is not the specific, but the generalized meaning of words that is taken into account
– Lexico-semantic principle
Syntax principle
91. According to ... when referring specific words to one of the parts of speech, the features of the methods of formation and word formation of these words are taken into account, as well as grammatical categories:
Lexico-semantic principle
Syntactic principle
– Morphological principle
Derivative principle
Offer
93. ... expresses connections and relationships between objects, qualities and phenomena of objective reality:
– noun
Verbs
- Numerals
Adverbs
95. Means writing connection are:
– intonation
Flexion
Prepositions
Word order
96. ... is a grammatically organized, intonationally closed and complete in meaning unit of the language.
Superphrasal unit
Complex-syntactic integer
phrase
- offer
97. ... is a collection of vowels, ... is a collection of consonants.
– Vocalism
– Consonantism
Nasalization
Labialization
98. … is a phenomenon sounding speech superimposed on the streams of sounds is ... and ...
- intonation
- accent
– prosody
99. ... is melody, tempo, rhythm, intensity, pauses.
stress
– intonation
Prosody
recursion
100. ... is a selection by phonetic means one of the syllables in a group of syllables.
– stress
Accommodation
Assimilation
101. ... is a special type of writing used for the most accurate reproduction of sound.
Transliteration
– transcription
Dissimilation
102. ... is a branch of linguistics that studies the sounds of speech as a means of distinguishing the sound side of morphemes, words, word forms.
Phonetics
– Phonology
103. ... is the minimum unit of the sound structure of the language, which serves to add up and distinguish the meaning of language units: morphemes, words (A.A. Reformatsky)
– phoneme
Allophones
104. ... is a partial adaptation of the articulations of neighboring sounds.
– Accommodation
Assimilation
Reduction
105. ... is likening one sound to another
Dissimilation
– assimilation
Metathesis
Diareza
106. ... - this is the dissimilarity of sounds, the repetition of identical or similar sounds in articulation is eliminated from the sound shell of a word.
– Dissimilation
Assimilation
Reduction
Haplology
107. ... is a weakening of the syllabic sound in unstressed syllables.
Epenthesis
Assimilation
– Reduction
Metathesis
108. The transfer of the name of one object to another according to the similarity of signs is called:
metaphor
– Metonymy
emfaza
109. Homonyms are:
– Miscellaneous words with the same sound
Words with the same meaning
Words opposite in meaning
110. Etymology is:
Teaching about the sounds of speech
The doctrine of the meaning of words
– The doctrine of the origin of words
111. The omission in speech of words that are implied from the context is called:
– Ellipsis
synecdoche
Metathesis
112. Polysemy is:
- polysemy of words
Match words by meaning
Distinguishing words by meaning.
113. Euphemisms are words used:
– Instead of words forbidden in society
To highlight the meaning
Instead of common words
114. ... is a permutation of sounds in the sound shell of a word
– metathesis
Diareza
Epenthesis
115. ... is the loss of one of the syllables in the word, coinciding in sound with another.
– Haplology
Metathesis
Reduction
Assimilation
116. ... is the elimination of certain sounds from the sound shell of the word.
– Diareza
Epenthesis
Metathesis
117. ... is the addition of a sound to a word
- epenthesis
Reduction
Haplology
Metathesis
118. Speech activity is ..., ..., ..., ....
– Reading
– Speaking
– Listening
- Letter
119. Products of speech activity are ...
– Texts
Offers
120. The units of the language are constant, stable, repeating, which are divided into ..., ..., ....
– Nominative
– Predicative
Drill
Syntactic
Lexical
– Time, aspect of the verb, case, gender…
Offer
Supra-phrasal unity
122. To the levels language system not applicable:
Phonological-phonemic
Morphological
Lexical
Syntactic
– Cognitive
123. The unit of the phonetic level is ..., morphological - ..., lexical - ..., syntactic - ...
Morpheme
lexeme
phrase
124. When implemented in speech (actualization of the language system), units of language levels become communicative: actualization of the phoneme - ..., morphemes - ..., lexeme - ..., syntactic combination scheme - ....
word form
phrase
125. Internal language relations- This…
– Paradigmatics
– Hierarchy
– Syntagmatics
Language levels
126. The relationship between linguistic units that can take the place of each other in the same position is called ...
- syntagmatic relations
By paradigmatic relations
127. Paradigms form:
– Verb conjugation forms
– Forms of case changes
stress
128. Syntagmatic relations are…
Construction of speech according to certain models
– Linear relationships between linguistic units
129. Lexico-grammatical syntagma is ...
- Set phrases, where the chosen word form determines the form of other word forms
The relationship between the stimulus word and the words evoked in linguistic consciousness person when presented with a stimulus word.
130. Synchrony is..., diachrony is...
This is the axis of the sequence in time, on which the states of the language differ in time (2)
This is the axis of simultaneity in the language system, that is, the state of the language on this moment time.(1)
131. Lexicological features single word- This…
– Unity of two sides – material (sound) and ideal (semantic)
- Grammar
Denotative consistency
Significative consistency
132. Terms ..., ..., ...
polysemic
– monosemic
- Can be one - wordy
The source of terms can be dead languages
133. The term is ...
- This is a unit special vocabulary(word or phrase) assigned to a specific concept in the system of a special area human activity, which has the definition
Vocabulary denoting subjects of a special field of activity and expressing special concepts about them, which has limited use within a given professional team.
134. The lexical level of a language forms words. The word is...
- The smallest significant unit of the language, freely reproduced in statements (B.N. Golovin)
Phoneme, which allows you to distinguish between meaningful units of the language
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language that is reproduced in a word.
135. The word is ...
– Language sign unit
General idea of the subject
– Mental (auditory, visual) image of a word sign
136. Hierarchy in systemic organization does not apply to lexical meanings:
– Words expressing concepts of the generic level (hypernyms)
– Words expressing concepts species level(hyponyms)
Words with partial sound similarity with their semantic difference (paronyms)
137. The inner form of a word is...
– A bright, “conspicuous” feature of an object that underlies the name
The meaning of the word is directed to the whole thing (phenomenon)
138. Etymology is ...
Teaching about the sounds of speech
Meaning of words
– The doctrine of the origin of words
Teaching about pronunciation
139. Folk (false) etymology is ...
- Identification of the lost internal form of the word by accidental, purely external convergence with famous words(for example: "clinic")
The doctrine of the origin of words
140. Terms, unlike special vocabulary, express ...
– Fixed regulatory (in GOSTs)
Have an expressive and emotional coloring
- have a definition
141. External form words and internal form the words..
- These are “represented in the word of extralinguistic content” (A.A. Potebnya), a feature underlying the name and acting as a “semantic sign” of the meaning of the word
Sound as a sign of a sign
142. The following does not apply to a linguistic sign:
- An object (or phenomenon) that is in a causal, spatio-temporal and other connection with another object or phenomenon interpreted by a person
Universal system of signs, primary in relation to all other human signs
143. Omorphemes are..
- Carry (inf) - lead (inf)
Is it up to the job - completed
Wave to us - to the cars
144. The following words do not belong to synonyms:
At any cost - by all means
Early - neither light nor dawn
Forehead - forehead
- fly - crawl
145. Euphemisms are ...
Language ban
- softened word or phrase
A phrase containing hidden meaning
146. Euphemism in the following combinations:
Chernobyl disaster
– Chernobyl event
147. ... - coincidence in sound of words that have completely various meanings:
– homonyms
Antonyms
Paronyms
148. Polysemy is...
Words that sound the same but have different meanings
Words that differ in grammatical meaning
- The ability of the same word to have several interrelated meanings at the same time
149. K lexical level applies
phrase
– Paronyms
Offer
150. Lexical homonyms:
– Block (mechanism) – block (grouping)
Harness (noun) – Harness (verb)
Shower ( nominative, singular, masculine) - shower ( plural, Genitive from noun female"soul")
151. Antonyms are:
Fly and crawl
- "Born to crawl - cannot fly"
152. The property of a phraseological unit is:
Reproducibility
polysemy
– Sustainability
153. Phraseological unions are “……”, phraseological units are “……”, phraseological combinations- This "…"
Ate dog(1)
Beat the buckets(1)
Get away with it(2)
Make an elephant out of a fly(2)
Blow your nose(3)
Full beard(3)
154. Paronyms are ...
Light (cargo) - heavy (cargo)
Easy (question) - difficult (question)
– friendly – friendly
- wandering - wandering
– seconded – business trip
155. Historicisms are ...
- Words that denote objects and phenomena characteristic of a particular era, and which have fallen into disuse due to the disappearance of the objects and phenomena themselves
Words that have fallen out of mass use as a result of replacing them with synonyms
Words that denote objects and phenomena that currently exist, but they have received a different name
156. ... are words that serve to designate newly emerged concepts, objects and phenomena
Paronyms
– neologisms
TOPIC 12. Language as a system of signs.
157. Components forming a semantic triangle:
The subject of reality
phonetic shell
- All of the above
158. Semiotics is a science that studies ...
– Sign systems
Relationships between signs
Relations between signs and those who use these signs.
159. The term “concept” (according to F. de Saussure) includes the following definition:
The object or phenomenon to which the sign refers
- A generalized, schematic image of an object in our minds
160. Acoustic image (according to F. de Saussure) is ...
– The sound ideal equivalent of sound in our minds
Signified
161. The sign theory of language assumes 4 components of the designation process in the following sequence:
Concept(2)
Denotat(1)
Acoustic Image(3)
Sign Incarnation(4)
162. A linguistic sign, according to F. de Saussure, is ...
– Bilateral psychic entity, consisting of signified signifier
- The totality of the concept and image
163. Differences language sign new system from other sign systems are as follows:
– The language is universal system designations of the diversity of the objective and subjective world
– Numerous and diverse signs (sounds, letters, morphemes, words, phrases, ambiguity…)
– Inadmissibility of arbitrary change of characters
– Implement several functions (communication, generalizations, naming, impact
164. The characteristic of a linguistic sign unit does not include:
Language signs have a material form of existence
Language signs have a graphic and acoustic form of existence
– Motivation of the sign
One sign corresponds to one value
165. Semiosis, or ..., is considered ... in three main plans - in ..., in ..., in ...
– Functioning
– Semiotics
– Semantics
Syntactics
Pragmatics(3)
166. The main function of the language system is ..., which is realized through ..., and ....
Communicative and cognitive
Plan of expression (actual sign)
167. F. de Saussure proposed to replace the terms "concept" and "acoustic image" with:
studied
– Signified
studying
– Signifier
168. K linguistic concept F. de Saussure is not related position:
Language and speech
Language as a system
Synchronous and diachronic linguistics
– Cognitive linguistics
169. Trichotomy "language - speech - speech activity» was offered
W. Humboldt
Baudouin de Courtenay
Baudouin de Courtenay
E. Sapir
Humboldt
– F. de Saussure
171. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is...
The doctrine of the linguistic sign
– The concept according to which the structure of language determines the structure of thinking and the way of knowing the external world.
Plan:
- 1. The concept of "system" and "structure"
- 2. Concepts systemically - structural organization language
- 3. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic connections of language units
- 4. Principles of organization of language structure
Language is an instrument of communication, therefore it must be organized as a whole, have a structure and form a unity of its elements as a kind of system.
Structure- the unity of heterogeneous elements within the whole.
System- a set of elements organized by links and relationships into a whole. Language is a system that is subject only to its natural order. Language is a system of arbitrary signs.
About the language system first started thinking Ferdinand de Saussure. He wrote: "Language is a system that obeys only its own order." "Language is a system of arbitrary signs." F. de Saussure argues that the system has priority over its constituent elements. The term " structure»was introduced by the founders Prague school . Structure understood by them as whole, consisting of interrelated and interdependent elements.
New interpretation the concept of "structure" was given by representatives Copenhagen School. They began to consider this concept only from the side relationships between elements.
Consideration of any object can be made at three levels.
- 1. elemental. Consideration of an object as a collection of elements.
- 2. Structural. In this case, the object is considered as a set of relations between its elements.
- 3. Systemic. Within the framework of this approach, the object under consideration is considered to be a single, coherent whole, a certain set of elements and relationships.
Thus, " structure"- a set of connections and relations that organize the elements in the whole, and " system"- a set of elements organized by connections and relationships into a single whole.
The totality of relations between signs forms a structure, and together they are a system. language like sign system helps to reveal their structure, thanks to the activity of thinking.
The point of view is traditional, according to which, in the structure of the language system, next levels and units of these levels:
- 1) phonetic-phonological (units - phonemes and sounds);
- 2) morphological (units - morphemes and words);
- 3) lexical-semantic (units - words);
- 4) syntactic (units - phrases and sentences).
Main notion language system is the concept of linguistic units.
Units language- it is his permanent elements, each of which performs its specific function and has its own special purpose.
According to its purpose language units are of different types:
- 1. Drill (phonemes, morphemes);
- 2. Nominative (words, phrases);
- 3. Communicative (suggestions).
There are two types of relations between linguistic units: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. Syntagmatic Relations connect the components of one statement ( old - man, old-ik). paradigmatic relations installed between two interchangeable elements. For example, battle - battle - battle - duel.
However, in science there is another point of view, which is based on the allocation of three structural planes, or dimensions, in the language:
- 1. level measurements;
- 2. measurement aspects;
- 3. measuring plans.
The description of the language system in three structural dimensions makes it possible to show in the most complete form the originality of the units of each level and the relationship between the elements of the lower and higher levels.
language speech sociolinguistics phoneme
The system is understood as a single whole, dominating over its parts and consisting of elements and relationships connecting them. The totality of relations between the elements of the system forms its structure. The totality of the structure and elements makes up the system.
Structure is a combination of elements in which each element is conditioned by all the others. For clarity, we can draw the following analogy. A group of sightseers, for example, does not form a structure, since the number and internal relations in this case are irrelevant. The squad of soldiers, on the other hand, is an example of structure: it can exist as a whole only with a certain and unchanging (or changing only within narrow limits) number of people and with certain and unchanging relations between them. Each soldier has the property of a soldier only because of these conditions. Individual mental, physical qualities, height, hair color, etc. do not play a decisive role here. In the event that the commander is out of action, his place is taken by the one following him in formation, regardless of his height, hair color, etc. The attitude of the commander to subordinates, i.e. the very things that create a squad of soldiers as a combat structure remain unchanged.
The elements of language do not exist in isolation, but in close connection and opposition to each other, i.e. in a system that is built on the basis of a certain structure. The relationship of the elements of the language lies in the fact that the change or loss of one element is reflected in other elements of the language. For example, the fall of the reduced in Old Russian caused a restructuring of the system of consonantism, the formation of the categories of deafness / sonority, hardness / softness.
In defining what constitutes a language system, it must be kept in mind that the system dominates its members. The system and structure define the element as belonging to the given system and in this sense dominate it. Therefore, when defining a system, the logical definition of relations precedes the logical definition of elements (Yu.S. Stepanov). In the language system important role non-rigidly determined, probabilistic relations play - non-rigid domination.
The structural complexity of the language system has long been recognized by scientists. W. von Humboldt spoke about the systemic nature of the language, he emphasized that there is nothing singular in the language, each of its individual elements manifests itself only as part of the whole. A deep theoretical understanding of the systematic nature of the language was carried out in the concept of F. de Saussure. Language, according to Saussure, is a system, all parts of which can and should be considered in their synchronic interdependence. Therefore, each element of the language must be studied in terms of its role in the system.
In linguistics, the terms system and structure have long been used as synonyms. However, in the last decade there has been a trend towards their differentiation. A system is understood as an internally organized set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other. Structure refers to the internal organization of these elements, the network of their relationships. There is no structure without structural correlation of elements.
The structure of a language is part of its system. The structure of the language is not available to direct observation, it is revealed through in-depth linguistic research, with different parties as if appearing in different forms.
in Prague linguistic school the thesis about language as a system of systems was put forward. The language system began to be presented as a system of language levels, each of which is also a system. The language system is also understood as a system functional styles(sublanguages), each of which is also a system.
Dynamic multidimensional and layered system language is distinguished by a specific property: the sets of elements that make up this system are blurred and fuzzy, and the elements themselves have the character of the so-called linguistic variables. Word young compatible with the definitions of 28 years, 30 years, 10 years. Possible combinations young director, young wine. Boundaries of the semantics of a linguistic variable young very fuzzy. These boundaries are not only determined by a variety of changing factors such as social attitudes and individual experience, cultural tradition, but are not frozen. They are as changeable as the linguistic variable itself.
blur. fuzziness, changeability of language systems and their constituent elements allows them to adapt to the description of any phenomena of reality, including those that have not been described before. On the other hand, these properties of language systems make it possible to constantly adjust these systems to the needs of a changing world in the process of the historical evolution of language.
13 . Language levels and language units
Modern ideas about the systemic nature of the language are primarily associated with the doctrine of its levels, their units and relationships. The structure of the language is formed by a hierarchy of levels. Language levels are subsystems (tiers) of the general language system, each of which has a set of its own units and rules for their functioning. The level of the language is that part of its system that has the corresponding unit of the same name (Yu.S. Stepanov). Traditionally, the following main levels of the language are distinguished:
Phonemic (phonological);
Lexical (lexico-semantic);
Morphological;
Syntactic.
Some scientists identify more levels, and some scholars believe that only the phonological and semantic levels should be distinguished.
Each of the levels of the language has its own units, which have different purpose, structure, compatibility and place in the language system.
Between levels (subsystems) in the system of language - hierarchy relations. The higher level units are built from the lower level units. The lower level unit implements its functions in the higher level units.
Language levels are not isolated, but are closely related. The multi-tiered language system contributes to savings language tools, allows the language to be a flexible means of expressing the communicative needs of society.
A language system is a set of linguistic elements of any natural language that are in relationships and connections with each other, which form a certain unity and integrity. Members of systems receive their significance only when there are other members of the system and depend on them directly. ([k] in a language without [x] is not the same as [k] in a language without [x], the meaning of each case varies from the number of cases in the language in general). Essential element language system - language sign. Signs mean words - two-sided ideal-material entities. The ideal side is the signified, the external (material) side is the signifier. The interpretation of the sign can be bilateral ( dual nature sign) and monoteral (only material side) The theory of the linguistic sign was developed by Ferdinand de Saussure, he identified three types of signs:
A) iconic (motivated, resembling the designated objects - road signs)
B) signs-symbols (semi-motivated, only partially determined by what they mean (red cross, coat of arms of the USSR)
C) signs-signals (conditional, unconditional, motivated by the fact that they are always associated with the situation (red light of a traffic light, a bell, three whistles, speech, interjections). Signs should be distinguished from signs or symptoms in which the signified and the signifier are in causal They do not transmit information purposefully, like signs.Properties of a linguistic sign:
1) materially ideal
2) the linguistic sign is primary (signs of other systems are secondary - first language and speech, then signals)
3) the arbitrariness of signs (the absence of a natural connection between the signifier and the signified)
4) motivation (the presence of a natural connection between the signifier and the signified (house, hand - unmotivated, house - a small house, mittens - what is on hand)
5) mutability (the signifier changes, but the signified remains (eye-eye, finger-finger), the signified changes, the signifier is unchanged (scoundrel - good for nothing, freak - beauty in Polish, stink - Czech perfume, shame - Czech spectacle, shameful Serbian actress).
6) asymmetry (one signifier has many signifiers (polysemy), one signifier has many signifiers (synonyms) à moving connection, constant change of languages)
7) The linear nature of the signifier (speech has a duration of space).
Each component of the language system does not exist in isolation, but only in opposition to other components of the system. The structure of the language system is called structure. If the system is a set of elements connected by certain relationships, then the structure is the type of these relationships, the way the system is organized. Thus, the structure is not an independent entity, but a characteristic of the system. Since language is one of complex systems, then, in order to know this system, it is stratified into smaller systems. In each subsystem, a set of homogeneous units is allocated, which are among themselves in certain connections and relationships.
Main units:
1. phoneme (enters into connections and relationships with phonemes, the function is a material sign of the language, and the first perceptual function is the object of perception, and the second significative function has the ability to distinguish between higher, significant units of the language - morphemes, words, sentences (not-bot-mot -cat, became-table-chair, pine-pine-pine)),
2. morphemes (like a phoneme, the function is semaseological, that is, to express the concepts of a) real-root (-red-), b) non-root meanings of features (-ost, without-, re-) and relationship values (-y, -ish )
3. word (function - nominative - to name objects and phenomena proper names just called common nouns combine nominative and semaseological functions),
4. offer (function - communicative)
These subsystems are called language levels. Language levels are subsystems of the general language system, each of which is characterized by a set of relatively homogeneous units and a set of rules governing their use and grouping into various classes and subclasses. Basic levels of language: phonemic, morphemic, lexical and syntactic. Signs that distinguish levels:
1) Units of the same level must be homogeneous
2) Unit lower level must be part of the unit top level.
3) Units of any level should be distinguished by segmenting more complex structures of the language than they themselves.
In addition, there is also a syllable and a phrase - units of an intermediate level, that is, components of a unit of the nearest higher level of the language, consisting of a number of units of the nearest lower level.
Language units can be one-sided (phoneme, syllable - their function in the formation and distinction of sound shells of bilateral units) and two-sided (they have both sound and meaning, express either the meaning itself, or serve to convey it - morphemes, words, sentences)
Language units can enter into three types of relations: paradigmatic (relations of opposition and functional identity of language elements, and they are appositive (between invariant units of the language - wooden + table) and equivalent (between variants of one invariant - table, table, table)), syntogmatic ( compatibility relations of elements of the same level in the speech chain (phoneme with phoneme, word with words)) and hierarchical (between language units according to their degree of complexity).
Question 1. Meaning previous theories for the development of modern linguistics: ancient philosophy, ancient grammatical tradition, universal grammars.
1) The theory of names in the ancient philosophy of language. This theory does not yet contain specialized knowledge about language, and it is not included in the corpus of its own linguistics, but is nevertheless considered important for the creation of linguistics. ! This theory establishes the integrity of the connection between the plane of content and the plane of expression, each of which has a different structure, but both cannot exist without each other.
2) Language and speech or linguistics of universal grammars (traditions of China, Egypt, Ancient Greece and ancient rome). They mark the emergence of grammatical theory, provide a tool and method for describing the language.
3) Universal grammar "Port-Royal". It reveals the commonality of the systems of linguists, since they are all based on the same universal logic. Gives rise to logical grammar, linguistic typology, tk. they quite clearly distinguished between the synthetic and analytical structure of the language (although such terms did not exist then).
Question 2 Significance of previous theories for development modern linguistics Keywords: comparative-historical linguistics, systemic linguistics, structuralism. The main trends of modern science of language.
4) Comparatively historical linguistics. This method is considered revolutionary, because. there is a penetration into the mechanism of the language, because a language is studied by means of studying its history and comparing it with other languages. As a result, a genological classification of the languages of the world is created. In the same period, naturalism (Schleicher) and psychologism (Potebnya, Steinthal) stand out as a separate trend. They deal with the problem of the correlation of the natural and psychological principles in the language. Humboldt (“The language of the people is its spirit, and the spirit is its language. And there is nothing more identical to each other.” His position is based on cognitive linguistics. G. Laid the foundations of the modern representation of the modern representation of language and thinking.) - creator general linguistics. Under his influence, such trends were created as: ethnolinguistics, generative linguistics, cognetology, discourse linguistics. Proclaims one of the main principles - principle historicism, which says that any research should be historical in nature. Historicism - taking into account historical roots, perspectives.
5) System linguistics. Saussure, Courtenay, Fortunatov. They are characterized by a view of the language as a system-structural education (linguistics), and they determine the symbolic nature of the language. On the basis of the works of Saussure and Courtonet, a basic approach to language was formed. The language consists of: separate clear elements that are interconnected, connecting with each other, they form qualitatively new formations. Sounds do not carry any meaning, unlike words.
6) Structuralism ( most of 20th century, 50s, 60s, 70s - the heyday of Saussure) - the dominant trend. Explores the internal organization of language. The organization of the language gives grounds for linguistic modeling, affirms the most important principle of linguistics, considering languages as systems, parts of which exist only in their interconnection, interdependence, gives rise to modern trends. Rigorous study of the structure of the language. Description of the phoneme, differential features.
7) The modern period (based on all the already established provisions) is characterized by two main processes: differentiation and integration scientific research. Differentiation is a branching of scientific linguistic research, their specialization. Integration is the emergence of a new discipline at the intersection of different sciences. Directions: sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics. Linguoculturology - studies the language on the basis of cultural property. Text linguistics, ICC, discourse theory - the text is considered as belonging to the discourse, discourse-text, immersed in life, i.e. taking into account the communicants, the parameters of communication, the situation of communication. Discourse - a set of texts that match these parameters, for example, legal discourse. Cognitive linguistics interprets the relationship of language and thinking, language and reality in a new way. Conceptology - studies the concepts of gender linguistics - the differences between male and female speech. Semasiology - studies the content of language units. Communicative linguistics - language is studied as a means language communication; considers how the language performs its communicative functions; discusses communication strategies and tactics; communicative categories that are realized in the texts generated for the purpose of communication. Linguopragmatics - the content and structure of a speech work, depending on the situation and the purpose of communication.
Question 8. Language as a system-structural education. Modern representation about the system and structure of the language, units and tiers of the language system.
1) The language consists of separate elements, i.e. language units. Language units are its elements that have such properties as: reproducibility, constancy of features in the language system, or the formation of speech according to certain models, the performance of certain functions by them. ! The function of the word and word combination is to name the object of reality. The function of the proposal is communicative.
2) These elements are interconnected of various kinds and varying complexity. There are 2 global types of relations: paradigmatic and syntagmatic, which are transformed into more private ones. An example is chess.
3) Changes in individual elements cause changes in the system as a whole. General property system is not reduced to the sum of the properties, elements that make it up. Elements of the language system, connecting with each other, generate a new meaning. An example is phonemes, connecting with each other to form a new word, meaning and meaning.
Units of the language form the levels of the language: phonetic (sounds and prosodic phenomena), lexical (words and phraseological units), morphological (morphemes and word forms), syntactic (phrases and sentences). These tiers form subsystems in common system language. Units in these levels are interconnected by system relations. Each tier has its own functions in the systemic organization of the language. For example, phonetic serves building material; and lexical - the central tier, the main function of which is the reflection of reality; the function of the morphological is to serve as the "skeleton" of the language system, a means of structural organization of language units; syntactic - communicative function, i.e. serve as a means of expressing and communicating thoughts. Systems approach to the study of reality is fundamental not only in linguistics, but also in other sciences. It is due to the fact that the objects around us are system-structural formations. Language is one of these things. All historical linguistics is an attempt in one way or another to systematize linguistic units and phenomena. The same is true of modern linguistics.
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