Abstract scientific(lat. - removal, distraction) - distraction from insignificant, secondary signs and mental selection and generalization of the most essential features characteristic of a particular group of phenomena. The results of such a generalization, produced by scientific abstraction, find their expression in scientific concepts and categories. "Such words as "matter" and "motion" are nothing more than abbreviations in which we cover, according to their general properties, many different sensible things. scientific abstraction gives us a more complete and deeper understanding of reality than direct sensations. V. I. Lenin notes that sensory representation cannot, for example, capture a movement with a speed of 300,000 km per second, but that is accessible to thinking.

By means of scientific abstractions, cognition passes from the perceptions of the individual to the generalization of the mass of phenomena, creating concepts, categories, laws that reflect the internal, essential connections of the phenomena of reality. Only by theoretical generalization human thought, can discover the essence of phenomena, the laws of their existence and development. Therefore, V. I. Lenin points out that even the simplest generalization, the first and simplest formation of concepts, means a person’s knowledge of an ever deeper and deeper objective connection of the world.

For example, on direct observation, it seems that the prices of commodities on the capitalist market in last count determined by supply and demand. In fact, they are determined by the amount of socially necessary labor expended on the production of goods, or, in other words, by value. The concept of value, which Marx derived as a result of scientific abstraction, deeply and correctly reflects the real public relations commodity production. Marx points out that “neither a microscope nor chemical reagents can be used in the analysis of economic forms. Both must be replaced by the power of abstraction. On the great importance of abstractions, abstracting work
thinking for understanding the essence of phenomena is indicated by IV Stalin in his work.

For example, vocabulary, taken by itself, does not yet form a language. Only having entered the disposal of grammar, the vocabulary acquires greatest value. Grammar gives the language a coherent, meaningful character. The power of grammar is the power of abstraction. Abstracting from the particular and the concrete both in words and in sentences, grammar takes the general that underlies the changes in words and the combination of words in sentences, and builds from it grammar rules, grammatical laws. Grammar is the result of long, abstract work human thinking, an indicator of the tremendous success of thinking.

Considering huge role scientific abstractions for understanding the world, modern bourgeois reactionaries in philosophy are fighting against them, striving to refute the fact that any scientific abstraction is a reflection in the consciousness of the objective essence of phenomena.

Their favorite argument in the fight against scientific abstractions is the reference to the fact that abstractions cannot be seen, felt, photographed, as it can be done with concrete things and phenomena. On this basis, they deny the reality of matter, value, surplus value, etc. The whole trick of the bourgeois philosophers lies in the fact that they deliberately obscure the fact that abstractions are created by generalizing the essential, inherent in the mass of individual phenomena. Abstractions reflect the general in objects, but the general does not and cannot have a directly sensible, visual appearance. The general exists only in the particular, through the particular.

Criticizing in his time the metaphysicians who torn apart the individual and the general, Engels wrote: “This old story. First they create abstractions, diverting them from sensible things, and then they want to know them sensually, they want to see time and smell space. But the fact that the general, known through abstraction, cannot be perceived by the senses, does not mean that it is unreal, that it does not exist. Law gravity just as impossible to photograph as the cost, but only obscurantists can deny its reality on this basis.

It is necessary to distinguish between the materialistic understanding of abstraction and the idealistic one. The scientific, materialistically understood abstraction is directly opposite to the idealistic one, which separates a person's thought from real objective reality.

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The method of scientific abstraction consists in abstracting, in the process of cognition, from external phenomena, non-essential aspects and highlighting (singling out) the most deep essence subject. This result is the concepts and categories of science. Cognition begins with the study of the concrete, with the analysis and generalization of empiricism. At this stage, the most common, abstract concepts Sciences.

The method of scientific abstraction (abstraction) consists in abstraction in the process of cognition from external phenomena, insignificant details and highlighting the essence of an object or phenomenon. As a result of these assumptions, it is possible to develop, for example, scientific concepts expressing the most general properties and connections of the phenomena of reality - categories. Thus, abstracting from the countless differences in external properties produced in the world of millions of different goods, we combine them into one economic category - goods, fixing the main thing that unites various goods - these are products intended for.

The method of scientific abstraction (abstraction) consists in abstraction in the process of cognition from external phenomena, insignificant details and highlighting the essence of an object or phenomenon. As a result of these assumptions, it is possible to develop, for example, scientific concepts that express the most general properties and connections of phenomena of reality - categories. So, abstracting from the countless differences in the external properties of millions of different goods produced in the world, we combine them into one economic category - goods, fixing the main thing that unites various goods - this is products intended for sale.

The method of scientific abstraction requires the study of phenomena in their most developed, mature form.

The most widely used in the course is the method of scientific abstraction, i.e. liberation of ideas about the subject and object of research from the particular, random, atypical, short-term, single and, on the contrary, finding in them the essential, general, permanent. Then the movement from the general to the particular begins.

In order to understand what value or utility is, scientists use the method of scientific abstraction (lat. In the process: cognition, they are mentally distracted from the non-essential aspects J of the phenomenon in question in order to highlight the properties that reveal its essence.

In political economy, and in social sciences In general, such a method of in-depth knowledge of reality as the method of scientific abstraction is of great importance. Abstraction means the purification of our ideas about the processes under study from random, transient, individual and the allocation of durable, stable, typical in them. It is thanks to the abstraction method that it is possible to capture the essence of phenomena, from the essence of one level (order) to move to the essence of more high level, to formulate the categories and laws of science expressing these essences.

Calculation of the structure, taking into account all its properties, exact geometric dimensions, strict interaction of elements with each other is either theoretically impossible or practically unacceptable due to excessive complexity. Therefore, the method of scientific abstraction schematizes the structure, excluding secondary factors that do not significantly affect the reliability and accuracy of the calculation.

Economic theory uses a wide range of methods of scientific knowledge. The most important of these is the method of scientific abstraction. It consists in the purification of the study of the object from random, temporary and the determination of permanent, typical, characteristic features. With the help of the abstraction method, scientific categories are formulated that express the essential aspects of the objects under study.

Mathematical modeling is based on the fact that the main parameters of the economy are commensurable, and establishes qualitative and quantitative dependencies variables describing the economic process. When building a model, the method of scientific abstraction is used - the most significant connections are reproduced, and the researcher abstracts from minor ones.

If the subject of science reveals what is known, then the method reveals how it is known. Economic theory uses a wide range of methods of scientific knowledge. The most important of them is the method of scientific abstraction - a conscious abstraction from everything random that does not correspond to the nature of the subject being studied.

The study of electrical engineering has great importance also in the formation of the Marxist-Leninist worldview of students. When studying complex electromagnetic processes the student is convinced of the effectiveness of the method of scientific abstractions - the only the right way knowledge of truth.

The logical (theoretical) approach to the study of these same phenomena does not serve mirror reflection their historical path. It involves penetration into the essence of the phenomenon under study and abstraction, i.e. distraction from its secondary properties. As a result, there is scientific presentation about this phenomenon, i.e. a logical concept is formed, or an economic category, for example, a product, price, money, competition, etc. This way of studying is called the method of scientific abstraction.

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Economic Methods is a way of research economic phenomena that affect the development and state of the economic system itself.

Depending on the goal pursued, the appropriate method is selected. An error in choosing a research method inevitably turns all the results obtained into grossly erroneous ones.

scientific abstraction

The basic methods of economics put scientific abstraction at their head. It is based on highlighting the core of the process, cutting off everything that is secondary, changeable, random, inconstant. The study of the economic process in this way allows you to get an idea about general principle production work, necessary resources, capabilities. Get a unique, ideal theoretical model, on which the errors of reality will be superimposed in the future.

Similar in principle to scientific abstraction are such methods of studying the economy as analysis and synthesis, acting together. Analysis involves the division of the entire economic phenomenon into the smallest parts that have independent meaning, influence. Each of them is given attention, each is studied. Synthesis, on the contrary, seeks to reveal all the significant details, determine the factors that depend on them, in order to ultimately obtain an absolutely accurate model that corresponds to reality and is able to take into account any fluctuations in the environment.

Induction and deduction

The application of analysis and synthesis does not allow obtaining reliable results without data obtained using deduction and induction methods. A complex approach to the study of multifaceted and heterogeneous manifestations economic life becomes possible when the researcher's capabilities are expanded by the ability to draw conclusions based on the pattern of events created by a certain set of factors. Deduction seeks to characterize a particular event by isolating it from the general picture. Induction, on the contrary, tries to predict the development of events, taking into account several specific positions.

Logical and historical method

Modern methods of economics recognize the value of data obtained from the simultaneous use of the method of historical research and a logical premise. They cannot be used separately, which does not mean that they overlap each other. As a result of unpredictable developments in the country, a situation may develop that is not historically typical. accepted system management. Then the usual balance is restored again. At historical research such a deviation must be taken into account, for a logical one it does not matter.

Historical methods of studying the economy, as a result of studying a series of processes and phenomena that replace each other, are able to quite accurately determine the reasons for the establishment in certain territories of existing economic systems, to clearly explain why the distinguishing details move the process forward or slow it down. historical method pays great attention simple events. Any process, any movement takes place in the direction from simple to complex. Economic development with considering this method must be evaluated while moving in the same direction. For example, market analysis is impossible without studying the exchange of goods.

Statistical and mathematical methods

Economic processes, being the result of manifestations economic activity, differ in quantitative and qualitative characteristic. It is possible to evaluate them using appropriate statistical techniques and mathematical tools. The need for research comes down to determining the boundaries of the line beyond which quantity turns into quality.

Economic and mathematical modeling

The study, including with the help of computer technology, of all the reasons that affect the emergence of an economic phenomenon, forcing patterns to appear, aims to learn how to influence the entire economic process, to make the most accurate forecasts. The methods of managing the economy inevitably depend on the ability to understand it. With the help of a systematic approach, it is possible to obtain the data necessary to build an economic model.

An economic model is considered to be a formal description of an economic phenomenon or process. The skeleton of the model is made up of the objective characteristics of the subject under study, and the subjective design directly depends on the purpose of the study. Building a model is impossible without functional analysis - it is necessary in the process of work, it is used to evaluate the work done.

The dependence of one quantity on another always corresponds to a certain system called a function. Everyday life a person acquires the illusion of diversity and unpredictability only thanks to random set variables. Decision-making when meeting with them usually occurs according to the same algorithm. It is often referred to as character and lifestyle. It is not surprising that all areas human life loaded with features. Methods state regulation Economies play with price, trying to influence demand. However, the price does not always act as an independent unit. Possible and inverse function. The price can depend on demand, especially in the context of the constant growth of the latter.

Economic modeling based on mathematical assumptions has received wide use only in the 20th century. However, great amount mistakes made while using this method, almost excluded it from the number of popular and necessary. Performance Nobel laureate Maurice Allais in 1989 was sent to identify weak side way of studying. It is a subjective construction, forcing the author to create a reflection own opinion about the real state of affairs, or to give a forecast "how the ideal economic system should look like."

Graphic method

To read most models, it is enough to be able to read classical mathematical graphs. The chart provides graphic image dependence of one variable on another. For economic phenomena linear dependence extremely rare. Changes in economic activity are almost never expressed as a straight line at an angle to the coordinate axes. Many methods of economics resort to the presentation of the collected information in the form of graphs, charts, diagrams. Thus, it is possible to quickly evaluate all the information, present it more clearly, combine absolutely contradictory data into one whole.

For reading an economic chart, the same rules apply as for a math chart. At inverse relationship variables the image will move down from left to right. In practice, this may look like an increase in sales as a result of a decrease in the cost of a product. Direct dependence is determined by an ascending graph, corresponding to an increase in prices as a result of an increase in the number of production costs. More often, the graph looks like a curve, a broken line, because even the unemployment rate is able to respond to a decrease in inflation.

For the analysis of diagrams, diagrams and graphs, it is customary to use special types of analysis. positive and normative. Positive analysis always has a certain amount of subjectivity. designed to determine the real, manifesting itself in certain processes. Any dispute that arises about the accuracy of judgments is easily verified by facts. It is common for normative analysis to describe deviation existing model from what it should be. The disadvantage of the reception is the inability to establish the correctness of the judgment. When discussing economic theories based on normative analysis, economists usually get into heated arguments.

The abstraction method is a process of ignoring the unimportant and highlighting the important details of the phenomenon under consideration (system, entity) for which we want to create a model. The method of abstraction is based on the principle of least expressiveness: abstraction should cover only the very essence of the phenomenon under consideration, no more, but no less. The result of using the abstraction method in relation to programming should be the construction of some model.

The abstraction method when building a model uses the following operations: partitioning - highlighting the most significant details of the phenomenon under consideration; fusion - the union of entities present in the phenomenon under consideration (it is understood that the phenomenon can be decomposed, divided into components); at the same time, a certain set of concepts, properties of a certain entity is considered as a whole;

generalization - finding the most common features in various phenomena and the rejection of details that are insignificant at the moment; specialization - finding differences between related phenomena.

Splitting and merging operations are used to find the composition of the model being developed (they implement the inclusion relation), and generalization and specialization operations are used to display the relationships of kinship between different phenomena (they implement the inheritance relation). Applying certain operations of the abstraction method, we can express complex relationships real world as a limited set of abstractions. In the following parts of the article, an attempt is made to display the main techniques used in modern programming through a set of abstraction method operations.

splitting

Partitioning is implemented in two useful abstract techniques: decomposition and modularity. Let's consider these methods in more detail. When implementing complex systems the size of the programs increases like an avalanche, as it is necessary to implement complex models. However, while the complexity of realizable models is growing, the capabilities of the human brain are limited. Many psychologists believe that the number of units of information that a person can absorb at the same time does not exceed seven. The reason for this is the limited amount of human short-term memory. To resolve the emerging contradiction, it is necessary to learn how to perform the decomposition of complex systems. In this case, the complex system is divided into weakly related components. This technique is widely used in object-oriented programming in early stages when searching for a suitable class hierarchy that effectively describes the original problem.

Modularity means splitting the program into meaningful parts (a set of program modules). The division into modules is carried out in such a way as to combine logically related abstractions and minimize the logical connections between abstractions; this entails minimizing the use of global variables. You can consider a module as a separately compiled program fragment (file). Modularity reflects the representation of a complex system in the form of loosely coupled subsystems. It supports data protection - hides implementations of objects inside modules that are not essential for consideration at the next level of abstraction, and encapsulation - allows you to consider a group of objects as a whole (module). The idea of ​​modularity has its development in the form of packages. They allow you to consider several modules as a whole and allow you to create an arbitrary number of levels of hierarchy.

Scientific abstraction.

Subject economic theory is the problem rational use limited resources to meet the growing material needs of man.

Economic theory as a science and as an academic discipline.

Science has developed and applies various specific methods and techniques of cognition of reality. These include: statistical observation, proposing and testing hypotheses, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, systems approach, modeling of processes, setting up experiments, etc. Some of them arose before the advent of dialectical materialism, others were developed relatively recently. They do not oppose materialistic dialectics, but are its concretization in relation to one or another process of scientific knowledge. These methods and techniques of cognition are used both in natural and social sciences. Their forms and limits of application depend on the subject of science and its nature. In economic theory, such a method of in-depth knowledge of reality is of great importance, such as:

Scientific abstraction.

abstraction- this is a distraction from the insignificant, highlighting the most important facts and interconnections in the economy. Abstraction occurs in the process of analysis. Abstraction means the purification of our ideas about the processes under study from the random, transient, individual and the allocation of durable, stable, typical in them. It is thanks to the abstraction method that it is possible to capture the essence of phenomena, to move from the essence of one level (order) to the essence of a higher level, to formulate the categories and laws of science that express these essences. Thus, observing changes in prices, their dynamics, which are formed under the influence of a wide variety of factors, it is easy to come to the conclusion that these processes are chaotic and unpredictable. It is possible to penetrate into their secret only if it is possible to cut off all random, generated by one or another external causes fluctuations. Only then will the basis of prices be revealed - value, determined by the socially necessary expenditures of labor, will the internal, completely natural logic of the movement of prices, ultimately determined by the dynamics of labor productivity, be revealed.

In order to come to the correct conclusions as a result of abstraction, to identify typical trends community development, certain essential conditions must be met. First of all, the whole set of phenomena relating to a given area, and not individual facts, should be taken into account. As a result of abstraction, economic categories are derived, i.e. scientific concepts that characterize certain aspects of economic phenomena. Further deepening of knowledge makes it possible to formulate economic laws that establish the most stable objective dependencies and relationships in economic processes. Thus, the production and appropriation of surplus value are the law of the existence and development of capitalism, expressing the main causal relationship between the processes of the capitalist economy

Analysis involves the division of the object of study into separate elements, to simpler economic phenomena and processes, highlighting the essential aspects of phenomena and processes. Selected elements are examined with different sides, they highlight the main and essential.

Synthesis means the connection of the studied elements and aspects of the subject into a single whole (into a system). Synthesis is opposed to analysis, with which it is inextricably linked. In the course of analysis and synthesis, dependencies between economic processes and phenomena, cause-and-effect relationships are established, patterns are revealed. With method analysis and synthesis related to the division of economic theory into micro- and macroeconomics, which involve two different levels consideration of economic systems. Microeconomics deals with individual elements (parts) of these systems. She studies the economics of individual firms, households, industries; production or price of an individual product, etc. The microeconomic approach is close to the method of analysis.

Macroeconomics explores economic systems as a whole, or so-called aggregates, i.e. set of economic units. These units include world economy, national economy. Macroeconomics, based on the synthesis method, operates with generalizing, aggregate indicators, such as total output, national income, and total expenditures.

Figuratively speaking, if microeconomics studies trees, then macroeconomics studies forests.. However, division economics on micro- and macrospheres should not be absolutized. Macroeconomics and microeconomics are closely intertwined and sometimes difficult to separate. Many questions in economic theory fall into both areas.

Movement from the abstract to the concrete

But the process of cognition does not end with this either: the movement from the concrete to the abstract is supplemented by the reverse process - the ascent from the abstract to the concrete, during which the most general (simplest) economic form appears to be "deployed" into an integral organic system economic relations in accordance with the system 's own internal logic . That which at the first stage had to be abstracted in order to elucidate deeper essential relationships, now, on the contrary, must be taken into account and step by step - from common ground to specific relationships and forms of their manifestations - explained. But now the concrete no longer appears as a random heap of phenomena, but as a holistic, internally connected picture. public life

Induction and deduction.

Induction is the derivation of the general from particular facts, the movement from facts to theory, from the particular to the general. as the philosophers say. The study begins with the observation of economic processes, with the accumulation of facts. Induction allows you to make generalizations based on facts.
Deduction (particular from general) means the preliminary formulation of some theory before it is confirmed or rejected on the basis of verification of facts, and the application of the formulated propositions to observable facts and economic processes. The formulated scientific assumption or assumption is a hypothesis. In this case, the study goes from theory to facts, from the general to the particular.

The unity of historical and logical.

AT this case the logical is synonymous with the theoretical, the historical is synonymous with practice. The principle of the unity of the logical and historical is that the theoretical analysis of economic phenomena should reflect the real historical process occurrence and development of these phenomena. The theory must correspond to history, practice, but not copy them, but reproduce them in essence and without random phenomena and facts. scientific knowledge social processes and systems require reliance on the principle of unity of the logical and historical. It is based on the fact that society at any stage of development is whole organism in which all components are in a certain relationship. Moreover, this logical relationship reflects, reproduces in a compressed form the historical process of the emergence and formation of this system. Historically, at first, its more general, simple features arise, and complex, more specific properties, as a rule, are formed at subsequent stages of social development.

Economic and mathematical modeling.

Mathematical and statistical methods. With the development of mathematics and computer science, it became possible to represent many economic dependencies in the form mathematical formulas and models. Statistical Methods allow using the accumulated arrays of economic data to analyze and identify trends and patterns of economic development for economic forecasting.
Mathematics, computer science and statistics make it possible to build with a sufficient degree of accuracy economic models. The model in a simplified abstract form represents key features individual economic processes or the economy as a whole. The model reflects the most essential features of economic processes. It should be noted that the model can be represented not only in mathematical form. Models are formulated different ways: mathematical description using equations, inequalities, etc., graphic image, description using a table, verbal formulation. In the future, we will have the opportunity to demonstrate this when analyzing the laws of development of a market economy, in particular the law of demand and the law of supply.
As a result of studying economics with the help of various methods economic laws are revealed.

Goals of economic progress.

Meeting the needs of every member of society through more and more best quality goods and services, subject to the growth of the efficiency of all elements of social production.