What is phonology in simple terms. New explanatory and word-formative dictionary of the Russian language, T

Phonology also studies the sounds of a language, but from a functional and systemic point of view, as discrete elements that distinguish between the signs and texts of a language.

Phonology- a section of language that studies the structural and functional patterns (the role of sounds in the language system) of the sound structure of the language.

The main concept and unit of phonology is the phoneme, or phonological distinction. (differential) sign. Phoneme- this is the smallest unit of the sound structure of a language, capable of distinguishing larger units (morphemes and words).

When choosing a segmental phoneme as the main unit of the phonological level, the description of this level (over which a suprasegmental or prosodic level is built, including stress, tone, intonation, etc.) largely comes down to identifying different positional combinatorial variants (allophones) of each phoneme. Many phonological schools and directions, when addressing issues of identifying phonemes and their variants, turn to the grammatical (morphological) role of the corresponding sound units. A special morphonological level is introduced and the linguistic discipline that studies it is morphonology, the subject of which is the study of the phonological composition of morphological units of language - morphs (parts of word forms) - and various kinds of grammatically determined alternations of phonemes.

Phoneme functions:

Discriminating

Constitutive (for construction).

The problems of phonemes were dealt with by Baudouin de Courtenay, Shcherba, Trubetskoy, and Jacobson.

If sounds are related to speech, then phonemes are related to language. Sound is a variant, phoneme is an invariant.

For example: Danish, phonemes |t|, |s| form the sound [ts].

1. The concept of phonological opposition.

Phonological opposition- This is the opposition of phonemes in the language system.

The classification of phonological oppositions was developed by Trubetskoy (PLK) in the 30s of the 20th century.

Criteria:

1. by number of participants:

- binary opposition– 2 participants |z|vs|s|.

- ternary opposition(3 participants)

|b| (labial), |d| (front-lingual), |r|, (posterior-lingual).

Group opposition (more than 3 participants)

2. by occurrence in a given language:

- proportional opposition(you can build a proportion)

voiced - voiceless

soft – hard

nasal – non-nasal

- isolated(no proportion, no other similar opposition)

For example: |p| and |l|.

3. in relation to opposition members:

- private. The difference is in the 1st differentiated characteristic. Anyone who has a certain characteristic is called a mark And marked, who does not have a sign - unmarked And roved.

For example: the sign is sonority. |p| and |b|. The marked word will be |b|, since it is voiced.

- gradual(varying degrees manifestations of the trait).

For example, |a| |o| |y| - different degrees of openness, i.e. different degrees of manifestation of this characteristic.

- equipolant(when units are opposed according to several characteristics and as a result they are equal (in terms of characteristics).

For example: |b| vs|s’| signs:

Softness/ringing

Labial/forelingual

Occlusive/slotted

4. by volume of distinctive power:

|t| and |n|, there and to us - always differ in speech.

|t| and |d|, rod and pond - do not differ in speech.

- permanent opposition– when phonemes have different strengths regardless of their opposition. For example, |y|.

- neutral opposition– when in a certain position any sign is neutralized, i.e. the phoneme does not perform a distinctive function.

[p r u t], |d| - phoneme, [t] – sound, because in a weak position, in a strong position the phoneme will give the sound [d].

PHENOMENA OF MORPHEMIC SUMA

Morpheme seam (or junction of morphemes) is the boundary between two adjacent morphs.

When a derivative word is formed, mutual adaptation of the connecting morphs occurs. According to the laws of the Russian language, at the border of morphemes, not all combinations of sounds are permissible. At the morpheme boundary (at morphemic suture) four types of phenomena can occur:

1. alternation of phonemes (the end of one morph changes, adapting to the beginning of another);

2. interfixation (an insignificant (asemantic) element is inserted between two morphs - interfix);

3. overlap (or interference) of morphs - the end of one morph is combined with the beginning of another;

4. truncation of the generating stem (the end of the generating stem is cut off and is not included in the derived word).

Outstanding achievements in the development of phonology belong to I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N.S. Trubetskoy, R.O. Yakobson, L.V. Shcherbe, N.S. Krushevsky, S.I. Kartsevsky, N.F. Yakovlev, N.K. Uslar.

The study of the plane of language expression (sound structure) has a long history. For example, in India in mid. I millennium BC there was a classification of sounds into vowels and consonants, stress and intonation, and alternations of sounds were studied. In Europe this happened later. In 1873 from German language Through French, the concept of the sound of a language appeared in Europe and Russia. With the introduction of the concept of phoneme, the question of the relationship between the sound side of language and the content plan began to be resolved.

Baudouin de Courtenay in the 70s. XIX century came to the idea of ​​a discrepancy between physical and functional properties sound. He proposed to distinguish between sound as a physiological-acoustic phenomenon and phoneme as an established idea of ​​sound, as the mental equivalent of sound. Thus, the first idea of ​​the phoneme had a pronounced psychological character. Phonemes were represented as certain nodes around which the sound diversity of speech was grouped. Baudouin was the first to distinguish between phonetic variations determined by positional and combinatorial conditions and historically determined alternations of phonemes in a morpheme. Psychological concept phonemes played important role in the development of phonology, but she was unable to answer many fundamental questions, including not revealing clear ways of identifying phonemes.

Baudouin's student L.V. Shcherba developed and enriched the theory of phonemes. He tried to combine the psychological basis with the functional one. Phonemes were defined as those sounds in our minds that allow us to distinguish the meaning of words. This means that sound units that are similar in acoustic and articulatory terms and associated with the same meaning are combined into one phoneme. On the other hand, sounds in which physical differences are associated with differences in meaning are different phonemes. The direct connection of the phoneme with the meaning, according to Shcherba, is also manifested in its ability to function as single word(book “Phonetics French", 1937). The common thread is the idea that the main criterion for identifying a phoneme is its semantic-distinguishing function. Language is general, and speech is private. There is a wide variety of sounds in speech. In language, they are combined into a relatively small number of sound types that are capable of differentiating words and forms, i.e. serve the purposes of human communication. These sound types are phonemes, and the real set of sounds that form a sound type are shades of phonemes. The most typical hue for a given phoneme is a hue that is pronounced in isolated form and is recognized by a native speaker as the speech embodiment of the phoneme. We are not aware of all other shades; we need special phonetic training of the ear.

The contribution to the development of phonology by Jones' teaching is highly appreciated.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

phonology

phonology, plural no, w. (from Greek phone - sound and logos - teaching) (linguistic). A department of linguistics that studies the system of phonemes of a language and their changes.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova.

phonology

The branch of linguistics is the study of phonemes. Phonology specialist.

The phoneme system of the language. F. Russian language, and priya. phonological, -aya, -oe.

New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

phonology

and. A branch of linguistics that studies the system of phonemes of a language and their changes.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

phonology

PHONOLOGY (from the Greek phone - sound and... logic) is a section of linguistics that studies the structural and functional patterns of the sound structure of a language.

Phonology

(from the Greek phone √ sound and...logy), a branch of linguistics, the science of the sound structure of language, studying the structure and functioning of the smallest insignificant units of language (syllables, phonemes). Phonics differs from phonetics in that the focus of its attention is not on the sounds themselves as a physical reality, but on the role (function) they perform in speech as components of more complex meaningful units—morphemes and words. Therefore, phonetics is sometimes called functional phonetics. The relationship between phonology and phonetics, as defined by N. S. Trubetskoy, boils down to the fact that the beginning of any phonological description consists in identifying meaningful sound oppositions; the phonetic description is taken as the starting point and material base. The basic unit of phoneme is the phoneme, and the main object of study is the opposition of phonemes, which together form the phonological system of language (phonological paradigmatics). The description of the phoneme system involves the use of terms of distinctive features (DP), which serve as the basis for contrasting phonemes. RPs are formulated as a generalization of the articulatory and acoustic properties of sounds that realize a particular phoneme (voicelessness √ sonority, openness √ closedness, etc.). The most important concept of phonology is the concept of position (see Phonological position), which allows us to describe phonological syntagmatics, that is, the rules for the implementation of phonemes in different conditions their occurrence in a speech sequence and, in particular, the rules for neutralizing phonemic oppositions and positional variability of phonemes.

In accordance with the thesis about the level organization of language (see Levels of Language), f. distinguishes between segmental (phonemic) and supersegmental (prosodic) levels; the latter has its own units parallel to the phonemes of the segmental level - prosodemes, tonemes, etc. (see Supersegmental units of language), which can also be described in terms of special RP (for example, signs of register and contour when describing tone oppositions). Both segment and supersegmental units F. can perform a semantic-distinguishing function (contribute to the recognition and discrimination of significant units of language), which is basic for them. In addition, F. studies the delimitative (discriminating) function of sound units, which consists in signaling the boundaries of words and morphemes in the flow of speech, in connection with which they speak of phonological boundary signals (for example, a fixed stress in the Czech language indicates the beginning of a word; phonemes [h ] and [h] in the language are possible √ respectively √ only at the beginning and at the end of a word, and they are indicators of its boundaries). Finally, the third function of phonological units, mainly supersegmental (duration, pitch, etc.), is expressive (expression emotional state speaker and his attitude to what is being communicated).

Along with synchronic phonology (see Synchrony), which studies the phonological system of a language at a certain historical period, there is a diachronic phrase (see Diachrony), which provides a phonological explanation sound changes in the history of language by describing the processes of phonologization, dephonologization and rephonologization of sound differences, i.e., for example, the transformation of positional variants of one phoneme into independent phonemes or, conversely, the disappearance of a certain phonemic opposition, or, finally, a change in the basis of phonemic opposition.

In the 70s 20th century generating f. develops as part general theory generative grammar (see Mathematical linguistics). It is constructed as a system of rules for the placement of stress and rules for the development of abstract symbols of morphemes into specific sound chains. In the generating F. center. The unit is no longer the phoneme, but the RP, because It is in terms of RP and positions that all phonological rules are formulated. The ideas of generative f. are used in both synchronic and diachronic f.

F. as an independent linguistic discipline in its modern understanding developed in the 20-30s. 20th century; its creators were N. S. Trubetskoy, R. Yakobson, S. O. Kartsevsky, who presented the main ideas of F. at the 1st International Congress of Linguists (The Hague, 1928). Major milestone in the development of f. there was Trubetskoy’s book “Fundamentals of Phonology” (1st German edition - 1939) - the first systematic presentation of the tasks, principles and methods of f. However, the prerequisites for the creation of f. were formed at the end of the 19th century. thanks to the efforts of him. scientist I. Winteler and English. scientist G. Sweet; The works of F. de Saussure and K. Bühler had a significant general theoretical influence on the emergence of philosophy. Particularly great was the contribution to preparing the ground for the development of phonology by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. His works are the first to develop the idea of ​​the phoneme and its features, although over time this concept has changed. Based on the research of Baudouin de Courtenay, two domestic phonological schools emerged - Leningrad (L. V. Shcherba, L. R. Zinder, M. I. Matusevich, L. V. Bondarko, etc.) and Moscow (V. N. Sidorov, R. I. Avanesov, P. S. Kuznetsov, A. A. Reformatsky, A. M. Sukhotin, M. V. Panov, etc.) √ and the original concept of S. I. Bernstein. The main difference between these schools is the understanding of the phoneme and the degree of autonomy of phonemes in relation to morphology (the role of the morphological criterion in determining the identity of phonemes). In European linguistics, the problems of phonology were developed in the works of members of the Prague Linguistic Circle - the main phonological center in Europe - and the London phonological school(founder √ D. Jones; since the 40s called the London Linguistic School); The latter’s contribution to the development of supersegmental physiology was especially significant (the works of J. Fers, W. Allen, F. Palmer, R. Robins, and others) in the 40s–60s. 20th century To a lesser extent, F. was developed within the framework of the Copenhagen linguistic school(see Glossematics). The development of linguistics was significantly influenced by the works of some scientists who did not formally belong to any school, but who were ideologically closest to the concept of the Prague Linguistic Circle: A. Martinet, E. Kurilovich, B. Malmberg, and A. Sommerfelt. Physics received significant development in America. descriptive linguistics(works of L. Bloomfield, E. Sapir and their students - M. Swadesh and W. Twaddell). Important achievement American F. (C. Hockett, G. Gleason, B. Block, J. Treyger, K. Pike, etc.) √ development of a method of distribution analysis (see Distribution).

Lit.: Trubetskoy N. S., Fundamentals of Phonology, trans. from German, M., 1960; Martinet A., The principle of economy in phonetic changes(Problems of diachronic phonology), trans. from French, M., 1960; Zinder L. R., General phonetics, L., 1960; Bernstein S.I., Basic concepts of phonology, “Questions of Linguistics”, 1962, ╧ 5; Jacobson R., Halle M., Phonology and its relation to phonetics, in the collection: New in linguistics, v. 2, M., 1962; Baudouin de Courtenay I. A., Selected works on general linguistics, t. 1√2, M., 1963; Main directions of structuralism, M., 1964; Prague Linguistic Circle, Sat. Art., M., 1967; Reformatsky A. A., From the history of Russian phonology. Feature article. Reader, M., 1970; Shcherba L.V., Language system and speech activity, L., 1974; Martinet A., Phonology as functional phonetics, L., 1949; Hoeni gswald H. M., Language change and linguistic reconstruction, Chi., 1960; Jakobson R, Selected writings, v. I, "s-Gravenhage, 1962; Chomsky N., Halle M., The sound pattern of English, N.Y., 1968; see also lit. under Art. Phoneme.

V. A. Vinogradov.

Wikipedia

Phonology

Phonology- a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound structure of a language and the functioning of sounds in language system. The basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is opposition ( opposition) phonemes that together form the phonological system of a language.

Most experts look at phonology; some (among them, in particular, such prominent phonologists as N. S. Trubetskoy and S. K. Shaumyan) consider these two disciplines as non-overlapping sections of linguistics.

The difference between phonology and phonetics is that the subject of phonetics is not reduced to the functional aspect of speech sounds, but also covers, along with this, its substantial aspect, namely: physical and biological aspects: articulation, acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener (perceptual phonetics).

The creator of modern phonology is considered to be the Polish-born scientist Ivan, who also worked in Russia. Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay. Outstanding Contribution Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy, Roman Osipovich Yakobson, Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, Avram Noam Chomsky, Morris Halle also contributed to the development of phonology.

Examples of the use of the word phonology in literature.

She has accumulated many valuable ideas of her own in the field of phonetics, phonology, morphemics, mor phonology, word formation, morphology, syntax, lexicology, phraseology, semantics, pragmatics, stylistics, text linguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, etc.

The oppositional method, developed in phonology and morphology, becomes the basis for the formation of a method of component analysis in the field of structural lexicology and semantics.

Jacobson, in collaboration with Gunnar Fant and Morris Halle, a dichotomous phonology, in which the fundamental sound unit is declared differential feature and the presence of a universal set of phonological differential features is postulated.

The Kazan school anticipates many ideas of structural linguistics, phonology, pestilence phonology, typology of languages, articulatory and acoustic phonetics.

A linguistic research program is being outlined poetic language with its special phenomena in the field phonology, morphology, syntax and vocabulary.

He developed the method of binary oppositions, created a dichotomous phonology, which postulates the presence of a universal set of distinctive features defined in acoustic terms for the languages ​​of the world.

Works on dialectology, linguistic geography, history, onomastics, phonetics and phonology Romanian language and Slavic dialectology.

Works in the field of Indo-European studies, comparative historical linguistics, comparative morphology and phonology Indo-European, Semitic, Finno-Ugric languages.

Concept of speech sound. Three sides of speech sound.

As a purely acoustic phenomenon, sound is the result of vibrations of the sounding object. physical body in an environment that transmits these vibrations to the hearing organs. In this case, the sound has the following physical characteristics:
a) height – vibration frequency
b) force – amplitude of oscillations
c) timbre - additional frequencies, overtones
d) duration – total time sound.

Various objects and people can produce sound in this quality. To become the sound of speech, sound as an acoustic phenomenon must be produced by the organs of speech (articulation) of a person and be part of the phonological system of a particular language.

The fact that our speech can be divided into separate sounds that we distinguish from each other seems self-evident. It seems quite obvious that everyone hears the difference between vowels in words at home - Duma, or consonants in words weight - all, cancer - varnish and distinguish raid from will pour simply by sound. However, in fact, the identification of individual sounds in a stream of speech is not at all determined only by sound. The same sound is assessed differently by speakers of different languages ​​from the point of view of sound composition: Koreans will not notice the difference R from l, Arabs O from y, for the French in words weight And all how different sounds will be judged by vowels rather than final consonants; and speakers of very many languages ​​will not be able to hear the difference between raid And will pour. Consequently, the selection of individual sounds and their assessment as the same or different depends on the characteristics of the linguistic structure. To determine how many different sounds Since these units are used in language, it is necessary to solve two problems: 1) divide the flow of speech into individual sounds - minimal sound segments; 2) determine which sounds should be considered the same and which should be distinguished.

Therefore, the sound of speech has the following aspects:
A) acoustic = physical
B) articulatory = physiological (biological)
B) functional = social
The science that studies the first two sides is phonetics, and the functional side is studied by phonology. Phonology is the science of compatibility, combinatoriality of sounds, their mutual influence and modification, and their distribution. Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are considered as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.

Based on the Saussurean division of “longue” and “parole”, Trubetskoy N.S. creates his own phonological theory, based on the division of the science of sounds into phonology and phonetics: as a field of study of sounds from a physiological-acoustic point of view. Phonology, the subject of which is not sounds, but units of sound structure - phonemes. Phonetics refers to language as a system. Thus, phonetics and phonology, from Trubetskoy’s point of view, are two independent disciplines: the study of the sounds of speech is phonetics, and the study of the sounds of language is phonology.

The only task of phonetics, according to Trubetskoy, is to answer the question: How is this or that sound pronounced?

Phonetics is the science of material side(sounds) of human speech. And since, according to the author, these two sciences of sounds have different objects of study: specific speech acts in phonetics and the system of language in phonology, then both various methods research. To study phonetics it was proposed to use purely physical methods natural sciences, and for the study of phonology - linguistic methods themselves.

Phonetics precedes phonology. Phonology is always built upon phonetics. This is also true historically: as a science, phonetics is first formed, then phonology. This is also true for each individual phonologist: students learn phonetics first and phonology second.

Phonetics is perceived as objective reality, given to us in auditory sensations and independent of who perceives this reality, i.e. listener.

In establishing the concept of phoneme - the basic phonological unit - N.S. Trubetskoy highlights its semantic-distinguishing function. Thus, the sounds that are the subject of phonetics research have a large number acoustic and articulatory features. But for the phonologist, most features are completely unimportant, since they do not function as distinctive features of words. The phonologist must take into account only what, in the composition of sound, performs a specific function in the language system. In his opinion, since sounds have a distinguishing function and have significance, they should be considered as an organized system, which, in terms of the order of its structure, can be compared with a grammatical system.

From point of view Prague school, phonemes are really unpronounceable. Being scientific abstraction, phonemes, are realized in various shades or variants that are pronounceable. But the phoneme itself, as an abstract unity of all shades, is truly unpronounceable. Trubetskoy writes: specific sounds heard in speech are rather only material symbols phonemes... Sounds are never phonemes themselves, since a phoneme cannot contain a single phonologically unimportant feature, which is actually not inevitable for the sound of speech (Amirova T.A., 2006).

The most comprehensive and systematic views of representatives of the Prague School in the field of phonology are presented in the work of N.S. Trubetskoy “Fundamentals of Phonology,” which represents only the first part of a comprehensive work conceived by the author.

In 1921, Trubetskoy was the first in the history of Slavic studies to propose a periodization of common Slavic proto-language history, dividing it into four periods. He attributed to the first period the era of the collapse of the Indo-European proto-language and the separation of its dialects from the environment certain group“Proto-Slavic” dialects, explaining that “in this era, Proto-Slavic phenomena for the most part spread to several other Indo-European dialects, especially often to Proto-Baltic, to which Proto-Slavic is closest. The second period can be characterized as an era of complete unity of the “common Slavic proto-language”, completely isolated from other descendants of the Indo-European dialects, which did not have any connections with these dialects. general changes and at the same time devoid of dialect differentiation. The third period should include the era of the beginning of dialect stratification, when, along with general phenomena covering the entire Proto-Slavic language, local phenomena arose that spread only to separate groups dialects, but they did not numerically prevail over general phenomena. Moreover, during this period they themselves dialect groups“they have not yet had time to establish final strong ties with each other (for example, the West Slavic group as a single whole does not yet exist, but instead there are two groups - the Proto-Lusatian-Lechitic, pulling to the east, and the Proto-Czechoslovak, pulling to the south). The fourth period is the era of the end of dialect fragmentation, when general phenomena arise much less frequently than dialectical phenomena, and groups of dialects turn out to be more durable and differentiated.

N.S. Trubetskoy was one of the first to substantiate the need for a three-fold approach to the comparative study of languages: the first - historical-genetic, the second - areal-historical (language unions, language zones), the third typological - and showed their application in a number of his works, among which the final work on general phonological typology. In this area, in addition to many universals (they were later studied by J. Greenberg and other scientists), N.S. Trubetskoy identified a number of more particular, local patterns. Thus, in the same article on the Mordovian and Russian phoneme systems, he demonstrated an important phonological principle, according to which the similarity of the inventory of phonemes does not determine the similarity of their phonological functions and combinatorial capabilities. Latest in Mordovian language completely different than in Russian.

Although the interests of the young Trubetskoy lay in the plane of ethnography, folklore and comparison of Ural, “Arctic” and especially North Caucasian languages. He, according to his autobiographical notes, nevertheless decided to choose Indo-European studies as a university subject, since this is the only well-developed area of ​​linguistics. After studying at the philosophy department and at the department of Western European literature, where he spent a year (from 1909/10 school year), N, S. Trubetskoy studies at the then newly created department of comparative linguistics (primarily Sanskrit and Avestan).

At the same time, understanding phonology as “the study of the sounds of a language, common and constant in the consciousness of its speakers,” and phonetics as the study of the particular manifestation of the sounds of a language in speech that has a one-act character.

Trubetskoy speaks about the relationship between both of these components of the doctrine, because without concrete speech acts there would be no language. Himself speech act he views it as establishing a connection between the Saussurean signified and the signifier.

Phonology is considered as a science that studies the signifier in a language, consisting of a certain number of elements, the essence of which is that they, differing from each other in sound manifestations, have a meaning-distinguishing function. And also the question of what are the relationships of distinctive elements and by what rules they are combined into words, phrases, etc. Most of the features of the sound itself are not significant for the phonologist, since they do not function as semantically distinctive features. Those. it is the study of the system of language that underlies all speech acts.

Phonetics examines physical, articulatory one-act phenomena. The methods of natural sciences are more suitable for her. For her, the main questions are: How to pronounce a sound, which organs are involved. Those. is the science of the material side of the sounds of human speech.

It should be noted that not all representatives of the Prague linguistic school shared exactly this opinion about the relationship between these two disciplines. N.B. Trnka believed that “the phonetician presupposes a linguistic system and strives to study its individual actualization, while the phonologist investigates what is functional in individual speech and establishes elements determined by their relation to the whole linguistic system.” That is, thus, the main difference between phonology and phonetics for Trnka was the different direction of their research.

Returning to the solution to this problem in “Fundamentals of Phonology”, it must be said that Trubetskoy defines three aspects in sound: “expression”, “address”, “message”. And only the third, representative, belongs to the sphere of phonology. It is divided into three parts, the subject of which is respectively: culminating language function (indicating how many units, i.e. words, phrases are contained in a sentence), delimitation function (indicating the boundary between two units: phrases, words, morphemes) and distinctive or meaningful, found in the explicative aspect of language. Trubetskoy recognizes the semantic-discriminating function as the most important and necessary for phonology, assigning a special section to it.

The main concept for distinguishing meaning in Trubetskoy is the concept of opposition - opposition on a semantic basis. Through phonological opposition, the concept of a phonological unit (“member of a phonological opposition”) is defined, which in turn is the basis for the definition of a phoneme (“the shortest phonological unit, the decomposition of which into shorter units is impossible from the point of view of a given language”).

Its semantic function is recognized as the main internal function of a phoneme. A word is understood as a structure recognizable by the listener and the speaker. The phoneme is a semantically distinctive feature of this structure. The meaning is revealed through the combination of these features corresponding to a given sound formation.

Trubetskoy introduces the concept of phoneme invariance. Those. the pronounced sound can be considered as one of the variants of the implementation of the phoneme, because In addition to semantic ones, it also contains signs that are not such. Thus, a phoneme can be realized in a number of different sound manifestations.

1) If in a language two sounds in the same position can replace each other, and at the same time the semantic function of the word remains unchanged, then these two sounds are variants of the same phoneme.

2) And accordingly, on the contrary, if when replacing sounds in one position the meaning of the word changes, then they are not variants of the same phoneme.

3) If two acoustically related sounds never occur in the same position, then they are combinatorial variants of the same phoneme.

4) If two acoustically related sounds never occur in the same position, but can follow each other as members of a sound combination. In a situation where one of these sounds can occur without the other, then they are not variants of the same phoneme.

Rules 3 and 4 regarding cases where sounds do not occur in the same position are relevant to the problem of identifying phonemes, i.e. to the question of reducing a number of mutually exclusive sounds into one invariant. Thus, here the decisive factor for assigning different sounds to one phoneme is a purely phonetic criterion. Those. The interconnection of these sciences is revealed.

In order to establish the full composition of phonemes of a given language, it is necessary to distinguish not only a phoneme from phonetic variants, but also a phoneme from a combination of phonemes, i.e. whether a given segment of a sound stream is a realization of one or two phonemes (syntagmatic identification). Trubetskoy formulated the rules of monophonemicity and polyphonemicity. The first three represent phonetic prerequisites for the monophonemic interpretation of a sound segment. A sound combination is monophonemic if:

1) its main parts are not distributed over two syllables;

2) it is formed through one articulatory movement;

3) its duration does not exceed the duration of other phonemes of a given language.

The following describe the phonological conditions for the single-phonemic significance of sound combinations (potentially single-phonemic sound complexes are considered to be actually single-phonemic if they behave like simple phonemes, that is, they occur in positions that otherwise allow only single phonemes) and the multiphonemic significance of a simple sound.

A very significant place in Trubetskoy’s phonological system is occupied by his classification of oppositions. This was generally the first experience of this kind of classification. The criteria for the classification of phonological compositions were:

1) their attitude to the entire system of oppositions;

2) relations between members of the opposition;

3) the volume of their distinctive ability.

According to the first criterion, oppositions are in turn divided according to their “dimensionality” (qualitative criterion) and according to their occurrence (quantitative criterion).

According to the qualitative relation to the entire system of oppositions, phonological oppositions are divided into one-dimensional (if the set of features inherent in both members of the opposition is not inherent in any other member of the system) and multidimensional (if the “bases for comparison” of two members of the opposition extend to other members of the same system) . Quantitatively, oppositions are divided into isolated (members of the opposition are in a relationship that is not found in any other opposition) and proportional (the relationship between the members is identical to the relationship between the members of another or other oppositions).