Who founded Poland in what year. Official non-working holidays

The first reliable information about Poland dates back to the second half of the 10th century. Poland was already a relatively large state, created by the Piast dynasty by uniting several tribal principalities. The first historically reliable ruler of Poland was Mieszko I (reigned 960–992) from the Piast dynasty, whose possessions, Greater Poland, were located between the Odra and Vistula rivers. Under the reign of Mieszko I, who fought against German expansion to the east, the Poles were converted to Latin rite Christianity in 966. In 988 Mieszko annexed Silesia and Pomerania to his principality, and in 990 – Moravia. His eldest son Bolesław I the Brave (r. 992–1025) became one of Poland's most prominent rulers. He established his power in the territory from Odra and Nysa to the Dnieper and from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathians. Having strengthened Poland's independence in the wars with the Holy Roman Empire, Bolesław took the title of king (1025). After the death of Bolesław, the strengthened feudal nobility opposed the central government, which led to the separation of Mazovia and Pomerania from Poland.

Feudal fragmentation

Bolesław III (r. 1102–1138) regained Pomerania, but after his death the territory of Poland was divided among his sons. The eldest - Władysław II - received power over the capital Krakow, Greater Poland and Pomerania. In the second half of the 12th century. Poland, like its neighbors Germany and Kievan Rus, fell apart. The collapse led to political chaos; The vassals soon refused to recognize the king's sovereignty and, with the help of the church, significantly limited his power.

Teutonic Knights

In the middle of the 13th century. The Mongol-Tatar invasion from the east devastated most of Poland. No less dangerous for the country were the continuous raids of pagan Lithuanians and Prussians from the north. To protect his possessions, Prince Konrad of Mazovia in 1226 invited Teutonic knights from the military-religious order of the Crusaders to the country. Within a short time, the Teutonic Knights conquered part of the Baltic lands, which later became known as East Prussia. This land was settled by German colonists. In 1308, the state created by the Teutonic Knights cut off Poland's access to the Baltic Sea.

Decline of central government

As a result of the fragmentation of Poland, the state's dependence on the highest aristocracy and the small nobility began to increase, whose support it needed to protect itself from external enemies. The extermination of the population by the Mongol-Tatars and Lithuanian tribes led to an influx of German settlers to the Polish lands, who either themselves created cities governed by the laws of Magdeburg Law, or received land as free peasants. In contrast, Polish peasants, like the peasants of almost all of Europe at that time, gradually began to fall into serfdom.

The reunification of most of Poland was carried out by Władysław Lokietok (Ladisław the Short) from Kuyavia, a principality in the north-central part of the country. In 1320 he was crowned Vladislav I. However, the national revival in to a greater extent associated with the successful reign of his son, Casimir III the Great (r. 1333–1370). Casimir strengthened royal power, reformed the administration, legal and monetary systems according to Western models, promulgated a set of laws called the Wislica Statutes (1347), eased the situation of the peasants and allowed Jews - victims of religious persecution in Western Europe - to settle in Poland. He failed to regain access to the Baltic Sea; he also lost Silesia (which went to the Czech Republic), but captured Galicia, Volhynia and Podolia in the east. In 1364 Casimir founded the first Polish university in Krakow - one of the oldest in Europe. Having no son, Casimir bequeathed the kingdom to his nephew Louis I the Great (Louis of Hungary), at that time one of the most influential monarchs in Europe. Under Louis (reigned 1370–1382), the Polish nobles (gentry) received the so-called. Koshitsky privilege (1374), according to which they were exempted from almost all taxes, having received the right not to pay taxes above a certain amount. In return, the nobles promised to transfer the throne to one of the daughters of King Louis.

Jagiellonian Dynasty

After Louis's death, the Poles turned to his youngest daughter Jadwiga with a request to become their queen. Jadwiga married Jagiello (Jogaila, or Jagiello), Grand Duke of Lithuania, who reigned in Poland as Władysław II (r. 1386–1434). Vladislav II converted to Christianity himself and converted the Lithuanian people to it, founding one of the most powerful dynasties in Europe. Vast territories of Poland and Lithuania were united into a powerful state union. Lithuania became the last pagan people in Europe to convert to Christianity, so the presence of the Teutonic Order of Crusaders here lost its meaning. However, the crusaders were no longer going to leave. In 1410, the Poles and Lithuanians defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald. In 1413 they approved the Polish-Lithuanian union in Gorodlo, and public institutions of the Polish model appeared in Lithuania. Casimir IV (r. 1447–1492) tried to limit the power of the nobles and the church, but was forced to confirm their privileges and the rights of the Diet, which included the higher clergy, aristocracy, and lesser nobility. In 1454 he granted the nobles the Neshawian Statutes, similar to the English Charter of Liberty. Thirteen Years' War Teutonic Order(1454–1466) ended in victory for Poland, and according to the Treaty of Toruń on October 19, 1466, Pomerania and Gdansk were returned to Poland. The Order recognized itself as a vassal of Poland.

Golden Age of Poland

16th century became the golden age of Polish history. At this time, Poland was one of the largest countries in Europe, it dominated Eastern Europe, and its culture flourished. However, the emergence of a centralized Russian state, which laid claim to the lands of the former Kievan Rus, the unification and strengthening of Brandenburg and Prussia in the west and north, and the threat of warlike Ottoman Empire in the south posed a great danger to the country. In 1505 in Radom, King Alexander (reigned 1501–1506) was forced to adopt a constitution “nothing new” (Latin nihil novi), according to which the parliament received the right to an equal vote with the monarch in making government decisions and the right of veto on all issues, concerning the nobility. The parliament, according to this constitution, consisted of two chambers - the Sejm, in which the small nobility was represented, and the Senate, which represented the highest aristocracy and the highest clergy. Poland's long and open borders, as well as frequent wars, forced it to have a powerful, trained army in order to ensure the security of the kingdom. The monarchs lacked the funds necessary to maintain such an army. Therefore, they were forced to obtain parliamentary approval for any major expenditures. The aristocracy (mozhnovladstvo) and the small nobility (szlachta) demanded privileges for their loyalty. As a result, a system of “small-scale noble democracy” was formed in Poland, with a gradual expansion of the influence of the richest and most powerful magnates.

Rzeczpospolita

In 1525, Albrecht of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, converted to Lutheranism, and the Polish king Sigismund I (r. 1506–1548) allowed him to transform the domains of the Teutonic Order into the hereditary Duchy of Prussia under Polish suzerainty. During the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548–1572), the last king of the Jagiellonian dynasty, Poland reached its greatest power. Krakow became one of the largest European centers of the humanities, architecture and art of the Renaissance, Polish poetry and prose, and for a number of years - the center of the Reformation. In 1561 Poland annexed Livonia, and on July 1, 1569, at the height of the Livonian War with Russia, the personal royal Polish-Lithuanian union was replaced by the Union of Lublin. The unified Polish-Lithuanian state began to be called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish for “common cause”). From this time on, the same king was to be elected by the aristocracy in Lithuania and Poland; there was one parliament (Sejm) and general laws; general money was introduced into circulation; Religious tolerance became common in both parts of the country. The last question was of particular importance, since significant territories conquered in the past by the Lithuanian princes were inhabited by Orthodox Christians.

Elected kings: the decline of the Polish state.

After the death of the childless Sigismund II, central power in the huge Polish-Lithuanian state began to weaken. At a stormy meeting of the Diet, a new king, Henry (Henrik) Valois (reigned 1573–1574; later became Henry III of France), was elected. At the same time, he was forced to accept the principle of “free election” (election of the king by the gentry), as well as the “pact of consent” to which each new monarch had to swear. The king's right to choose his heir was transferred to the Diet. The king was also prohibited from declaring war or increasing taxes without the consent of Parliament. He should have been neutral in religious matters, he should have married on the recommendation of the Senate. The council, consisting of 16 senators appointed by the Sejm, constantly gave him recommendations. If the king did not fulfill any of the articles, the people could refuse to obey him. Thus, Henryk's Articles changed the status of the state - Poland moved from a limited monarchy to an aristocratic parliamentary republic; the head of the executive branch, elected for life, did not have sufficient powers to govern the state.

Stefan Batory (ruled 1575–1586). The weakening of the supreme power in Poland, which had long and poorly defended borders, but aggressive neighbors whose power was based on centralization and military force, largely predetermined the future collapse of the Polish state. Henry of Valois ruled for only 13 months and then left for France, where he received the throne vacated by the death of his brother Charles IX. The Senate and the Sejm could not agree on the candidacy of the next king, and the gentry finally elected Prince Stefan Batory of Transylvania (reigned 1575–1586) as king, giving him a princess from the Jagiellonian dynasty as his wife. Batory strengthened Polish power over Gdansk, ousted Ivan the Terrible from the Baltic states and returned Livonia. Domestically, he gained the loyalty and assistance in the fight against the Ottoman Empire from the Cossacks, fugitive serfs who established a military republic on the vast plains of Ukraine - a kind of "border strip" stretching from southeastern Poland to the Black Sea along the Dnieper. Batory gave privileges to the Jews, who were allowed to have their own parliament. He reformed the judicial system, and in 1579 founded a university in Vilna (Vilnius), which became an outpost of Catholicism and European culture in the east.

Sigismund III Vase. A zealous Catholic, Sigismund III Vasa (reigned 1587–1632), son of Johan III of Sweden and Catherine, daughter of Sigismund I, decided to create a Polish-Swedish coalition to fight Russia and return Sweden to the fold of Catholicism. In 1592 he became king of Sweden.

To spread Catholicism among the Orthodox population, the Uniate Church was established at the Brest Council in 1596, which recognized the supremacy of the Pope, but continued to use Orthodox rituals. The opportunity to seize the Moscow throne after the suppression of the Rurik dynasty involved the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth into a war with Russia. In 1610, Polish troops occupied Moscow. The vacant royal throne was offered by the Moscow boyars to Sigismund's son, Vladislav. However, Muscovites rebelled, and with the help of the people's militia under the leadership of Minin and Pozharsky, the Poles were expelled from Moscow. Sigismund's attempts to introduce absolutism in Poland, which at that time already dominated the rest of Europe, led to the rebellion of the gentry and the loss of prestige of the king.

After the death of Albrecht II of Prussia in 1618, the Elector of Brandenburg became the ruler of the Duchy of Prussia. From that time on, Poland's possessions on the Baltic Sea coast turned into a corridor between two provinces of the same German state.

Decline

During the reign of Sigismund's son, Vladislav IV (1632–1648), Ukrainian Cossacks rebelled against Poland, wars with Russia and Turkey weakened the country, and the gentry received new privileges in the form of political rights and exemption from income taxes. Under the reign of Władysław's brother Jan Casimir (1648–1668), the Cossack freemen began to behave even more militantly, the Swedes occupied most of Poland, including the capital Warsaw, and the king, abandoned by his subjects, was forced to flee to Silesia. In 1657 Poland renounced sovereign rights to East Prussia. As a result of unsuccessful wars with Russia, Poland lost Kyiv and all areas east of the Dnieper under the Truce of Andrusovo (1667). The process of disintegration began in the country. The magnates, creating alliances with neighboring states, pursued their own goals; the rebellion of Prince Jerzy Lubomirski shook the foundations of the monarchy; The gentry continued to engage in defense of their own “freedoms,” which was suicidal for the state. From 1652, she began to abuse the harmful practice of the “liberum veto,” which allowed any deputy to block a decision he did not like, demand the dissolution of the Sejm and put forward any proposals that were to be considered by its next composition. Taking advantage of this, neighboring powers, through bribery and other means, repeatedly disrupted the implementation of decisions of the Sejm that were unfavorable to them. King Jan Casimir was broken and abdicated the Polish throne in 1668, at the height of internal anarchy and discord.

External intervention: prelude to partition

Mikhail Vishnevetsky (reigned 1669–1673) turned out to be an unprincipled and inactive monarch who played along with the Habsburgs and lost Podolia to the Turks. His successor, John III Sobieski (r. 1674–1696), fought successful wars with the Ottoman Empire, saved Vienna from the Turks (1683), but was forced to cede some lands to Russia under the "Eternal Peace" treaty in exchange for its promises of assistance in fight against the Crimean Tatars and Turks. After Sobieski's death, the Polish throne in the new capital of Warsaw was occupied for 70 years by foreigners: Elector of Saxony Augustus II (reigned 1697–1704, 1709–1733) and his son August III(1734–1763). Augustus II actually bribed the electors. Having united in an alliance with Peter I, he returned Podolia and Volhynia back and stopped the grueling Polish-Turkish wars by concluding the Peace of Karlowitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1699. The Polish king unsuccessfully tried to recapture the Baltic coast from the King of Sweden Charles XII, who invaded Poland in 1701, and in 1703 took Warsaw and Krakow. Augustus II was forced to cede the throne in 1704–1709 to Stanislav Leszczynski, who was supported by Sweden, but returned to the throne again when Peter I defeated Charles XII at the Battle of Poltava (1709). In 1733, the Poles, supported by the French, elected Stanislav king for the second time, but Russian troops again removed him from power.

Stanisław II: the last Polish king. Augustus III was nothing more than a Russian puppet; patriotic Poles tried with all their might to save the state. One of the factions of the Sejm, led by Prince Czartoryski, tried to abolish the harmful “liberum veto”, while the other, led by the powerful Potocki family, opposed any restriction of “freedoms”. In desperation, Czartoryski's party began to cooperate with the Russians, and in 1764 Catherine II, Empress of Russia, achieved the election of her favorite Stanisław August Poniatowski as King of Poland (1764–1795). Poniatowski turned out to be the last king of Poland. Russian control became especially obvious under Prince N.V. Repnin, who, as ambassador to Poland, in 1767 forced the Polish Sejm to accept his demands for equality of faiths and the preservation of the “liberum veto”. This led in 1768 to a Catholic uprising (Bar Confederation) and even to a war between Russia and Turkey.

Partitions of Poland. First section

At the height of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768–1774, Prussia, Russia and Austria carried out the first partition of Poland. It was produced in 1772 and ratified by the Sejm under pressure from the occupiers in 1773. Poland ceded to Austria part of Pomerania and Kuyavia (excluding Gdansk and Torun) to Prussia; Galicia, Western Podolia and part of Lesser Poland; eastern Belarus and all lands north of the Western Dvina and east of the Dnieper went to Russia. The victors established a new constitution for Poland, which retained the "liberum veto" and an elective monarchy, and created a State Council of 36 elected members of the Sejm. The division of the country awakened a social movement for reform and national revival. In 1773 the Jesuit Order was dissolved and a commission was created public education, the purpose of which was to reorganize the system of schools and colleges. The four-year Sejm (1788–1792), led by enlightened patriots Stanislav Malachovsky, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kollontai, adopted a new constitution on May 3, 1791. Under this constitution, Poland became a hereditary monarchy with a ministerial executive system and a parliament elected every two years. The principle of “liberum veto” and other harmful practices were abolished; cities received administrative and judicial autonomy, as well as representation in parliament; peasants, the power of the gentry over whom remained, were considered as a class under state protection; measures were taken to prepare for the abolition of serfdom and the organization of a regular army. The normal work of parliament and reforms became possible only because Russia was involved in a protracted war with Sweden, and Turkey supported Poland. However, the magnates who formed the Targowitz Confederation opposed the constitution, at the call of which Russian and Prussian troops entered Poland.

Second and third sections

On January 23, 1793, Prussia and Russia carried out the second partition of Poland. Prussia captured Gdansk, Torun, Greater Poland and Mazovia, and Russia captured most of Lithuania and Belarus, almost all of Volyn and Podolia. The Poles fought but were defeated, the reforms of the Four Year Diet were repealed, and the rest of Poland became a puppet state. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko led a massive popular uprising that ended in defeat. The third partition of Poland, in which Austria participated, was carried out on October 24, 1795; after that, Poland as an independent state disappeared from the map of Europe.

Foreign rule. Grand Duchy of Warsaw

Although Polish state ceased to exist, the Poles did not give up hope of restoring their independence. Each new generation fought, either by joining the opponents of the powers that divided Poland, or by starting uprisings. As soon as Napoleon I began his military campaigns against monarchical Europe, Polish legions were formed in France. Having defeated Prussia, Napoleon created in 1807 the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815) from the territories captured by Prussia during the second and third partitions. Two years later, the territories that became part of Austria after the third partition were added to it. Miniature Poland, politically dependent on France, had a territory of 160 thousand square meters. km and 4350 thousand inhabitants. The creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was considered by the Poles as the beginning of their complete liberation.

Territory that was part of Russia. After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna (1815) approved the partitions of Poland with the following changes: Krakow was declared a free city-republic under the auspices of the three powers that divided Poland (1815–1848); West Side The Grand Duchy of Warsaw was transferred to Prussia and became known as the Grand Duchy of Poznan (1815–1846); its other part was declared a monarchy (the so-called Kingdom of Poland) and annexed to the Russian Empire. In November 1830, the Poles rebelled against Russia, but were defeated. Emperor Nicholas I abolished the constitution of the Kingdom of Poland and began repression. In 1846 and 1848 the Poles tried to organize uprisings, but failed. In 1863, a second uprising broke out against Russia, and after two years of partisan warfare, the Poles were again defeated. With the development of capitalism in Russia, the Russification of Polish society intensified. The situation improved somewhat after the 1905 revolution in Russia. Polish deputies sat in all four Russian Dumas (1905–1917), seeking autonomy for Poland.

Territories controlled by Prussia. In the territory under Prussian rule, intensive Germanization of the former Polish regions was carried out, the farms of Polish peasants were expropriated, and Polish schools were closed. Russia helped Prussia suppress the Poznań uprising of 1848. In 1863, both powers concluded the Alvensleben Convention on mutual assistance in the fight against the Polish national movement. Despite all the efforts of the authorities, at the end of the 19th century. the Poles of Prussia still represented a strong, organized national community.

Polish lands within Austria

In the Austrian Polish lands the situation was somewhat better. After the Krakow Uprising of 1846, the regime was liberalized and Galicia received administrative local control; schools, institutions and courts used Polish; Jagiellonian (in Krakow) and Lviv universities became all-Polish cultural centers; by the beginning of the 20th century. Polish political parties emerged (National Democratic, Polish Socialist and Peasant). In all three parts of divided Poland, Polish society actively opposed assimilation. The preservation of the Polish language and Polish culture became the main task of the struggle waged by the intelligentsia, primarily poets and writers, as well as the clergy of the Catholic Church.

World War I

New opportunities to achieve independence. First World War divided the powers that liquidated Poland: Russia fought with Germany and Austria-Hungary. This situation opened up life-changing opportunities for the Poles, but also created new difficulties. First, the Poles had to fight in opposing armies; secondly, Poland became the arena of battles between the warring powers; thirdly, disagreements between Polish political groups intensified. Conservative national democrats led by Roman Dmowski (1864–1939) considered Germany the main enemy and wanted the Entente to win. Their goal was to unite all Polish lands under Russian control and obtain autonomy status. Radical elements led by the Polish Socialist Party (PPS), on the contrary, viewed the defeat of Russia as the most important condition for achieving Polish independence. They believed that the Poles should create their own armed forces. Several years before the outbreak of World War I, Józef Piłsudski (1867–1935), the radical leader of this group, began military training for Polish youth in Galicia. During the war he formed the Polish legions and fought on the side of Austria-Hungary.

Polish question

On August 14, 1914, Nicholas I, in an official declaration, promised after the war to unite the three parts of Poland into an autonomous state within the Russian Empire. However, in the fall of 1915 most Russian Poland was occupied by Germany and Austria-Hungary, and on November 5, 1916, the monarchs of the two powers announced a manifesto on the creation of an independent Polish Kingdom in the Russian part of Poland. On March 30, 1917, after the February Revolution in Russia, the Provisional Government of Prince Lvov recognized Poland's right to self-determination. On July 22, 1917, Pilsudski, who fought on the side of the Central Powers, was interned, and his legions were disbanded for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the emperors of Austria-Hungary and Germany. In France, with the support of the Entente powers, the Polish National Committee (PNC) was created in August 1917, led by Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski; The Polish army was also formed with commander-in-chief Józef Haller. On January 8, 1918, US President Wilson demanded the creation of an independent Polish state with access to the Baltic Sea. In June 1918, Poland was officially recognized as a country fighting on the side of the Entente. On October 6, during the period of disintegration and collapse of the Central Powers, the Council of Regency of Poland announced the creation of an independent Polish state, and on November 14 transferred full power to Pilsudski in the country. By this time, Germany had already capitulated, Austria-Hungary had collapsed, and there was a civil war in Russia.

State formation

The new country faced great difficulties. Cities and villages lay in ruins; there were no connections in the economy, which had been developing for a long time within three different states; Poland had neither its own currency nor government institutions; finally, its borders were not defined and agreed upon with its neighbors. Nevertheless, state building and economic recovery proceeded at a rapid pace. After the transition period, when the socialist cabinet was in power, on January 17, 1919, Paderewski was appointed prime minister, and Dmowski was appointed head of the Polish delegation at the Versailles Peace Conference. On January 26, 1919, elections to the Sejm took place, new line-up whom Piłsudski approved as head of state.

The question of boundaries

The western and northern borders of the country were determined at the Versailles Conference, by which Poland was given part of Pomerania and access to the Baltic Sea; Danzig (Gdansk) received the status of a “free city”. At the conference of ambassadors on July 28, 1920 it was agreed southern border. The city of Cieszyn and its suburb Cesky Cieszyn were divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia. Fierce disputes between Poland and Lithuania over Vilno (Vilnius), an ethnically Polish but historically Lithuanian city, ended with its occupation by the Poles on October 9, 1920; annexation to Poland was approved on February 10, 1922 by a democratically elected regional assembly.

On April 21, 1920, Piłsudski entered into an alliance with the Ukrainian leader Petliura and launched an offensive to liberate Ukraine from the Bolsheviks. On May 7, the Poles took Kyiv, but on June 8, pressed by the Red Army, they began to retreat. At the end of July, the Bolsheviks were on the outskirts of Warsaw. However, the Poles managed to defend the capital and push back the enemy; this ended the war. What followed next Treaty of Riga(March 18, 1921) represented a territorial compromise for both sides and was officially recognized by a conference of ambassadors on March 15, 1923.

Foreign policy

The leaders of the new Polish Republic tried to secure their state by pursuing a policy of non-alignment. Poland did not join the Little Entente, which included Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania. On January 25, 1932, a non-aggression pact was concluded with the USSR.

After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in January 1933, Poland failed to establish allied relations with France, while Great Britain and France concluded a “pact of agreement and cooperation” with Germany and Italy. After this, on January 26, 1934, Poland and Germany concluded a non-aggression pact for a period of 10 years, and soon the validity of a similar agreement with the USSR was extended. In March 1936, after Germany's military occupation of the Rhineland, Poland again unsuccessfully tried to conclude an agreement with France and Belgium on Poland's support for them in the event of war with Germany. In October 1938, simultaneously with the annexation of the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany, Poland occupied the Czechoslovak part of the Cieszyn region. In March 1939, Hitler occupied Czechoslovakia and made territorial claims to Poland. On March 31, Great Britain and on April 13, France guaranteed the territorial integrity of Poland; In the summer of 1939, Franco-British-Soviet negotiations began in Moscow aimed at containing German expansion. In these negotiations, the Soviet Union demanded the right to occupy the eastern part of Poland and at the same time entered into secret negotiations with the Nazis. On August 23, 1939, a German-Soviet non-aggression pact was concluded, the secret protocols of which provided for the division of Poland between Germany and the USSR. Having ensured Soviet neutrality, Hitler freed his hands. On September 1, 1939, World War II began with an attack on Poland.

Poland within the Russian Empire formed the Kingdom (Kingdom) of Poland, which initially had autonomy and then existed in the status of a general government. Having become part of the Russian Empire in 1815, the Polish lands actually remained there until 1915, until they were completely occupied by the armies of the Central Powers, and formally until the collapse of the empire in 1917.

Kingdom of Poland in 1815-1830

In May 1815, during the Congress of Vienna, Russian Emperor Alexander I approved the “Fundamentals of the Constitution” of the Kingdom of Poland, in the development of which the monarch’s ally Adam Jerzy Czartoryski took an active part. According to the constitution, the Kingdom of Poland was bound by a personal union with the Russian Empire. Approving the constitution, Alexander I made some amendments to the original text: he refused to give the Sejm legislative initiative, reserved the right to change the budget proposed by the Sejm and postpone the convening of the Sejm indefinitely.

Having retained earlier acquisitions at the expense of the lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia grew with most of the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw, which formed the “Ardom of Poland.” In administrative-territorial terms, the Kingdom was divided into eight voivodeships: Augustow, Kalisz, Krakow, Lublin, Mazovia, Plock, Radom and Sandomierz. Executive power belonged to the Russian emperor, who was also the Polish king, while legislative power was distributed between the king and the Sejm (in fact, the last word remained with the monarch). The State Council became the highest government body, and the administration of the Kingdom was carried out by a governor appointed by the king. Administrative and judicial records were supposed to be carried out in the Polish language, their own Polish army was formed, and residents were guaranteed personal integrity, freedom of speech and the press. A significant part of the Polish public reacted positively to the provided constitution: Poles received more rights than subjects of the Russian Empire; The Polish constitution of 1815 was one of the most liberal constitutions of that time.

The middle-aged General Józef Zajonczek, a former Polish Jacobin and participant in the 1794 Uprising, became the royal governor. The brother of Alexander I, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, was appointed commander-in-chief of the Polish army, and N. N. Novosiltsev was appointed commissioner in the Administrative Council of the Kingdom of Poland. They took control of the situation in the Kingdom of Poland: it was Konstantin, and not Zajoncek, who was the real governor of the emperor, and the functions of the imperial commissar were not provided for by the constitution at all. At first, this did not cause serious protests from the Poles, since Polish society sympathized with Alexander I.

In March 1818, the first Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland met. It was opened by Alexander I himself. Speaking to those present, the emperor hinted that the territory of the Kingdom could be expanded at the expense of Lithuanian and Belarusian lands. In general, the Sejm showed itself to be loyal, while in society, meanwhile, there was a growth in opposition sentiments: secret anti-government organizations arose, periodicals published articles with relevant content. In 1819, preliminary censorship was introduced on everything printed publications. At the second Sejm, convened in 1820, the liberal opposition, led by the brothers Vincent and Bonaventura Nemojowski, clearly manifested itself. Since they were deputies from the Kalisz Voivodeship, the opposition liberals in the Sejm began to be called the “Kalisz Party” (“Kaliszans”). They insisted on respect for constitutional guarantees, protesting in particular against prior censorship. Under the influence of the Kaliszans, the Sejm rejected most of the draft government regulations. Alexander I ordered not to convene the Sejm - its meetings resumed only in 1825. During its preparation, an “additional article” appeared on the abolition of the publicity of Sejm meetings. Opposition leaders were not allowed to attend the meetings.

The suppression and persecution of open, albeit moderate, opposition in the Sejm led to an increase in the influence of the illegal opposition: new secret revolutionary organizations were created, especially among students and military personnel, including officers. These organizations were not numerous and influential and, moreover, did not interact with each other. Most of them were destroyed during the arrests of 1822-1823. The most famous student organization There was a Society of Philomaths in Vilna, in which Adam Mickiewicz was a member. One of the secret organizations in the army, National Freemasonry, was headed by Major Walerian Lukasinski. In 1822 he was arrested and sentenced to nine years in prison. Both Lukasiński and the persecuted Philomaths acquired the aura of Polish national heroes and martyrs.

One of the main issues that worried Polish social and political circles concerned the expansion of the territory of the Kingdom of Poland to the east: both the Sejm and the illegal opposition sought to restore the former Polish borders at the expense of Lithuanian, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands. No progress in this direction was observed on the part of the Russian authorities, and this aggravated disappointment even in the conservative environment. A. Czartoryski, at that time the leader of one of the influential Polish conservative groups, resigned from his post as curator of the Vilna educational district as a sign of protest. Another reason for the dissatisfaction of conservatives was the decisions of the Sejm court in the case of leaders of the anti-government “Patriotic Society”. In 1828, Polish judges did not find the defendants guilty of treason and sentenced them to short-term imprisonment, but Nicholas I, considering this a challenge to himself, ordered the main defendant in the case, Severin Krzyzanowski, to be exiled to Siberia. The confrontation between the Poles and the imperial power reached its limit. The latter clearly sought to avoid conflict: in 1829, Nicholas I was crowned King of Poland in Warsaw.

The education system began to develop already in the first years of the Kingdom of Poland, including in rural areas, but it was soon affected by restrictions: secondary schools and the University of Warsaw, established in 1816, came under strict political control. Much has changed for the better in the economic sphere, especially after K. Drutsky-Lubecki, a staunch supporter of the union of Poland with Russia, became head of the Ministry of Finance in 1821. The Kingdom of Poland attracted artisans with favorable settlement conditions and tax exemptions. Under Drutski-Lubecki, the budget of the Kingdom of Poland was balanced, Lodz became a major textile center. For the Kingdom of Poland, Russia was a necessary, huge market.

"November" uprising

The beginning of the uprising, known in Polish historiography as the "November" uprising, was accelerated by the news that Nicholas I was going to send Polish troops to suppress the French Revolution. On November 29, armed rebels led by leaders of the Patriotic Society L. Nabeliak and S. Goszczynski attacked Belvedere, the residence of the viceroy of Grand Duke Constantine. At the same time, a group of members of a secret society in the school of custodians under the leadership of P. Vysotsky tried to seize the nearby Russian army barracks. The plan of action of the conspirators was poorly thought out, their forces were few in number, and their prospects were unclear. The attack on the Belvedere was not successful: Constantine managed to escape, and the Polish generals refused to support and lead the rebels. Despite this, the rebels, having enlisted the support of many Warsaw residents, captured the city by November 30. On December 4, a provisional government of the Kingdom of Poland was created, and the next day the popular general J. Chlopicki received dictatorial power in the Kingdom. He did not believe in the success of the uprising and hoped that Nicholas I would have mercy on the Poles. Drutsky-Lyubetsky went to negotiate with the emperor. Nicholas I refused any concessions to the Poles, demanding the rebels surrender. On January 17, Khlopicki resigned as dictator and was replaced by a conservative government led by A. Czartoryski. On January 25, the Sejm deposed Nicholas I from the Polish throne. Soon hostilities began. At the beginning of February 1831, Russian troops moved to suppress the uprising. At the end of the same month, the rebels managed to stop the enemy near Grochow and thereby thwarted his plan to capture Warsaw, although they themselves were forced to retreat. The rebels achieved some successes in Lithuania and Volyn. From the end of May the situation began to change: the rebels suffered one defeat after another and, after the battle of Ostroleka, retreated to Warsaw. The city was ready for defense, but conciliatory tendencies began to emerge in the rebel camp. The head of the rebel government, J. Krukowiecki, contrary to the wishes of the Sejm, was ready to enter into negotiations with the commander Russian troops F.I. Paskevich was removed from his post for this. On September 8, 1831, Paskevich's forces took Warsaw. As “punishment,” the Kingdom of Poland was deprived of its autonomy, and the Constitution of 1815 was abolished. Instead, in 1832 the Kingdom was granted the Organic Statute, which abolished the Sejm and sharply limited its independence. The Kingdom was introduced state of emergency, the Polish army was abolished, now the Poles served in Russian army. Thousands of representatives of the gentry from the eastern lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were resettled to other provinces of the Russian Empire, landowners' estates were confiscated, and Polish scientific, cultural and educational organizations were liquidated. In administrative-territorial terms, voivodeships were replaced by provinces. Several thousand representatives of the Polish intellectual and political elite ended up in exile, primarily in France. Politically heterogeneous, the emigration, which later became known as the “Great”, was united by the idea of ​​​​the struggle for the liberation of Poland and hatched plans for a new uprising. The leader of one of the most influential emigrant centers was A. Czartoryski, a former comrade-in-arms of Alexander I.

Between two uprisings

Back in the 1820s, against the backdrop of agrarian reforms in Prussia, discussions on the agrarian issue revived in the Kingdom of Poland. Determined to improve farming methods, Polish landowners needed money. One of the sources of funds could be the transfer of peasants from corvee to chinsh, that is, to cash rent. After the uprising of 1830-1831, the process of cleansing began. At first it covered state estates and donations (lands granted to high-ranking officials), where it continued for about 20 years. In private farms, the process of regeneration was more difficult: the cash ransom was so high that many not very rich peasants, paying it, turned into “zagrodniks,” landless peasants. In 1846, only about 36% of peasant farms on private estates switched to chinsh. The situation of the peasants was difficult: landowners resorted to driving peasants off the land and raising taxes. This caused protests among the peasants: some complained to the authorities, others took radical measures, setting fire to the landowners' estates. This brought certain results: in 1833 the authorities banned forced hiring, and in 1840 they banned the imposition of corvee duties on landless peasants. In 1846, Emperor Nicholas I imposed a ban on the removal of peasants whose farms exceeded three morgues (1 morgue = 0.56 hectares).

Gradually, the market of the Kingdom of Poland developed, and the idea of ​​agrarian reform matured in society. Most of the supporters of the reform spoke out for the eradication, some advocated the liberation of the peasants. In 1858, adherents of the reforms united into the Agricultural Society, headed by A. Zamoyski. In 1861, the society adopted its version of the plan for the liberation of the peasants and sent it to the authorities. At the same time in Russia it was canceled serfdom. This change did not apply to the Kingdom of Poland, but it sharpened discussions on the agrarian issue. In April 1861, the Agricultural Society was dissolved. Having seized the initiative of the Polish public, Russian government issued two decrees: in October 1861 - on the abolition of corvee subject to the payment of a high ransom, and in June 1862 - on the introduction of compulsory servitude.

In general, the reforms of Alexander II gave impetus to the revival of the Polish liberation movement. Measures such as the abolition of martial law, amnesty for prisoners and exiles, and permission to create an Agricultural Society were considered insufficient by the Poles. In 1860-1861, a series of public protests swept across the country, which were stopped only by the resumption of martial law. At the same time, a split occurred in Polish society: the moderate wing, led by the leader of the Agricultural Society A. Zamoyski, hoped to peacefully achieve the restoration of the autonomy of the Kingdom of Poland. After negotiations with government officials, moderate circles managed to achieve the lifting of martial law. The radicals, in turn, did not rule out the possibility of an uprising. Since 1862, the civil administration of the Kingdom of Poland was headed by Marquis A. Wielopolski, formerly the Minister of Education and then the Minister of Internal Affairs. Through his efforts, the Polish language was returned to schools and government institutions, a Main School (future university) appeared in Warsaw, and taxes were unified. Wielopolski spoke out for the union of Poland with Russia, but believed that the autonomy of the Kingdom should be expanded. Wielopolski's position was condemned by both moderates ("whites") and radicals ("reds"). Among the latter there were many Republicans. At the end of 1861 - beginning of 1862, the “reds” took shape in political organization led by the Central National Committee (CNC). Under his leadership, preparations for a new uprising began.

"January" uprising

Second Polish uprising, also known as “January”, began after recruitment was carried out using pre-compiled lists of “politically unreliable” persons. On January 22, 1863, the CNC proclaimed itself the Provisional National Government and issued a manifesto declaring the independence of Poland and the equal rights of all citizens. On the night of January 23, the self-proclaimed government published a decree that eliminated the duties of peasant land users without ransom and ordered the allocation of land (up to 1.6 hectares) to landless peasants. The nobility were guaranteed compensation.

In February 1863, the uprising was supported by the “white” camp, which previously had a negative attitude towards this scenario. Political emigration tried to gain support for the uprising from Great Britain and France, but they limited themselves to diplomatic notes with the wish that Russia would grant autonomy to the Kingdom of Poland. Alexander II, who considered the Polish events an internal affair of Russia, rejected the claims of the Western powers.

The uprising took place mostly within the Kingdom of Poland, but also covered part of the Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian lands. The disappointing situation of the rebels was aggravated by internal contradictions in their leadership: in October 1863, the National Government transferred full power to the former Russian officer R. Traugutta, making him dictator of the uprising. In this capacity, Traugutt was able to achieve significant success: he introduced single organization rebel armed forces, insisted on the implementation of the decree on allocating land to peasants. The latter, however, did not help to attract the peasants to the uprising: the peasantry mainly took a wait-and-see position, and the basis of the rebel forces, as in 1830-1831, was the gentry. The fact that in March 1864 the Russian authorities abolished serfdom in the Kingdom of Poland also played a role. In April 1864, Traugutt was arrested, and by the fall of the same year they were defeated last squads rebels. Hundreds of participants in the uprising were executed, thousands were exiled to Siberia or to Russian provinces. Despite the defeat, the uprising of 1863-1864 had a decisive influence on national consolidation and the growth of self-awareness of the Poles.

Kingdom of Poland in 1863-1915

In the period from 1863 to 1915, martial law remained de facto in the Kingdom of Poland. The administrative autonomy of the Kingdom was gradually reduced to a minimum: the State and Administrative Councils, departmental commissions, and a separate budget were abolished. All local authorities became subordinate to the relevant departments in St. Petersburg. After the death of Count F. Berg in 1874, the post of governor was abolished. In official documentation, the term “Kingdom of Poland” was replaced by “Vistula region”. The Russian authorities set a course for the gradual merging of the Polish lands of the empire with the metropolis. Particularly harsh Russification was carried out in Russian Poland during the reign of Alexandra III, when I.V. Gurko was the governor-general of the Kingdom of Poland. The University of Warsaw and then the secondary and primary schools were Russified, and Polish was taught as an optional subject. The Catholic Church was subordinate to the Catholic College in St. Petersburg, and the Greek Catholic, Uniate, Church actually ceased to exist.

At the same time, large-scale industry developed in the Kingdom of Poland: in 1864-1879, its growth rate was 2.5 times higher than Russian industry. Home industrial sector Russian Poland had textiles. The main textile centers were Bialystok, Warsaw and, above all, Lodz. An important industry was metallurgy, concentrated mainly in the Dombrovsky basin. The level of urbanization increased: from 1870 to 1910, the population of Warsaw tripled, and Łódź eightfold.

After the defeat of the uprising of 1863-1864, Polish social and political life subsided for a long time. Revival in this area occurred only in the early 1890s, when socialist parties were created in all three parts of Poland. In Russian Poland these were the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) and the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL). In 1897, the National Democratic Party appeared in the Kingdom of Poland; its founders were members of the League of Peoples organization (National League), formed in exile. National democrats (endeks), unlike socialists, believed that the independence of Poland should come as a result of a revolution of a national rather than a social nature.

On the eve of the revolutionary events of 1905-1907 in Russia, the degree of protest sentiment in the Kingdom of Poland increased. The consequences of the global economic crisis of 1901-1903 were felt: in conditions of unemployment and lower wages, workers went on strike at enterprises. In the fall of 1904, the Poles actively protested against mobilization into the army. In January 1905, a general strike engulfed the industry and infrastructure of Russian Poland. Students from secondary and higher educational institutions joined the workers' protests, demanding education in Polish. The situation in Lodz was especially tense: in June 1905, demonstrators fought barricade battles against police and troops for several days. The situation reached its peak in October-November of the same year, but then began to decline, and in 1906-1907 political slogans again replaced by economic ones. The revolution revealed political differences in society: in the fall of 1906, a split occurred in the teaching staff. The left wing of the party achieved the expulsion from the party of J. Pilsudski and his like-minded people, who decided to focus on terrorist methods of activity. The leftist PPS began to gradually move closer to the SDKPiL and declare the priority of the struggle for socialism, while the revolutionary faction of the PPS prioritized the independence of Poland. Piłsudski focused his efforts on training military personnel for the future struggle for the restoration of Polish statehood. The Endeks, led by R. Dmowski, meanwhile, actively participated in the elections to the State Duma and headed the national faction in it - the “Polish Kolo”. They sought to obtain concessions from the authorities on the Polish issue, first of all, granting autonomy to the Kingdom of Poland.

At the beginning of the First World War, Nicholas II promised, after victory, to unite the Kingdom of Poland with the Polish territories taken from Germany and Austria-Hungary, and to grant Poland autonomy within the Russian Empire. This position was supported by the Endeks, led by Dmovsky; The PPS, on the contrary, advocated for the defeat of Russia: J. Pilsudski led one of the Polish legions as part of the army of Austria-Hungary. In the summer of 1915, the entire territory of the Kingdom of Poland came under occupation by the armies of the Central Powers. On November 5, 1916, the puppet Kingdom of Poland was proclaimed on these lands. After the February Revolution of 1917, the new Russian authorities announced that they would promote the creation of a Polish state in all predominantly Polish lands.

StoryPoland is an immense fairy tale. Forever caught between two powerful and aggressive neighbors, Poland has defended its freedom and sovereignty countless times over the past millennium. It has gone from being the largest country in Europe to disappearing completely from the world map, and has seen its population shattered in two world wars. However, it shows remarkable resilience Polish people, and that Poland not only recovered from each crushing blow, but also retained the energy to maintain its own culture.

History of Poland in ancient times

The lands of modern Poland have been inhabited since the Stone Age by numerous tribes from the east and west who called its fertile plains home. Archaeological finds from stone and Bronze Age can be seen in many Polish museums, but the greatest example of the Slavic peoples is presented in Biskupin. This fortified city was built by the Lusatian tribe about 2,700 years ago. The Celts, the Germanic tribes, and then the Baltic people, all of them established themselves in Poland. But this was all before the arrival of the Slavs, who began to shape the country into a nation.

Although the exact date of the arrival of the first Slavic tribes is unknown, historians believe that the Slavs began to settle in Poland between the 5th and 8th centuries. Beginning in the 8th century, smaller tribes began to unite, creating large conglomerates, thus establishing themselves more fully in the lands of the future Polish state. The name of the country comes from one of these tribes - Polanie(“people of the fields”) - settled on the banks of the Warta River next to modern city Poznan. The leader of this tribe, the legendary Piast, in the 10th century managed to unite disparate groups from the surrounding areas into a single political bloc, and gave it the name Polska, later Wielkopolska, that is, Greater Poland. This was the case until the arrival of Piast's great-great-grandson, Duke Mieszko I, who united a large part of Poland under one dynasty.

First Polish state

After Mieszko I converted to Christianity, he did what previous Christian rulers did and began to conquer his neighbors. Soon, the entire coastal region of Pomerania (Pomerania) came under his sovereignty, along with Slask (Silesia) and the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. By the time of his death in 992, the Polish state had approximately the same borders as modern Poland, and the city of Gniezno was appointed its first capital. By that time, cities such as Gdansk, Szczecin, Poznan, Wroclaw and Krakow already existed. Mieszko's son, Boleslaw I the Brave, continued his father's work, expanding the borders of Poland east to Kyiv. His son, Mieszko II, was less successful in his conquests, and during his reign the country experienced wars in the north and a period of internal strife within the royal family. Administrative center The country was transferred from Greater Poland to the less vulnerable Lesser Poland Voivodeship, where by the mid-11th century Krakow was designated as the center of royal rule.

When the pagan Prussians attacked the central province of Masovia in 1226, the Masovian Duke Conrad called for help from the Teutonic Knights and the German troops who made their mark during the Crusades. Soon, the knights conquered the pagan tribes, but then “bit the hand that fed them,” beginning massive construction of castles on Polish territory, conquering the port city of Gdansk, and effectively occupying northern Poland, claiming it as their territory. They ruled from their largest castle of all on Malbork and, within a few decades, became the main military power of Europe.

Casimir III and reunification

Only in 1320 was the Polish crown restored and the state was reunified. This happened during the reign Casimir III the Great(1333-1370), when Poland gradually became a prosperous and strong state. Casimir the Great restored suzerainty over Mazovia, then captured vast territories of Ruthenia (today Ukraine) and Podolia, thereby significantly expanding the borders of the monarchy to the southeast.

Casimir the Great was also an enlightened and energetic ruler on the home front. By developing and implementing reforms, he laid strong legal, economic, commercial and educational foundations. He also passed a law providing benefits for Jews, thereby making Poland a safe home for the Jewish community for centuries to come. More than 70 new cities were created. In 1364, one of the first universities in Europe was established in Krakow, and castles and fortifications were erected to improve the country's defenses. There is a saying that Casimir the Great “found Poland built of wood, but left it built with stones.”

Jagiellonian Dynasty (1382-1572)

The end of the 14th century is remembered by Poland for the dynastic union with Lithuania, the so-called political marriage, which increased Poland's territory fivefold overnight and lasted for the next four centuries. The unification benefited both sides - Poland received a partner in the fight against the Tatars and Mongols, and Lithuania received help in the fight against the Teutonic Order. Under power Vladislav II Jagiello(1386-1434), the alliance defeated the knights and restored eastern Pomerania, part of Prussia and the port of Gdansk, and for the next 30 years the Polish Empire was the largest state in Europe, stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea.

Eastern Progress and the Golden Age of Poland

But it didn't last long. The threat of invasion became obvious towards the end of the 15th century - this time the main instigators were the Turks from the south, the Crimean Tatars from the east and the Muscovite kings from the north and east. Together or separately, they repeatedly invaded and raided the eastern and southern parts of Polish territories, and at one point penetrated as far as Krakow.

Despite this, the power of the Polish kingdom was firmly established and the country advanced both culturally and spiritually. The beginning of the 16th century brought the Renaissance to Poland, and during the reign Sigismund I the Old and his son Sigismund II Augustus art and science flourished. This was Poland's Golden Age, which produced great men such as Nicolaus Copernicus.

Most of Poland's population at this time was made up of Poles and Lithuanians, but included significant minorities from neighboring countries. Jews formed an important and growing part of society, and by the end of the 16th century Poland had a larger Jewish population than the rest of united Europe.

On the political front, Poland developed in the 16th century into a parliamentary monarchy with most privileges held by the szlachta (nobility, feudal nobility), who made up approximately 10% of the population. At the same time, the status of the peasants decreased, and they gradually fell into a state of virtual slavery.

Hoping to strengthen the monarchy, the Diet, convened in Lublin in 1569, united Poland and Lithuania into a single state, and made Warsaw the place of future meetings. Since there was no direct heir to the throne, the Sejm also established a system of succession based on voting by nobles in general elections, who must travel to Warsaw to vote. In the absence of serious Polish applicants, foreign candidates could also be considered.

Royal Republic (1573-1795)

From the very beginning, the experiment led to disastrous consequences. For every royal election, foreign powers promoted their candidates by cutting deals and bribing voters. During this period, no less than 11 kings ruled Poland, and only four of them were Poles by birth.

The first chosen king, Henri de Valois, retreated to his homeland to enter the French throne after only a year on the Polish throne. His successor Stefan Batory(1576-1586), Prince of Transylvania, was a much wiser choice. Batory, together with his gifted commander and chancellor Jan Zamoyski, fought a number of successful battles against Tsar Ivan the Terrible and came close to concluding an alliance with Russia against the Ottoman Empire.

After Batory's premature death, the crown was offered to the Swede, Sigismund III Vasa(1587-1632), and during his reign Poland reached its maximum expansion (three times the size of modern Poland). Despite this, Sigismund is best remembered for moving the Polish capital from Krakow to Warsaw between 1596 and 1609.

The beginning of the 17th century was a turning point in the fate of Poland. The increasing political power of the Polish gentry undermined the authority of the Sejm. The country was divided into several huge private estates, and the nobles, upset by the ineffective government, resorted to armed rebellion.

Meanwhile, foreign invaders systematically divided up the land. Jan II Casimir Vasa(1648-68), the last of the Waza dynasty on the Polish throne, was unable to resist the aggressors - Russians, Tatars, Ukrainians, Cossacks, Turks and Swedes - who were approaching on all fronts. Swedish invasion in 1655-1660, known as the Flood, was particularly disastrous.

The last bright spot in the fall of the Royal Republic was the dominance John III Sobieski(1674-96), a brilliant commander who led several victorious battles against the Ottoman Empire. The most famous of these was the Battle of Vienna in 1683, in which he defeated the Turks.

The Rise of Russia

By the beginning of the 18th century, Poland was in decline, and Russia had become a powerful, expansive empire. The tsars systematically strengthened their power throughout the revolving country, and the rulers of Poland actually became puppets of the Russian regime. This became quite clear during the reign Stanisław August Poniatowski(1764-95), when Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, intervened directly in Polish affairs. The collapse of the Polish Empire was just around the corner.

Three sections

While Poland was languishing, Russia, Prussia and Austria were gaining strength. The late 18th century was a disastrous period for the country, with neighboring powers agreeing to partition Poland on no fewer than three separate occasions within a span of 23 years. The First Partition led to immediate reforms and a new, liberal constitution, and Poland remained relatively stable. Catherine the Great could no longer tolerate this dangerous democracy, and sent Russian troops to Poland. Despite fierce resistance, the reforms were reversed by force and the country was divided a second time.

Enter Tadeusha Kosciuszko, hero of the American Revolutionary War. With the help of patriotic forces, he launched an armed uprising in 1794. The campaign soon gained public support and the rebels scored some early victories, but Russian troops, stronger and better armed, defeated the Polish forces within a year. Resistance and unrest remained within Polish borders, which led the three occupying powers to a third and final partition. Poland disappeared from the map for the next 123 years.

Struggle for independence

Despite the partitions, Poland continued to exist as a spiritual and cultural community, and many secret nationalist societies were created. Since revolutionary France was perceived as the main ally in the struggle, some leaders fled to Paris and established their headquarters there.

In 1815, the Congress of Vienna created the Congress of the Kingdom of Poland, but Russian oppression continued. In response, armed uprisings broke out, the most significant of which occurred in 1830 and 1863. There was also a rebellion against the Austrians in 1846.

In the 1870s, Russia dramatically increased its efforts to eradicate Polish culture, suppressing the Polish language in education, government and commerce, and replacing it with Russian. However, it was also a time of great industrialization in Poland, with cities such as Lodz experiencing an economic boom. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Poland's fortunes changed once again.

First World War (1914-18)

The First World War saw Poland's three occupying powers enter the war. On one side were the Central Powers, Austria-Hungary and Germany (including Prussia), on the other side were Russia and its Western allies. Most of the fighting was organized on Polish lands, resulting in huge losses of life and livelihood. Since no official Polish state existed, there was no Polish army to fight for the national cause. To make matters worse, some two million Poles were conscripted into the Russian, German or Austrian armies and were forced to fight each other.

Paradoxically, the war ultimately led to Polish independence. After October revolution in 1917, Russia plunged into civil war and no longer had the power to oversee Polish affairs. The final collapse of the Austrian Empire in October 1918 and the withdrawal of the German army from Warsaw in November brought an opportune moment. Marshal Józef Pilsudski took control of Warsaw on November 11, 1918, declared Polish sovereignty and usurped power as head of state.

The Rise and Fall of the Second Republic

Poland began its new incarnation in a hopeless situation - the country and its economy lay in ruins, and about a million Poles died in the First World War. All state institutions - including the army, which had not existed for more than a century - had to be built from scratch.

Treaty of Versailles in 1919 he awarded Poland the western part of Prussia, providing access to the Baltic Sea. The city of Gdansk, however, became the free city of Danzig. The rest of Poland's western border was drawn up through a series of plebiscites, which led Poland to acquire some significant industrial areas of Upper Silesia. The eastern borders were established when Polish forces defeated the Red Army during the Polish-Soviet War of 1919-20.

When Poland's territorial struggle ended, the Second Republic covered almost 400,000 square meters. km and had a population of 26 million. One third of the population was of non-Polish ethnic origin, mainly Jews, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Germans.

After Piłsudski retired from political life in 1922, the country experienced four years of unstable government until the great commander seized power in a military coup in May 1926. Parliament was gradually reduced, but, despite the dictatorial regime, political repression had little influence on ordinary people. The economic situation was relatively stable, and cultural and intellectual life flourished.

On the international front, Poland's position in the 1930s was unenviable. In an attempt to normalize relations with its two inexorably hostile neighbors, Poland signed non-aggression pacts both with the Soviet Union and Germany. However, it soon became clear that the treaties did not provide any real security guarantees.

August 23, 1939, a non-aggression pact was signed in Moscow between Germany and the Soviet Union by foreign ministers Ribbentrop and Molotov. This treaty contained a secret protocol defining the proposed division of Eastern Europe between the two great powers.

World War II (1939-45)

World War II began at dawn September 1, 1939 years since the massive German invasion of Poland. The fighting began in Gdańsk (then the free city of Danzig) when German forces encountered a stubborn handful of Polish partisans at Westerplatte. The battle lasted a week. At the same time, another German line stormed Warsaw, which eventually surrendered on 28 September. Despite valiant resistance, there was simply no hope of countering the overwhelming and well-armed German forces numerically; the last resistance groups were suppressed by early October. Hitler's policy was to destroy the Polish nation and Germanize the territory. Hundreds of thousands of Poles were sent to forced labor camps in Germany, while others, most notably the intelligentsia, were executed in an attempt to exterminate spiritual and intellectual leadership.

The Jews were to be eliminated completely. They were first separated and imprisoned in ghettos, and then sent to concentration camps scattered throughout the country. Almost the entire Jewish population of Poland (three million) and approximately one million Poles died in the camps. Resistance broke out in numerous ghettos and camps, the most famous of which was in Warsaw.

Within weeks of the Nazi invasion, the Soviet Union moved into Poland and claimed the eastern half of the country. Thus, Poland was again divided. Mass arrests, exiles and executions followed, and it is believed that between one and two million Poles were sent to Siberia, the Soviet Arctic and Kazakhstan in 1939–40. Just like the Nazis, the Soviet army set in motion a process of intellectual genocide.

Shortly after the outbreak of the war, a Polish government in exile was formed in France under the command of General Władysław Sikorski and then Stanisław Mikołajczyk. As the front line moved west, this established government was moved to London in June 1940.

The course of the war changed dramatically when Hitler launched a surprise attack on the Soviet Union June 22, 1941. Soviet troops were driven out of Eastern Poland and all of Poland came under Nazi control. The Führer set up camp deep in Polish territory and remained there for more than three years.

Nationwide movement Resistance, concentrated in the cities, was put in place shortly after the end of the war to manage Polish educational, judicial and communications systems. Armed units were created by the government-in-exile in 1940, and they became the Home Army (AK; Home Army), which figured prominently in the Warsaw Uprising.

Surprisingly, given Soviet treatment of the Poles, Stalin turned to Poland for help in the war against German forces advancing east towards Moscow. The official Polish army was reformed at the end of 1941, but was largely under Soviet control.

Hitler's defeat at Stalingrad in 1943 was the turning point of the war. Eastern Front, and the Red Army successfully advanced to the west. After Soviet troops liberated Polish city Lublin, on July 22, 1944, the Polish Pro-Communist Committee of National Liberation (PCNL) was established and took over the functions of the provisional government. A week later, the Red Army reached the outskirts of Warsaw.

Warsaw remained under Nazi occupation at the time. In a last-ditch attempt to create an independent Polish administration, the AK tried to gain control of the city before the arrival of Soviet troops with disastrous results. The Red Army continued its march west through Poland, reaching Berlin a few months later. On May 8, 1945, the Nazi Reich capitulated.

At the end of World War II, Poland lay in ruins. More than six million people, about 20% of the pre-war population, lost their lives, and of the three million Polish Jews in 1939, only 80-90 thousand survived the war. Its cities were little more than rubble, and only 15% of Warsaw's buildings survived. Many Poles who saw the war in foreign countries, decided not to return to the new political order.

On Yalta Conference in February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin decided to leave Poland under Soviet control. They agreed that eastern border Poland will roughly follow the 1939 Nazi-Soviet demarcation line. Six months later, Allied leaders established Poland's western border along the rivers: Odra (Oder) and Nisa (Neisse); in effect the country has returned to its medieval borders.

Radical border changes were accompanied by population movements: Poles were moved into the newly defined Poland, while Germans, Ukrainians and Belarusians were resettled outside its borders. Eventually, 98% of Poland's population became ethnically Polish.

Once Poland formally came under Soviet control, Stalin began an intensive campaign of Sovietization. Military resistance leaders were accused of collaborating with the Nazis, and were shot or sentenced to arbitrary prison terms. A provisional Polish government was created in Moscow in June 1945 and then moved to Warsaw. General elections were postponed until 1947 to give the secret police time to arrest prominent Polish political figures. After falsified election results, the new Sejm elected Bolesław Bierut as president; Stanisław Mikolajczyk, accused of espionage, fled back to England.

In 1948, in order to monopolize power, the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP) was formed, and in 1952 a Soviet-style constitution was adopted. The post of president was abolished and power was transferred to the first secretary of the Party Central Committee. Poland became part of the Warsaw Pact.

Stalinist fanaticism never gained as much influence in Poland as in neighboring countries, and soon after Stalin's death in 1953 it all disappeared. The powers of the secret police were reduced. The pressure was relieved and Polish cultural assets were resuscitated.

In June 1956, a massive industrial strike broke out in Poznan, demanding ‘bread and freedom’. The action was suppressed by force, and soon Wladyslaw Gomulka, a former political prisoner of the Stalin era, was appointed first secretary of the Party. At first he commanded public support, but later he showed a harsher and more authoritarian attitude, putting pressure on the church and intensifying the persecution of the intelligentsia. Ultimately there was an economic crisis that caused its downfall; when he announced an official price increase in 1970, a wave of mass strikes broke out in Gdańsk, Gdynia and Szczecin. Again, protests were suppressed by force, resulting in 44 deaths. The party, in order to save its face, removed Gomulka from office and replaced him with Edward Gierek.

Another attempt to raise prices in 1976 incited labor protests, and again workers walked off the job, this time in Radom and Warsaw. Caught in a downward spiral, Gierek took out more foreign loans, but in order to earn the hard currency on which to pay interest, he was forced to divert consumer goods from the domestic market and sell them abroad. By 1980, foreign debt reached US$21 billion and the economy slumped.

By then, the opposition had become a significant force, supported by numerous advisors from intellectual circles. When the government again announced food price increases in July 1980, the result was predictable: heated and well-organized strikes and riots spread like wildfire throughout the country. In August they paralyzed the largest ports, the Silesian coal mines and the Lenin shipyard in Gdansk.

Unlike most previous popular protests, the 1980 strikes were nonviolent; The strikers did not take to the streets, but remained in their factories.

Solidarity

August 31, 1980, after long, protracted negotiations at the Lenin shipyard, the government signed the Gdansk Agreement. This forced the ruling party to accept most of the strikers' demands, including the right of workers to organize independent trade unions and go on strike. In turn, the workers agreed to adhere to the constitution and accept the power of the Party as supreme.

Delegations of workers from all over the country convened and founded Solidarity(Solidarność), a nationwide independent and self-governing trade union. Lech Walesa, who led the strike in Gdansk, was elected chairman.

The ripple effect was not long in coming, causing hesitation in the government. Zirek was replaced by Stanislaw Kania, who in turn lost in October 1981 to General Wojciech Jaruzelski. However, the trade union's greatest influence was on Polish society. After 35 years of restraint, the Poles have embroiled themselves in a spontaneous and chaotic form of democracy. Comprehensive debate on the reform process was spearheaded by Solidarity, and an independent press flourished. Forbidden historical topics such as the Stalin-Hitler Treaty and massacres Katyn could, for the first time, be discussed openly.

Not surprisingly, Solidarity's 10 million participants represented a wide range of views, from confrontational to conciliatory. By and large, it was Walesa's charismatic authority that kept the union on a moderate and balanced course.

The government, however, under pressure from Soviet and local hard-liners, was reluctant to introduce any significant reforms and systematically rejected Solidarity's proposals. This led to further discontent and, in the absence of other legal options, more strikes. Amid the fruitless debate, the economic crisis became more serious. Following failed negotiations in November 1981 between the government, Solidarity and the church, social tensions increased and led to a political stalemate.

Martial law and the collapse of communism

When General Jaruzelski unexpectedly appeared on television in the early hours of the morning December 13, 1981 To declare martial law, tanks were already on the streets, army checkpoints were set up on every corner, and paramilitary troops were stationed at possible hotspots. Power was transferred to the hands of the Military Council of National Salvation (WRON), a group of officers under the command of Jaruzelski himself.

Solidarity activities were suspended and all public meetings, demonstrations and strikes were prohibited. Several thousand people, including most of the Solidarity and Walesa leaders, were interned. The spontaneous demonstrations and strikes that followed were crushed, military rule effectively took effect across Poland within two weeks of its declaration, and life returned to the days before the creation of Solidarity.

In October 1982, the government officially dissolved Solidarity and released Walesa. In July 1984, a limited amnesty was announced and some members of the political opposition were released from prison. But, after each public protest, arrests continued, and only in 1986, all political prisoners were released.

Election Gorbachev in the Soviet Union in 1985 and its glasnost and perestroika programs provided an important impetus for democratic reform throughout Eastern Europe. By early 1989, Jaruzelski had softened his position and allowed the opposition to compete for seats in parliament.

Unfree elections were held in June 1989, in which Solidarity succeeded in winning an overwhelming majority of the votes of its supporters and was elected to the Senate, the upper house of parliament. The Communists, however, won 65% of the seats in the Sejm. Jaruzelski was placed in the presidency as a stabilizing guarantor of political change for both Moscow and the local communists, but a non-communist prime minister, Tadeusz Mazowiecki, was installed as a result of Walesa's personal pressure. This power-sharing agreement with the first non-communist prime minister in Eastern Europe since World War II paved the way for the domino-like collapse of communism throughout the Soviet bloc. In 1990 the Party historically dissolved itself.

The Free Market and the Times of Lech Wales

In January 1990, Finance Minister Leszek Balcerowicz introduced a package of reforms to replace the centrally planned communist system with a market economy. His economic shock therapy allowed prices to float freely, subsidies were removed, money was tightened, and the currency was sharply devalued, making it fully convertible with Western currencies.

The effect was almost instantaneous. Within a few months, the economy seemed to have stabilized, food shortages were no longer in evidence, and stores were stocked with goods. On the other hand, prices have soared and unemployment rates have risen. An initial wave of optimism and patience turned to uncertainty and discontent, and austerity measures caused the government's popularity to decline.

In November 1990, Walesa won the first completely free presidential election, and Third Polish Republic. During his statutory five-year tenure, Poland witnessed no fewer than five governments and five prime ministers, each of whom struggled to get the newborn democracy on track.

Following his election, Walesa appointed Jan Krzysztof Bielecki, an economist and former adviser, as prime minister. His cabinet attempted to continue the strict economic policies introduced by the previous government, but was unable to maintain parliamentary support and resigned a year later. At least 70 parties contested the country's first free parliamentary elections in October 1991, which resulted in the installation of Prime Minister Jan Olszewski at the head of a centre-right coalition. Olszewski lasted only five months, and was replaced by Hannah Suchocka in June 1992. Suchocka was, in Poland, the first woman prime minister, and she was called the Polish Margaret Thatcher. Under her coalition rule, she was able to command a parliamentary majority, but divisions grew on many issues, and she lost the elections in June 1993.

Return of the communist regime

An impatient Walesa stepped in, dissolving parliament and calling general elections. His decision was a grave miscalculation. The pendulum swung and the elections led to a coalition of the Democratic Left (SLD) and the Polish Peasant Party (PSL).

The new government, led by PSL leader Waldemar Pawlak, continued with general market reform, but the economy began to slow. Continued tensions within the coalition led to a decline in her popularity, and her battles with the president brought further changes in February 1995, when Walesa threatened to dissolve parliament unless Pawlak was replaced. The fifth and final prime minister of Walesa's presidency was Józef Oleksy: another former Communist Party official.

Wales's presidential style and achievements have been repeatedly questioned by virtually all political parties and the majority of the electorate. His bizarre behavior and capricious use of power caused a decline in the success he had enjoyed in 1990 and led to his lowest-ever level of public support in 1995, when polls indicated that only 8% of the country would prefer him as president for another term. . Despite this, Walesa maneuvered energetically and came quite close to winning a second term.

The November 1995 elections were essentially a tight contest between the anti-communist people's figure, Lech Walesa, and the young, former communist technocrat and leader of the SLD, Aleksander Kwasniewski. Kwasniewski was ahead of Wales, but by a small margin of only 3.5%.

Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz, another former party representative communist party, took over the position of Prime Minister. In reality, the post-communists have a stranglehold on power, controlling the presidency, government and parliament - the 'red triangle' - as Walesa warned. The center and right - almost half the political nation - have effectively lost control of the decision-making process. The Church favored by Walesa during his reign also suffered setbacks and warned believers against the dangers of "neopaganism" under the new regime.

Establishing balance

By 1997, the electorate clearly understood that things had gone too far. Parliamentary elections in September were won by an alliance of about 40 small Solidarity offshoot parties, collectively called the Electoral Action of Solidarity (AWS). The union formed a coalition with the centrist liberal Union of Freedom (UW), pushing ex-communists into opposition. Jerzy Buzek of AWS became prime minister, and the new government accelerated the privatization of the country.

President Kwasniewski's political style was in sharp contrast to his predecessor Walesa. Kwasniewski brought political calm during his reign and was able to successfully cooperate with the left and right wings of the political establishment. This won him a significant degree of popular support, and paved the way for another five-year term in office.

At least 13 people challenged the October 2000 presidential election, but none came close to Kwasniewski, who won with 54% of the popular vote. Centrist businessman Andrzej Olechowski came second with 17% support, while Walesa, trying his luck a third time, was defeated with just 1% of the vote.

On the way to Europe

On the international front, Poland was granted full NATO membership in March 1999, while at home parliamentary elections in September 2001 changed the political axis once again. The Union of Democratic Left (SLD) staged its second comeback, occupying 216 seats in the Diet. The party formed a coalition with the Polish Peasant Party (PSL), repeating the shaky alliance of 1993, and a former senior Communist Party official, Leszek Miller, took over as prime minister.

Poland's largest movement in the 21st century was joining the European Union May 1, 2004. The next day, Miller resigned amid a string of corruption scandals and unrest over high unemployment and low living standards. His replacement, the respected economist Marek Belka, lasted until the elections in September 2005, when the conservative Law and Justice (PiS) party and the liberal-conservative Civic Platform (PO) party took power. In total, they received 288 seats in the Sejm out of 460. PiS member Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz was appointed prime minister, and a month later, another PiS member, Lech Kaczynski, took the presidential seat.

History of Poland today

Unsurprisingly, Marcinkiewicz did not last long and resigned in July 2006 over an alleged estrangement with PiS leader, Jaroslaw Kaczynski. Yaroslav, the president's twin brother, was quickly appointed to this position. However, his dominance was short-lived - in early elections in October 2007, Yaroslav lost to the more liberal and EU-friendly Donald Tusk and his Civic Platform party.

President Kaczynski, his wife and dozens of senior officials were killed April 10, 2010 when their plane crashed in the Katyn forest near Smolensk. A total of 96 people died in the crash, including Poland's deputy foreign minister, 12 members of parliament, heads of the army and navy, and the president of the national bank. Bronislaw Komorowski, leader of the lower house of parliament, took on the role of acting president.

Kaczynski's twin brother and former prime minister, Jaroslaw Kaczynski, ran for president against Bronislaw Komorowski, who leads the Civic Platform party. Komorowski won the first and second rounds of elections and was recognized as president in July.

Despite countless reforms and coalitions, Poland is still wavering in political and economic interests. But given its turbulent past, the country has found some stability and enjoys self-rule and peace.

The history of each country is shrouded in secrets, beliefs and legends. The history of Poland was no exception. In its development, Poland has experienced many ups and downs. Several times it fell into the occupation of other countries, was barbarously divided, which led to devastation and chaos, but despite this, Poland, like a phoenix, always rose from the ashes and became even stronger. Today Poland is one of the most developed European countries, with a rich culture, economy and history.

The history of Poland dates back to the 6th century. Legend says that there once lived three brothers, and their names were Lech, Czech and Russ. They wandered with their tribes through various territories and finally found a cozy place that stretched between the rivers called the Vistula and the Dnieper. Towering above all this beauty was a large and ancient oak tree, on which was an eagle’s nest. Here Lech decided to found the city of Gniezno. And the eagle, from which it all began, began to sit on the coat of arms of the founded state. The brothers went on to seek their happiness. And so two more states were founded: the Czech Republic in the south, and Rus' in the east.

The first documented memories of Poland date back to 843. The author, who was nicknamed the Bavarian Geographer, described the tribal settlement of the Lechites, who lived in the territory between the Vistula and Odra. It had its own language and culture. And it was not subordinate to any neighboring state. This territory was remote from the commercial and cultural centers of Europe, which for a long time kept it hidden from the onslaught of nomads and conquerors. In the 9th century, several large tribes emerged from the Lechites:

1. Polyana - established their settlement in the territory that was later called Greater Poland. The main centers were Gniezno and Poznan;
2. Vistula - with its center in Krakow and Wislicia. This settlement was called Lesser Poland;
3. Mazovszane – center in Płock;
4. Kujawians, or, as the Goplians were also called, in Kruszwitz;
5. Ślęzyany – center of Wrocław.

The tribes could boast of a clear hierarchical structure and primitive state foundations. The territory where the tribes lived was called “opole”. It was ruled by elders - people from the most ancient families. In the center of each “opole” there was a “grad” - a fortification that protected people from bad weather and enemies. The elders sat hierarchically at the highest level of the population, they had their own retinue and security. All issues were resolved at a meeting of men - “veche”. Such a system shows that even in times of tribal relations, the history of Poland developed in a progressive and civilized manner.

The most developed and powerful of all the tribes was the Vistula tribe. Situated in the Upper Vistula basin, they had large and fertile lands. The center was Krakow, which was connected by trade routes with Russia and Prague. Such comfortable living conditions attracted more and more people, and soon the Vistula became the largest tribe, with developed external and political contacts. It is generally accepted that they already had their own “prince sitting on the Vistula.”

Unfortunately, almost no information has survived about the ancient princes. We know only about one prince of Polyan, named Popel, who sat in the city of Gnezdo. The prince was not very good and fair, and for his actions he received what he deserved; he was first overthrown, and then expelled from everyone. The throne was occupied by a simple hard worker Semovit, the son of the plowman Piast and the woman Repka. He ruled with dignity. Together with him, two more princes sat in power - Lestko and Semomysl. They united various neighboring tribes under their rule. The conquered cities were ruled by their governors. They also built new castles and fortifications for defense. The prince had a developed squad and thereby kept the tribes in obedience. Prince Semovit prepared such a good bridgehead for his son, the great and just first ruler of Poland, Meshko I.

Mieszko I sat on the throne from 960 to 992. During his reign, the history of Poland underwent a number of radical changes. He doubled his territories by conquering Gdańsk Pomerania, Western Pomerania, Silesia and the Vistula lands. He turned them into rich territories, both demographically and economically. The number of his squad was several thousand, which helped restrain the tribes from uprisings. In his state, Mieszko I introduced a tax system for peasants. Most often these were food and agricultural products. Sometimes taxes were paid in the form of services: construction, crafts, etc. This helped to upset the state and prevent people from giving away their last piece of bread. This method suited both the prince and the population. The ruler also had monopoly rights - “regalia” for increasingly significant and profitable areas of the economy, for example, coinage, mining of precious metals, market fees, and fees from beaver hunting. The prince was the sole ruler of the country, he was surrounded by a retinue and several military leaders who assisted in state affairs. Power was transferred according to the principle of “primogeniture” and within the ranks of one dynasty. With his reforms, Mieszko I won the title of founder of the Polish state, with a developed economy and defense capability. His marriage to Princess Dobrava from the Czech Republic and the holding of this ceremony according to the Catholic rite became the impetus for the adoption of Christianity by a once pagan state. This marked the beginning of Poland's acceptance by Christian Europe.

Boleslav the Brave

After the death of Meshko I, his son Boleslav (967-1025) ascended the throne. For his fighting power and courage in defending his country, he received the nickname Brave. He was one of the smartest and most inventive politicians. During his reign, the country expanded its possessions and significantly strengthened its position on the world map. At the beginning of his journey, he was actively involved in various missions to introduce Christianity and his power into the territories occupied by the Prussians. They were peaceful in nature and in 996 he sent Bishop Adalbert, in Poland he was called Wojciech Slawnikowiec, to the territories controlled by the Prussians to preach Christianity. In Poland he was called Wojciech Slawnikowiec. A year later he was killed, cut into several pieces. To ransom his body, the prince paid as much gold as the bishop weighed. The Pope heard this news and canonized Bishop Adalbert, who over the years became the heavenly protector of Poland.

After failed peace missions, Bolesław began to annex territories using fire and weapons. He increased the size of his squad to 3,900 mounted soldiers and 13,000 infantry, turning his army into one of the largest and most powerful. The desire to win led to ten years of problems for Poland with a state like Germany. In 1002, Boleslav seized the territories that were under the control of Henry II. Also, 1003-1004 was marked by the seizure of territories that belonged to the Czech Republic, Moravia and a small part of Slovakia. In 1018, the Kiev throne was occupied by his son-in-law Svyatopolk. True, he was soon overthrown by the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Boleslav signed an agreement with him guaranteeing non-aggression, since he considered him a good and smart ruler. Another path to diplomatic resolution of conflicts was the Gnieznay Congress (1000). This was Boleslaw's meeting with the German ruler Otto III, during a pilgrimage to the tomb of the holy Bishop Wojciech. At this congress, Otto III nicknamed Boleslav the Brave his Brother and Partner of the Empire. He also placed a diadem on his head. In turn, Boleslav presented the German ruler with the brush of the holy bishop. This union led to the creation of an archbishopric in the city of Gniezno and bishoprics in several cities, namely Krakow, Wroclaw, Kolobrzeg. Bolesław the Brave, through his efforts, developed the policy begun by his father to promote Christianity in Poland. Such recognition from Otto III and later the Pope led to the fact that on April 18, 1025, Boleslaw the Brave was crowned and became the first King of Poland. Boleslav did not enjoy the title for a long time and died a year later. But the memory of him as a good ruler lives on today.

Despite the fact that power in Poland was passed from father to eldest son, Boleslav the Brave bequeathed the throne to his favorite - Mieszko II (1025-1034), and not Besprima. Mieszko II did not distinguish himself as a good ruler even after several high-profile defeats. They led to Mieszko II renouncing the royal title and dividing the appanage lands between his younger brother Otto and his close relative Dietrich. Although until the end of his life he was still able to reunite all the lands, he failed to achieve the former power for the country.

The destroyed lands of Poland and feudal fragmentation, this is what Mieszko II’s eldest son, Casimir, who later received the nickname “Restorer” (1038-1050), inherited from his father. He established his residence in Kruszwitz and this became the center of defensive missions against the Czech king, who wanted to steal the relics of Bishop Adalbert. Casimir started the war of liberation. The first to become his enemy was Metslav, who occupied large areas of Poland. It was a huge stupidity to attack such a powerful opponent alone, and Casimir asked for the support of the Russian prince Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav the Wise not only helped Casimir in military affairs, but also became related to him by marrying him to his sister Maria Dobronega. The Polish-Russian army actively fought against the army of Metslav, and Emperor Henry III attacked the Czech Republic, thereby removing Czech troops from the territory of Poland. Casimir the Restorer gets the opportunity to freely restore his state, his economic and military policies have brought many positive changes to the life of the country. In 1044, he actively expanded the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and moved his court to Krakow, making it the central city of the country. Despite Metslav's attempts to attack Krakow and overthrow the Piast heir from the throne, Casimir mobilizes all his forces in time and deals with the enemy. At the same time, in 1055, he annexed Slask, Mazowsza and Silesia, once controlled by the Czechs, to his possessions. Casimir the Restorer became a ruler who managed, bit by bit, to unite and transform Poland into a strong and developed state.

After the death of Casimir the Restorer, an internecine struggle for the throne broke out between Bolesław II the Generous (1058-1079) and Władysław Herman (1079-1102). Bolesław II continued the policy of conquest. He repeatedly attacked Kyiv and the Czech Republic, fought against the policies of Henry IV, which led to the fact that in 1074 Poland declared its independence from the imperial power and became a state that was under the protection of the Pope. And already in 1076 Boleslav was crowned and recognized as the King of Poland. But the strengthening of the power of the magnates, and the constant battles that tired the people, led to an uprising. It was headed by his younger brother Vladislav. The king was overthrown and expelled from the country.

Vladislav German took power. He was a passive politician. He renounced the title of king and returned the title of prince. All his actions were aimed at reconciliation with his neighbors: peace treaties were signed with the Czech Republic and the Roman Empire, taming local magnates and fighting the aristocracy. This led to the loss of some territories and the displeasure of the people. Uprisings began against Władysław, led by his sons (Zbigniew and Bolesław). Zbigniew became the ruler of Greater Poland, Boleslaw - Lesser Poland. But this situation did not suit the younger brother, and on his orders the older brother was blinded and expelled because of his alliance with the Roman Empire and the invasion of Poland. After this event, the throne completely passed to Boleslav Wrymouth (1202-1138). He defeated German and Czech troops several times, which led to further reconciliation between the heads of these states. Having dealt with external problems, Boleslav set his sights on Pomerania. In 1113, he captured the area near the Notets River, also the Naklo fortress. And already 1116-1119. subjugated Gdansk and Pomerania in the east. Unprecedented battles were fought to capture Western Primorye. A rich and developed region. A series of successful operations carried out in 1121 led to the fact that Szczecin, Rügen, Wolin recognized the suzerainty of Poland. A policy began to promote Christianity in these territories, which further strengthened the significance of the prince’s power. The Pomeranian bishopric was opened in Wolin in 1128. Uprisings broke out in these territories more than once, and Bolesław pledged Danish support to put them out. For this, he gave the territory of Rügen to Danish rule, but the remaining territories remained under the overlord of Poland, although not without homage to the emperor. Before his death in 1138, Bolesław Wrymouth created a will - a statute according to which he divided the territories between his sons: the eldest Władysław sat in Silesia, the second, named Bolesław, in Mazovia and Kuyavia, the third Mieszko - in part of Greater Poland with the center in Poznan, the fourth son Henry, received Lublin and Sandomierz, and the youngest, named Casimir, was left in the care of his brothers without lands or power. The remaining lands passed into the power of the eldest of the Piast family and formed an autonomous inheritance. He created a system called the seigneurate - the center of which was in Krakow with the power of the great Krakow prince-princeps. He had sole power over all territories, Pomerania and dealt with foreign policy, military and church issues. This led to feudal strife for a period of 200 years.

True, there was one positive moment in the history of Poland, which is associated with the reign of Boleslav Krivoust. After the Second World War, it was its territorial borders that were taken as the basis as the borders for the restoration of modern Poland.

The second half of the 12th century for Poland, as well as for Kievan Rus and Germany, became a turning point. These states collapsed, and their territories came under the rule of vassals, who, together with the church, minimized his power, and then began not to recognize it at all. This led to greater independence for the once controlled areas. Poland began to look more and more like a feudal country. Power was concentrated in the hands not of the prince, but of the large landowner. Villages were populated and new systems of land cultivation and harvesting were actively introduced. A three-field system was introduced, and they began to use a plow and a water mill. The reduction of princely taxes and the development of market relations led to the fact that villagers and artisans received the right to dispose of their goods and money. This significantly increased the peasant’s standard of living, and the landowner received better quality work. Everyone benefited from this. Decentralization of power made it possible for large landowners to establish vibrant work, and then trade in goods and services. Constant internecine wars between princes who forgot to deal with state affairs only contributed to this. And soon Poland actively began to develop as a feudal-industrial state.

The 13th century in the history of Poland was troubled and joyless. Poland was attacked from the east by the Mongol-Tatars, and the Lithuanians and Prussians attacked from the north. The princes made attempts to defend themselves from the Prussians and convert the pagans to Christianity, but they were not crowned with success. In despair, Prince Konrad of Mazovia in 1226. called for help from the Teutonic Order. He gave them the Chelma land, although the order did not stop there. The Crusaders had material and military means at their disposal, and also knew how to build fortifications. This made it possible to conquer part of the Baltic lands and establish a small state there - East Prussia. It was settled by immigrants from Germany. This new country limited Poland's access to the Baltic Sea and actively threatened the integrity of Polish territory. So the saving Teutonic Order soon became the unspoken enemy of Poland.

In addition to the Prussians, Lithuanians and Crusaders, an even bigger problem arose in Poland in the 40s - the Mongol invasion. Which has already managed to conquer Rus'. They burst into the territory of Lesser Poland and, like a tsunami, swept away everything in their path. In 1241 In April, a battle took place on the territory of Silesia, near Legnica, between the knights under the leadership of Henry the Pious and the Mongols. Prince Mieszko, knights from Greater Poland, from the orders: Teutonic, Johannite, Templar, came to support him. 7-8 thousand warriors gathered in the sum. But the Mongols had more coordinated tactics, more weapons and used gas, which was intoxicating. This led to the defeat of the Polish army. Nobody knows whether it was the resistance or the fortitude of the Poles, but the Mongols left the country and never attacked again en masse. Only in 1259 and in 1287 repeated their attempt, which was more like an attack for the purpose of robbery than conquest.

After the victory over the conquerors, the history of Poland took its natural course. Poland admitted that supreme power concentrated in the hands of the Pope and paid him tribute annually. The Pope had great power in deciding all internal and external issues in Poland, which preserved its integrity and unity, and also developed the culture of the country. The foreign policy of all the princes, although ambitiously aimed at expanding their territories, was not realized in practice. Internal expansion reached a great level, when each prince wanted to colonize as many territories as possible within the country itself. The feudal division of society was reinforced by status inequality. The number of serfs increased. The number of emigrants from other countries, for example Germans and Flemings, also increased, who brought their innovations to legal and other management systems. Such colonists, in turn, received land, money and incredible freedom of action to develop the economy. This attracted more and more immigrants to the territory of Poland, the population density increased, and the quality of labor increased. Which led to the emergence of German cities in Silesia that were governed by the Magdeburg Law, or as it was also called the Chelmin Law. The first such city was Środa Śląska. Rather, such legal management spread to the entire territory of Poland and almost all spheres of life of the population.

A new stage in the history of Poland began in 1296, when Władysław Lokietok (1306-1333) from Kuyavia began the path to reunite all lands together with Polish knights and some burghers. He achieved success and in a short time united Lesser and Greater Poland and the Promorye. But in 1300, Vladislav fled from Poland due to the fact that the Czech prince Wenceslas II became king and he did not want to enter into an unequal battle with him. After the death of Vladislav, Vladislav returned to home country and began to put the lands back together again. In 1305 he regained power in Kuyavia, Sieradz, Sandomierz and Łęczyce. And a year later in Krakow. Suppressed a number of uprisings in 1310 and 1311. in Poznan and Krakow. In 1314 it united with the Principality of Greater Poland. In 1320 he was crowned and returned royal power to the territory of fragmented Poland. Despite his nickname Loketok, which Wladislav received due to his short stature, he became the first ruler who began the path to restoring the Polish state.

His father's work was continued by his son Casimir III the Great (1333-1370). His rise to power is considered to be the beginning of Poland's golden era. The country came to him in a very deplorable state. The Czech king Jan of Luxembourg wanted to capture Lesser Poland, Greater Poland was terrorized by the crusaders. In order to preserve the shaky peace, Casimir signed a non-aggression treaty with the Czech Republic in 1335, while giving him the territory of Silesia. In 1338, Casimir, with the help of the Hungarian king, who was also his brother-in-law, captured the city of Lviv and united Galician Rus' with his country through a union. The history of Poland in 1343 experienced the first peace agreement - the so-called “eternal peace”, which was signed with the Teutonic Order. The knights returned the territories of Kuyavia and Dobrzynsk to Poland. In 1345 Casimir decided to return Silesia. This led to the start of the Polish-Czech War. The battles for Poland were not very successful, and Casimir was forced on November 22, 1348. sign a peace treaty between Poland and Charles I. The lands of Silesia remained assigned to the Czech Republic. In 1366, Poland captured the Belsk, Kholm, Volodymyr-Volyn lands and Podolia. Within the country, Casimir also carried out many reforms according to Western models: in management, the legal system, and the financial system. In 1347 he issued a set of laws called the Wislica Statutes. He eased the duties of the Christians. Sheltered Jews who fled Europe. In 1364, in the city of Krakow, he opened the first university in Poland. Casimir the Great was the last ruler of the Piast dynasty, and through his efforts he revived Poland, making it a large and strong European state.

Despite the fact that he married 4 times, not a single wife gave Casimir a son and his nephew Louis I the Great (1370-1382) became the heir to the Polish throne. He was one of the most just and influential rulers in all of Europe. During his reign, the Polish gentry in 1374. received a lead, which was called Koshitsky. According to it, the nobles could not pay most of all taxes, but for this, they promised to give the throne to Louis’s daughter.

And so it happened, the daughter of Louis Jadwiga was given as a wife to the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiel, which opened a new page in the history of Poland. Jagiello (1386-1434) became the ruler of two states. In Poland he was known as Vladislav II. He began the path to unify the Principality of Lithuania with the Kingdom of Poland. In 1386 In the city of Krevo, the so-called Krevo Pact was signed, according to which Lithuania was included in Poland, which made it the largest country of the 15th century. According to this pact, Lithuania accepted Christianity, providing itself with assistance from the Catholic Church and the Pope. The prerequisites for such a union for Lithuania were a tangible threat from the Order of the Teutonic Knights, the Tatar navala and the Moscow principality. Poland, in turn, wanted to protect itself from the oppression of Hungary, which began to lay claim to the lands of Galician Rus. Both the Polish gentry and the Lithuanian boyars supported the union as an opportunity to gain a foothold in new territories and gain new markets. The unification, however, did not go very smoothly. Lithuania was a state in which power lay in the hands of the prince and feudal lord. Many, namely Jogaila’s brother, Vytautas, could not come to terms with the fact that after the union the prince’s rights and freedoms would decrease. And in 1389 Vitov enlisted the support of the Teutonic Order and attacked Lithuania. The fighting continued from 1390-1395. although already in 1392 Vytautas reconciled with his brother and became the ruler of Lithuania, and Jagiello ruled in Poland.

Wayward behavior and constant attacks from the Teutonic Order led to the fact that in 1410. Lithuania, Poland, Rus' and the Czech Republic united and held a large-scale battle at Gryuwald, where they defeated the knights and got rid of their oppression for some time.

In 1413 In the city of Gorodlya, all issues regarding the unification of the state were clarified. The Gorodel Union decided that Lithuanian prince appointed by the Polish king with the participation of the Lithuanian council, the two rulers had to hold joint meetings with the participation of the lords, the position of voivode and castellans became a novelty in Lithuania. Following this union, the Principality of Lithuania embarked on the path of development and recognition, and turned into a strong and independent state.

After the union, Casimir Jagiellonczyk (1447-1492) ascended the throne in the Principality of Lithuania, and his brother Vladislav took the throne in Poland. In 1444 King Vladislav died in battle, and power passed into the hands of Casimir. This renewed the personal union and for a long time made the Jagiellonian dynasty heirs to the throne, both in Lithuania and Poland. Casimir wanted to reduce the power of the nobles, as well as the church. But he failed, and he was forced to come to terms with their right to vote during the Diet. In 1454 Casimir provided representatives of the nobility with the so-called Neshava Statutes, which resembled the Magna Carta in their content. In 1466 A joyful and very expected event occurred - the end of the 13th war with the Teutonic Order came. The Polish state won. October 19, 1466 A peace treaty was signed in Toruń. After him, Poland regained territories such as Pomerania and Gdansk, and the order itself was recognized as a vassal of the country.

IN XVI century The history of Poland was experiencing its dawn. It has become one of the largest states in all of Eastern Europe, with a rich culture, economy and constant development. Polish language became a state language and supplanted Latin. The concept of law as power and freedom for the population took root.

With the death of Jan Olbracht (1492-1501), a struggle began between the state and the dynasty that was in power. The Jagiellonian family faced the displeasure of the wealthy population - the gentry, who refused to give duties for their benefit. There was also a threat of expansion from the Habsburgs and the Principality of Moscow. In 1499 The Gorodel Union was resumed, for which the king was elected at elective congresses of the gentry, although the applicants were only from the ruling dynasty, thus the gentry received their spoonful of honey. In 1501, the Lithuanian prince Alexander, for a place on the Polish throne, issued the so-called Melnitsky privelei. Behind him, power was in the hands of parliament, and the king only had the function of chairman. Parliament could impose a veto - a ban on the ideas of the monarch, and also make decisions on all issues of the state without the participation of the king. Parliament became two chambers - the first chamber was the Sejm, with the minor nobility, the second was the Senate, with the aristocracy and clergy. Parliament controlled all expenses of the monarch and issued sanctions for the receipt of funds. The higher ranks of the population demanded even more concessions and privileges. As a result of such reforms, actual power was concentrated in the hands of magnates.

Sigismund I (1506-1548) the Old and his son Sigismund Augustus (1548-1572) put all their efforts into reconciling the conflicting parties and meeting the needs of these versts of the population. It was customary to put the king, senate and ambassadors on equal terms. This somewhat calmed the growing protests within the country. In 1525 The master of the Teutonic Knights, whose name was Albrecht of Brandenburg, was initiated into Lutheranism. Sigismund the Old gave him possession of the Duchy of Prussia, although he remained the overlord of these places. This unification, two centuries later, turned these territories into a strong empire.

Another thing happened in 1543 outstanding event in the history of Poland. Nicolaus Copernicus stated, proved and even published a book that the earth is not the center of the universe and rotates around its axis. In medieval times, the statement is shocking and risky. But later, it was confirmed.

During the reign of Sigismund II Augustus (1548-1572). Poland flourished and became one of the powerful powers in Europe. He turned his hometown of Krakow into a cultural center. Poetry, science, architecture, and art were revived there. It was there that the Reformation began. On November 28, 1561, an agreement was signed, under which Livonia came under the protection of the Polish-Lithuanian country. Russian feudal lords received the same rights as Catholic Poles. In 1564 allowed the Jesuits to carry out their activities. In 1569, the so-called Union of Lublin was signed, after which Poland and Lithuania united into one state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This marked the beginning new era. The king is one person for two states and he was elected by the ruling aristocracy, laws were adopted by parliament, and a single currency was introduced. For a long time, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became one of the largest countries territorially, second only to Russia. This was the first step towards gentry democracy. The legal and economic system was strengthened. The safety of citizens was ensured. The gentry received the green light in all their endeavors, as long as they benefited the state. For a long time, this state of affairs suited everyone, both the population and the monarchs.

Sigismund Augustus died without leaving an heir, which led to the fact that kings began to be elected. 1573 Henry of Valois was chosen. His reign lasted a year, but in such a short time he accepted the so-called “free election”, according to which the gentry chooses the king. A pact of agreement was also adopted - an oath for the king. The king could not even appoint an heir, declare war, or increase taxes. All these issues had to be agreed upon by parliament. Even the king's wife was selected by the senate. If the king behaved inappropriately, the people could disobey him. Thus, the king remained only for the title, and the country turned from a monarchy into a parliamentary republic. Having done his business, Henry calmly left France, where he sat on the throne after the death of his brother.

After this, parliament was unable to appoint a new monarch for a long time. In 1575, having married a princess from the Jagiellonian family to the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory, they turned him into a ruler (1575-1586). He made a number of good reforms: he strengthened himself in Gdansk, Livonia and freed the Baltic states from the attacks of Ivan the Terrible. Received support from the registered Cossacks

(Sigismund Augustus was the first to apply such a term to fugitive peasants from Ukraine when he took them into military service) in the fight against the Ottoman army. He singled out the Jews, giving them privileges and allowing them to have a parliament within the community. In 1579 opened a university in Vilnius, which became the center of European and Catholic culture. Foreign policy was aimed at strengthening its positions on the part of Muscovy, Sweden and Hungary. Stefan Batory became the monarch who began to restore the country to its former glory.

Sigismund III Vasa (1587-1632) received the throne, but did not receive support from either the gentry or the population. They simply didn't like him. Since 1592 Sigismund's fixed idea was to spread and strengthen Catholicism. In the same year he was crowned King of Sweden. He did not exchange Poland for Lutheran Sweden and, due to his failure to appear in the country and not to conduct political affairs, he was overthrown from the Swedish throne in 1599. Attempts to regain the throne brought Poland into a long and unequal war with such a powerful enemy. The first step towards transferring Orthodox subjects to complete submission The Union of Berestey became the Pope of Rome in 1596. which was initiated by the king. The Uniate Church got its start - with Orthodox rituals, but with subordination to the Pope. In 1597 he moved the capital of Poland from the city of kings of Krakow to the center of the country - Warsaw. Sigismund wanted to return an absolute monarchy to Poland, limit all the rights of parliament, and slowed down the development of voting. In 1605 ordered that the veto power of parliament be destroyed. The reaction was not long in coming. And a citizen uprising broke out in 1606. The Rokosh uprising ended in 1607. July 6. Although Sigismund suppressed the uprising, his reforms were never accepted. Sigismund also brought the country into a state of war with Muscovy and Moldavia. In 1610 The Polish army occupies Moscow, winning the Battle of Klushino. Sigismund places his son Vladislav on the throne. Although they could not retain power. The people rebelled and overthrew the Polish ruler. In general, Sigismund's reign brought more harm and destruction to the country than development.

Sigismund's son Vladislav IV (1632-1648) became the ruler of a country that was weakened by the war with Muscovy and Turkey. Ukrainian Cossacks attacked its territory. Enraged by the situation in the country, the gentry demanded even more liberties and also refused to pay income tax. The situation in the country was bleak.

The situation did not improve under the leadership of Jan Casimir (1648-1668). The Cossacks continued to torment the territory. The Swedes did not refuse such pleasure either. In 1655 swedish king named Charles X conquered the cities of Krakow and Warsaw. The cities passed from one army to another several times, the result was their total destruction and death of the population. Poland was tormented by constant battles, the king fled to Silesia. In 1657 Poland lost Prussia. In 1660 The long-awaited truce between the rulers of Poland and Sweden was signed in Oliwa. But Poland continued the exhausting war with Muscovy, which led to the loss of Kyiv and the eastern banks of the Dnieper in 1667. There were uprisings within the country, tycoons, guided only by their own interests, destroyed the state. In 1652 it got to the point that the so-called “liberium veto” was used for personal interests. Any deputy could vote to reject a law he did not like. Chaos began in the country, and Jan Casimir could not stand it and abdicated the throne in 1668.

Mikhail Vishnevetsky (1669-1673) also did not improve life in the country, and also lost Podolia, giving it to the Turks.

After such a reign, Jan III Sobieski (1674-1696) ascended the throne. He began to regain territories that had been lost during numerous military operations. In 1674 went on a campaign with the Cossacks to liberate Podolia. In August 1675 defeated a large Turkish-Tatar army near the city of Lvov. France, as protector of Poland, insisted on a peace treaty between Poland and Turkey in 1676. In October of that year, the so-called Zhuravino peace was signed, after which Turkey gave 2/3 of the territory that belonged to Ukraine to Poland, and the remaining territory became at the disposal of the Cossacks. February 2, 1676 Sobieski was crowned and given the name Jan III. Despite the support of the French, Jan Sobieski wanted to get rid of Turkish oppression and on March 31, 1683, he entered into an alliance with Austria. This event led to the attack of the troops of Sultan Mehmed IV on Austria. The army of Kara-Mustafa Koprulu captured Vienna. On September 12 of the same year, Jan Sobieski with his army and the army of the Austrians near Vienna defeated enemy troops, stopping the Ottoman Empire from advancing into Europe. But the looming threat from the Turks forced Jan Sobieski in 1686. sign an agreement called “Eternal Peace” with Russia. Russia received Left Bank Ukraine at its disposal and joined the coalition against the Ottoman Empire. Domestic policies aimed at restoring hereditary power were unsuccessful. And the act of the queen, who offered to occupy various government positions for money, completely shook the power of the ruler.

For the next 70 years, the Polish throne was occupied by various foreigners. Ruler of Saxony – Augustus II (1697-1704, 1709-1733). He enlisted the support of Moscow Prince Peter I. He managed to return Podolia and Volyn. In 1699 concluded the so-called Charles Peace with the ruler of the Ottoman Empire. He fought, but without results, with the kingdom of Sweden. And in 1704 left the throne at the insistence of Charles XII, who gave power to Stanislav Leshchinsky.

The decisive battle for Augustus was the battle near Poltava in 1709, in which Peter I defeated the Swedish troops, and he returned to the throne again. 1721 brought the final victory of Poland and Russia over Sweden, ended North War. This did not bring anything positive for Poland, because it lost its independence. At the same time, it became part of the Russian Empire.

His son Augustus III (1734-1763) became a doll in the hands of Rossi. The local population, under the leadership of Prince Czartoryski, wanted to cancel the so-called “liberium veto” and return Poland to its former greatness. But the coalition led by the Pototskys did their best to prevent this. And 1764 Catherine II helped Stanisław August Poniatkowski (1764-1795) ascend the throne. He was destined to become the last king of Poland. He made a number of progressive changes in the monetary and legislative system, replaced cavalry with infantry in the army and introduced new types of weapons. I wanted to cancel the liberium veto. In 1765 introduced such an award as the Order of St. Stanislaus. The gentry, dissatisfied with such changes, in 1767-1678. held the Repninsky Sejm, at which they decided that all freedoms and privileges remained with the gentry, and that Orthodox citizens and Protestants had the same state rights as Catholics. Conservatives did not miss the chance to create their own union, called the Bar Conference. Such events sparked a civil war, and interference in its course by neighboring countries became undeniable.

The result of this situation was the first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which took place on July 25, 1772. Austria took the territory of Lesser Poland. Russia - captured Livonia, the Belarusian cities of Polotsk, Vitebsk and some part of the Minsk Voivodeship. Prussia received the so-called Greater Poland and Gdansk. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist. In 1773 destroyed the Jesuit Order. All internal affairs were handled by the ambassador, who sat in the capital Warsaw, and throughout Poland since 1780. permanent troops from Russia were stationed.

May 3, 1791 The winners created a set of laws - the Constitution of Poland. Poland turned into a hereditary monarchy. All executive power belonged to ministers and parliament. They are elected once every 2 years. The “Liberium veto” is abolished by the constitution. Judicial and administrative autonomy was given to cities. A regular army was organized. The first prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom were accepted. The history of Poland received worldwide recognition, because the constitution became the first written constitution in Europe, and the second in the whole world.

Such reforms did not suit the magnates who created the Targowitz Confederation. They asked for even more support from Russian and Prussian troops, and the result of such help was the subsequent division of the state. January 23, 1793 became the day of the next section. Territories such as the city of Gdansk, Torun, the territories of Greater Poland, and Mazovia were attached to Prussia. The Russian Empire took over a huge part of the territories that belonged to Lithuania and Belarus, Volyn and Podolia. Poland was torn apart and ceased to be considered a state.

This turn in the history of Poland could not happen without protests and uprisings. March 12, 1794 Tadeusz Kosciuszko became the leader of the mass popular uprising against usurpers. The motto was the revival of Polish independence and the return of lost lands. On this day, Polish soldiers went to Krakow. And already on March 24, the city was liberated. On April 4, peasants near Racławice defeated the tsarist troops. On April 17-18, Warsaw was liberated. This was done by artisans under the leadership of J. Kilinki. The same detachment liberated Vilna on April 22-23. The taste of victory led the rebels to demand decisive action and the continuation of the revolution. On May 7, Kosciuszko created the Polanets station wagon, but the peasants did not like it. A series of defeats in battles, troops from Austria and the offensive of Russian troops on August 11 under the leadership of the famous general A.V. Suvorov forced the rebels to leave Vilna and other cities. On November 6, Warsaw surrendered. The end of November became sad, the tsarist troops suppressed the uprising.

In 1795 the so-called third partition of Poland occurred. Poland was erased from the world map.

The further history of Poland was no less heroic, but also sad. The Poles did not want to put up with the absence of their country and did not give up trying to return Poland to its former power. They acted independently in uprisings, or were part of the troops of countries that fought against the occupiers. In 1807 When Napoleon defeated Prussia, Polish troops played an important role in this victory. Napoleon gained power over the captured territories of Poland during the 2nd partition and created there the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1815). In 1809 he annexed to this principality the lands lost after the 3rd partition. Such a small Poland delighted the Poles and gave them hope for complete liberation.

In 1815 when Napoleon was defeated, the so-called Congress of Vienna was assembled and took place territorial changes. Krakow became autonomous with a protectorate (1815-1848). The joy of the people, as it became, the so-called Grand Duchy of Warsaw lost its western lands, which were taken over by Prussia. She turned them into her own Duchy of Poznań (1815-1846); The eastern part of the country received the status of a monarchy - under the name “Kingdom of Poland”, and went to Russia.

In November 1830 There was an unsuccessful uprising of the Polish population against the Russian Empire. The same fate awaited opponents of the government in 1846 and 1848. In 1863 The January uprising broke out, but for two years it did not achieve success. There was an active Russification of the Poles. In 1905-1917 Poles took part in 4 Russian Dumas, while actively seeking national autonomy for Poland.

In 1914 the world was drowned in the fires and devastation of the First World War. Poland received, as well as the hope of gaining independence, because the dominant countries fought among themselves, and many problems. The Poles had to fight for the country to which the territory belonged; Poland became a springboard for military operations; The war exacerbated an already tense situation. Society was divided into two camps. Roman Dmovsky (1864-1939) and his associates believed that Germany was creating all the problems and fiercely supported cooperation with the Entente. They wanted to unite all the once Polish lands into autonomy under the protection of Russia. Representatives of the Polish Socialist Party acted more radically; their main desire was the defeat of Russia. Liberation from Russian oppression was the main condition for independence. The party insisted on creating independent armed forces. Jozef Pilsudski created and led garrisons of the people's army and took the side of Austria-Hungary in the battle.

Russian ruler Nicholas I, in his 1914 declaration of August 14, promised to accept the autonomy of Poland with all its lands under the protection of the Russian Empire. Germany and Austria-Hungary, in turn, two years later, on November 5, announced a manifesto, which stated that the Kingdom of Poland would be created in territories that belonged to Russia. In the month of August 1917 in France they created the so-called Polish National Committee, whose leaders were Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski. Józef Haller was called to become commander-in-chief of the army. The history of Poland received an impetus for development on January 8, 1918. Wilson, the US President, insisted on the restoration of Poland. He called for Poland to regain its position and become an independent country with open access to the Baltic Sea. At the beginning of June she was recognized as a supporter of the Entente. October 6, 1918 Taking advantage of the confusion in government structures, the Polish Regency Council made a declaration of independence. November 11, 1918 power passed to Marshal Pilsudski. The country received the long-awaited freedom, but faced certain difficulties: lack of borders, national currency, government structures, devastation and fatigue of the people. But the desire to develop gave an unreal impetus to action. And January 17, 1919 At the fateful Versailles Conference, the territorial borders of Poland were determined: Pomerania was attached to its territory, access to the sea was opened, Gdansk received the status of a free city. July 28, 1920 the large city of Cieszyn and its suburbs were divided between two countries: Poland and Czechoslovakia. February 10, 1920 Vilna joined.

On April 21, 1920, Pilsudski teamed up with the Ukrainian Petlyura and dragged Poland into the war with the Bolsheviks. The result was an attack by the Bolshevik army on Warsaw, but they were defeated.

Poland's foreign policy was aimed at a policy of not joining any country or union. January 25, 1932 signed a bilateral non-aggression treaty with the USSR. January 26, 1934 a similar pact was signed with Germany. This idyll did not last long. Germany demanded that the city, which was free, Gdansk, be given over to them and given the opportunity to build highways and a railway across the Polish border.

April 28, 1939 Germany broke the non-aggression pact, and on August 25 a German battleship landed on the territory of Gdansk. Hitler explained his actions with the salvation of the German people, who were under the yoke of the Polish authorities. They also staged a cruel provocation. On August 31, German soldiers dressed in Polish uniforms burst into the radio station studio in the city of Gleiwitz, accompanied by gunfire, and read a Polish text that called for war with Germany. This message was broadcast on all radio stations in Germany. And September 1, 1939 at 4:45 am armed German troops began shelling Polish buildings, aviation destroyed everything from the air, and the infantry sent its forces to Warsaw. Germany began its "lightning war". 62 infantry divisions and 2 air fleets were supposed to quickly break through and destroy the Polish defenses. The Polish command also had a secret plan called "West" in case of military conflict. Behind this plan, the army had to prevent the enemy from reaching vital areas, carry out active mobilization and receive support from Western countries, go on a counteroffensive. The Polish army was significantly inferior to the German one. 4 days were enough for the Germans to travel 100 km into the interior of the country. Within a week, cities such as Krakow, Kielce and Lodz were occupied. On the night of September 11, German tanks entered the suburbs of Warsaw. On September 16, the cities were captured: Bialystok, Brest-Litovsk, Przemysl, Sambir and Lvov. Polish troops, with the support of the population, waged a guerrilla war. On September 9, the Poznan garrison defeated the enemy over Bzura, and the Hel Peninsula did not surrender until October 20. Following the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact on September 17, 1939. Like clockwork, the powerful Red Army entered the territory western Ukraine and Belarus. On September 22, she easily entered Lviv.

On September 28, Ribbentrop signed an agreement in Moscow, according to which the border between Germany and the USSR was designated by the Curzon Line. During the 36 days of the war, Poland was divided for the fourth time, between two totalitarian states.

The war brought a lot of grief and destruction to the country. Everyone suffered, regardless of their former power or wealth. The Jews suffered the most in this war. Poland was no exception in this regard. The Holocaust on its territory took on a horrific character. There were justified concentration camps for prisoners. They were not just killed there, they were mocked there and incredible experiments were carried out. Auschwitz is considered the largest death camp, but there were many smaller ones scattered throughout the country, and sometimes several in each city. People were scared and doomed.

On April 19, 1943, the inhabitants of the Warsaw ghetto could not stand it and began an uprising on the night of Passover. Out of 400 thousand. At that time, only 50-70 thousand Jews remained alive in the ghetto. of people. When the police entered the ghetto for a new batch of victims, the Jews opened fire on them. Methodically, in the following weeks, the SS pens exterminated the inhabitants. The ghetto was set on fire and razed to the ground. In May the Great Synagogue was blown up. The Germans declared the end of the uprising on May 16, 1943, although outbreaks of fighting continued until June 1943.

Another large-scale uprising occurred on August 1, 1944. in Warsaw, as part of Operation Storm. The main goal of the uprising was to oust the German army from the city and show independence to the Soviet authorities. The beginning was rosy, the army was able to take control of most of the city. The Soviet army, for various reasons, stopped its offensive. September 14, 1944 The first Polish army strengthened its positions on the eastern bank of the Vistula and helped the rebels move to the western bank. The attempt was not successful and only 1200 people were able to do it. Winston Churchill demanded radical action from Stalin to help the uprising, but this was unsuccessful, and the Royal Air Force carried out 200 sorties and dropped aid and military ammunition directly from the plane. But even this could not turn the Warsaw Uprising into a success and it was soon brutally suppressed. The number of victims is not known for certain, but they say that there were 16,000 killed and 6,000 wounded, and this is only during the fighting. In the operations carried out by the Germans to clear out the rioters, about 150-200,000 civilians died. 85% of the entire city was destroyed.

For another year, the history of Poland experienced murder and destruction, and constant battles and hostilities lasted for a year. The Polish army took part in all battles against the Nazis. She was a participant in various missions.

January 17, 1945 the capital was liberated from the Nazis. Germany announced its surrender.

The First Polish Army was the second largest after the Soviet one, which took part in the war, and in particular in the storming of Berlin.

May 2, 1945 During the battles for Berlin, Polish troops planted the white and red flag of victory on the Prussian Victory Column and on the Brandenburg Gate. On this day, the modern history of Poland celebrates the national flag day.

On February 4-11, 1945, at the so-called Yalta Conference, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to annex the territories of Poland located in the east to the USSR. Poland compensates for the lost territories by receiving what were once German lands.

On July 5, 1945, the Polish Lublin government was temporarily recognized as legitimate. Non-communists could also apply for a place in management. In August, a decision was made to annex to Poland the territories that belonged to the eastern parts of Prussia and Germany. 15% of the 10 billion reparations that Germany paid were supposed to go to Poland. Post-war Poland became communist. Regular troops of the Red Army began hunting for members of various party forces. Bolesława Bieruta, a communist representative, became president. An active process of Stalinization began. In September 19948 General Secretary Wladyslaw Gomulka was removed from office due to his nationalist deviations. In the process of merging two - the Polish Workers' and Polish Socialist parties - in 1948, a new Polish United Workers' Party appeared. In 1949, the so-called United Peasant Party was approved. Poland received membership in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance of the USSR. June 7, 1950 The GDR and Poland signed an agreement, beyond which the Polish border in the west was located along the Oder-Neisse - the distribution line. To create a military coalition against the main enemy of the USSR - NATO, in 1955. The Warsaw Pact was signed. The coalition included countries such as the USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and for some time Albania.

Dissatisfaction with Stalin's policies led to mass riots in 1956. in Poznan. 50tis. people, workers and students, opposed the prevailing Soviet oppression. In October of this year, the nationalist-minded Gomulka became the general secretary of the PUWP. He reveals all the abuses of power within the Communist Party, reveals the truth about Stalin and his policies. Removes from the posts of the chairman of the Sejm, also Rokossovsky and many other officers from the union. Through his actions he won a certain neutrality from the USSR. The lands were returned to the peasants, freedom of speech appeared, trade and industry were given the green light for all undertakings, workers could intervene in the management of enterprises, warm relations with the church were restored, and the production of missing goods was established. The USA gave its economic assistance.

Recovered in the 1960s Soviet authority canceled almost all of Gomulka's reforms. Pressure on the country increased again: peasant partnerships, censorship and anti-religious policies returned.

In 1967, the famous Rolling Stones give a concert in the Palace of Culture in Warsaw.

And in March 1968 Student anti-Soviet demonstrations swept across the country. The result was arrests and emigrations. In the same year, the country's leadership refused to support the reforms of the so-called “Prague Spring”. In August, under pressure from the USSR, Polish troops took part in the occupation of Czechoslovakia.

December 1970 was marked by mass demonstrations in the cities of Gdansk, Gdynia and Szczecin. People opposed the increase in prices for various goods, and mainly for food. It all ended sadly. About 70 workers were killed and about 1,000 were injured. Constant persecution and persecution of the “dissatisfied” led to the creation in 1798. The Committee for Public Defense, which was the first stage for creating an opposition.

October 16, 1978 The new Pope is not an Italian, but the Bishop of Krakow - Karol Wojtyla (John Paul II). He directs his work towards bringing the church closer to people.

In July 1980, food prices soared again. A wave of strikes swept the country. The working class protested in Gdansk, Gdynia, Szczecin. This movement was also supported by miners in Silesia. The strikers formed committees and soon they developed 22 demands. They were of an economic and political nature. People demanded lower prices, higher wages, the creation of trade unions, lower levels of censorship, and the right to rallies and strikes. The management accepted almost all the demands. This led to the fact that workers began en masse to join trade union associations independent from the state, which soon turned into the Solidarity federation. Its leader was Lech Walesa. The main demand of the workers was permission to manage enterprises themselves, appoint management and select personnel. In September, Solidarity called on workers throughout Eastern Europe to form free trade unions. In December, workers demanded a referendum to decide the power of the Soviet Communist Party in Poland. This statement had an immediate reaction.

On December 13, 1981, Jaruzelski declared martial law in the country and arrested all Solidarity leaders. Strikes broke out and were quickly suppressed.

In 1982 Trade unions were established under national leadership.

In July 1983 Pope John Paul II arrived in the country, which led to the lifting of the protracted martial law. Pressure from international society granted amnesty to prisoners in 1984.

During 1980-1987. The economic situation in Poland was deteriorating. Workers also went hungry in the summer of 1988. Strikes began in factories and mines. The government called on Solidarity leader Lech Walesa for help. These negotiations received the symbolic name of the “Round Table”. It was decided to hold free elections and legalize Solidarity.

June 4, 1989 elections were held. Solidarity took the lead, overtaking the Communist Party, and took all the leading positions in the government. Tadeusz Mazowiecki became the country's prime minister. A year later, Lech Walesa became president. His leadership lasted one term.

In 1991 ended officially Cold War. The Warsaw Pact was terminated. Beginning of 1992 pleased with the active growth of GNP, new market institutions were created. Poland began active economic development. In 1993 An opposition was formed - the Union of Democratic Left Forces.

At the next elections, Aleksander Kwasniewski, the head of the Social Democratic Party, ascended to the presidency. His government did not get off to an easy start. Members of parliament demanded an active policy to dismiss traitors to the country and those who had collaborated or worked for the union for a long time, and then Russia. They put forward a law on lustration, but it did not pass the number of votes. And in October 1998, Kwasniewski signed this law. Everyone who was in power had to frankly admit their ties with Russia. They were not fired from their positions, but this knowledge became public knowledge. If suddenly someone did not confess, and such evidence was found, then the official was prohibited from holding office for 10 years.

In 1999 Poland has become an active member of the NATO alliance. In 2004 joined the European Union.

Elections 2005 brought victory to Lech Kaczynski.

In November 2007, Donald Tusk was elected prime minister. This government structure managed to maintain a stable political and economic situation. And even during the crisis of 2008. the Poles did not feel any big problems. In managing foreign policy, they chose neutrality and avoided conflicts with both the EU and Russia.

Plane crash in April 2010 took the lives of the president and representatives of the color of Polish society. This was a dark page in the history of Poland. People mourned a just leader, and the country plunged into mourning for a long time.

After the tragic incident, it was decided to hold early elections. The first round was on June 20 and the second on July 4, 2010. In the second round, Bronislaw Komorowski, a representative of the party called “Civic Platform”, won with 53% of the votes, overtaking L. Kaczynski’s brother, Jaroslaw Kaczynski.

Party "Civil Platform" October 9, 2011 won the parliamentary elections. The following parties also came to power: “Law and Justice” J. Kaczynski, “Palikot Movement” J. Palikot, PSL - Polish peasant party leader W. Pawlak and the Union of Left Democratic Forces. The ruling Civic Platform party has formed a coalition with the up-and-coming PSL. Donald Tusk was again chosen as Prime Minister.

In 2004 he was elected President of the European Council.

The history of Poland has passed a long and very difficult road to becoming an independent state. Today it is one of the developed and strong countries of the European Union. Harvested fields, high-quality roads, good salaries and prices, folk crafts, modern education, assistance to the disabled and low-income people, developed industry, economy, courts and governing bodies, and most importantly, a people who are so proud of their country and would not trade it for anything in the world. – make Poland the country we know, appreciate and respect. Poland has proven by its example that even from a completely destroyed, fragmented state it is possible to build a new competitive country.

• Subject and method of history of the Russian state and law
  • Subject of the history of the Russian state and law
  • Method of history of the domestic state and law
  • Periodization of the history of the Russian state and law
• Old Russian state and law (IX - beginning of the 12th century)
  • Formation of the Old Russian State
    • Historical factors in the formation of the Old Russian state
  • Social system of the Old Russian state
    • Feudal-dependent population: sources of education and classification
  • Political system of the Old Russian state
  • System of law in the Old Russian state
    • Property rights in the Old Russian state
    • Law of obligations in the Old Russian state
    • Marriage, family and inheritance law in the Old Russian state
    • Criminal law and trial in the Old Russian state
• State and law of Rus' during the period feudal fragmentation(early XII-XIV centuries)
  • Feudal fragmentation in Rus'
  • Features of the socio-political system of the Galicia-Volyn principality
  • Socio-political system of the Vladimir-Suzdal land
  • Socio-political system and law of Novgorod and Pskov
  • State and law of the Golden Horde
• Formation of the Russian centralized state
  • Prerequisites for the formation of the Russian centralized state
  • Social system in the Russian centralized state
  • Political system in the Russian centralized state
  • Development of law in the Russian centralized state
• Estate-representative monarchy in Russia (mid-16th - mid-17th centuries)
  • Social system during the period of the estate-representative monarchy
  • The political system during the period of the estate-representative monarchy
    • Police and prisons in mid. XVI - mid. XVII century
  • Development of law during the period of estate-representative monarchy
    • Civil law all R. XVI - mid. XVII century
    • Criminal law in the Code of 1649
    • Legal proceedings in the Code of 1649
• Education and development absolute monarchy in Russia (second half of the 17th-18th centuries)
  • Historical background for the emergence of absolute monarchy in Russia
  • Social system of the period of absolute monarchy in Russia
  • The political system of the period of absolute monarchy in Russia
    • Police in absolutist Russia
    • Prisons, exile and hard labor in the 17th-18th centuries.
    • Reforms of the era of palace coups
    • Reforms during the reign of Catherine II
  • Development of law under Peter I
    • Criminal law under Peter I
    • Civil law under Peter I
    • Family and inheritance law in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
    • The emergence of environmental legislation
• State and law of Russia during the period of decomposition of the serfdom and growth capitalist relations(first half of the 19th century)
  • Social system during the period of decomposition of the serfdom system
  • The political system of Russia in the nineteenth century
    • State reform of authorities
    • Own His Imperial Majesty office
    • The police system in the first half of the 19th century.
    • The Russian prison system in the nineteenth century
  • Development of a form of state unity
    • Status of Finland within the Russian Empire
    • Incorporation of Poland into the Russian Empire
  • Systematization of the legislation of the Russian Empire
• State and law of Russia during the period of establishment of capitalism (second half of the 19th century)
  • Abolition of serfdom
  • Zemstvo and city reforms
  • Local government in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Judicial reform in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Military reform in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Reform of the police and prison system in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Financial reform in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
  • Educational and censorship reforms
  • Church in the system of public administration Tsarist Russia
  • Counter-reforms of the 1880-1890s.
  • Development of Russian law in the second half of the 19th century.
    • Civil law of Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
    • Family and inheritance law in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
• State and law of Russia during the period of the first Russian revolution and before the outbreak of the First World War (1900-1914)
  • Prerequisites and course of the first Russian revolution
  • Changes in the social system of Russia
    • Agrarian reform P.A. Stolypin
    • Formation of political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
  • Changes in the Russian government system
    • Reform of government bodies
    • Establishment of the State Duma
    • Punitive measures P.A. Stolypin
    • The fight against crime at the beginning of the 20th century.
  • Changes in law in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
• State and law of Russia during the First World War
  • Changes in the government apparatus
  • Changes in the field of law during the First World War
• State and law of Russia during the period of the February bourgeois-democratic republic (February - October 1917)
  • February Revolution of 1917
  • Dual power in Russia
    • Resolving the issue of state unity of the country
    • Reform of the prison system in February - October 1917
    • Changes in the government apparatus
  • Activities of the Soviets
  • Legal activities of the Provisional Government
• Creation of the Soviet state and law (October 1917 - 1918)
  • All-Russian Congress of Soviets and its decrees
  • Fundamental changes in the social order
  • The destruction of the bourgeois and the creation of a new Soviet state apparatus
    • Powers and activities of the Councils
    • Military revolutionary committees
    • Soviet armed forces
    • Workers' militia
    • Changes in the judicial and penitentiary systems after the October Revolution
  • Nation-state building
  • Constitution of the RSFSR 1918
  • Creation of the foundations of Soviet law
• Soviet state and law during the Civil War and intervention (1918-1920)
  • Civil war and intervention
  • Soviet state apparatus
  • Armed forces and law enforcement agencies
    • Reorganization of the police in 1918-1920.
    • Activities of the Cheka during the Civil War
    • Judicial system during the civil war
  • Military Union of Soviet Republics
  • Development of law during the Civil War
• The Soviet state and law during the period of the New Economic Policy (1921-1929)
  • Nation-state building. Education USSR
    • Declaration and Treaty on the Formation of the USSR
  • Development of the state apparatus of the RSFSR
    • Recovery National economy after the civil war
    • Judicial authorities during the NEP period
    • Creation of the Soviet prosecutor's office
    • USSR police during the NEP period
    • Correctional labor institutions of the USSR during the NEP period
    • Codification of law during the NEP period
• The Soviet state and law during the period of radical change in social relations (1930-1941)
  • State economic management
    • Collective farm construction
    • National economic planning and reorganization of government bodies
  • State management of socio-cultural processes
  • Law enforcement reforms in the 1930s.
  • Reorganization of the armed forces in the 1930s.
  • Constitution of the USSR 1936
  • Development of the USSR as a union state
  • Development of law in 1930-1941.
• The Soviet state and law during the Great Patriotic War
  • Great Patriotic War and restructuring of the work of the Soviet state apparatus
  • Changes in the organization of state unity
  • Development of Soviet law during the Great Patriotic War
• Soviet state and law in post-war years restoration of the national economy (1945-1953)
  • The internal political situation and foreign policy of the USSR in the first post-war years
  • Development of the state apparatus in the post-war years
    • The system of correctional labor institutions in the post-war years
  • Development of Soviet law in the post-war years
• The Soviet state and law during the period of liberalization of social relations (mid-1950s - mid-1960s)
  • Development of external functions of the Soviet state
  • Development of a form of state unity in the mid-1950s.
  • Restructuring of the USSR state apparatus in the mid-1950s.
  • Development of Soviet law in the mid-1950s - mid-1960s.
• The Soviet state and law during the period of slowdown in social development (mid-1960s - mid-1980s)
  • Development of external functions of the state
  • Constitution of the USSR 1977
  • Form of state unity according to the 1977 USSR Constitution.
    • Development of the state apparatus
    • Law enforcement in the mid-1960s - mid-1980s.
    • USSR judicial authorities in the 1980s.
  • Development of law in the middle. 1960s - mid. 1900s
  • Correctional labor institutions in the middle. 1960s - mid. 1900s
• Formation of the state and law of the Russian Federation. Collapse of the USSR (mid 1980s - 1990s)
  • The policy of “perestroika” and its main content
  • Main directions of development of the political regime and state system
  • Collapse of the USSR
  • External consequences of the collapse of the USSR for Russia. Commonwealth of Independent States
  • Formation of the state apparatus new Russia
  • Development of the form of state unity of the Russian Federation
  • Development of law during the collapse of the USSR and the formation of the Russian Federation

Incorporation of Poland into the Russian Empire

The Polish state ceased to exist in 1795, when it was divided between Austria, Prussia and Russia. Lithuania, Western Belarus, Western Volyn and the Duchy of Courland, which was a vassal state of Poland, went to Russia.

In 1807, after France's victory over Prussia, on the part of Polish territory that belonged to it, Napoleon formed a new state - the Principality of Warsaw, to which in 1809 part of the Polish lands that were part of Austria was annexed. The Duchy of Warsaw was a constitutional monarchy. The Prince of Warsaw, on the basis of a union with the Kingdom of Saxony, was a Saxon king dependent on France. The Duchy of Warsaw took part in the war of 1812-1814. on the side of Napoleonic France.

At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Alexander I, who believed that Russia, as a victorious country, should receive new lands and secure its western borders, achieved the inclusion of most of the territory of the Principality of Warsaw into the Russian Empire. Austria. Prussia and Russia came to an agreement that the Principality of Warsaw would be transformed into the Kingdom of Poland and would receive a new constitution, according to which the Russian Emperor would become the Tsar of Poland, the head of the executive branch of the Polish state. Thus, the new Polish state was part of the Russian Empire on the basis of a union.

According to the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, the Russian emperor appointed his governor to it. The position of Secretary of State for Affairs of the Kingdom of Poland was established. The legislative body was the Sejm, elected by direct elections by all classes on the basis of property qualifications.

All participants in the war with Russia on the side of Napoleon received an amnesty and had the right to enter service in the state apparatus and in the army of the Kingdom of Poland. The commander of the Polish army was appointed by the Russian emperor as the Tsar of Poland. Many subjects of the Russian emperor were dissatisfied with the fact that the defeated Poles who participated in the war on the side of Napoleon received more rights than the victors.

Having become part of the Russian Empire, maintaining the validity of its laws, administration, and having a legislative body, Poland simultaneously gained access to the Russian, and through Russia, to the Asian market for its goods. In order to reduce anti-Russian sentiments among the Polish nobility and bourgeoisie, customs benefits were established for Polish goods. Many products of Polish industry were subject to a customs duty of 3%, while Russian ones were subject to 15%, despite the fact that “Russian manufacturers screamed against such a procedure” 1 Kornilov A.A. Course of Russian history of the 19th century. M., 1993. P. 171..

The economic development of Poland and the growing influence of the national bourgeoisie strengthened the desire for complete political independence and the restoration of the Polish sovereign state within the borders that existed before its first partition in 1772. In 1830, an uprising began in Poland, the main force of which was the army of the Kingdom of Poland. The Polish Sejm announced the deprivation of the Russian emperor of the Polish crown, thereby breaking the union between Poland and the Russian Empire.

After the suppression of the uprising by Russian troops, Emperor Nicholas I issued the “Organic Status” in 1832, which abolished the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland of 1815 and liquidated the Sejm, the Polish army. The Kingdom of Poland - this “internal abroad”, as it was called in the Russian Empire, was liquidated. Instead, the Warsaw General Government was formed. Field Marshal I.F., who commanded the Russian troops that suppressed the Polish uprising, is demonstratively appointed as viceroy of the new General Government. Paskevich, who received the title of Prince of Warsaw.

Of the state institutions provided for by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland of 1815, only the Polish State Council continued to operate, which became a kind of information and advisory institution under the State Council of the Russian Empire. But in 1841, during the preparation of the new “Regulations on the State Council of the Russian Empire,” it was abolished. Since 1857, the Warsaw governorate began to be divided administratively not into voivodships, as before, but into provinces. Certain privileges for the local nobility and tax breaks for industry were preserved, which contributed to the further socio-economic development of the former Kingdom of Poland, incorporated into the Russian Empire.

So, in the first half of the 19th century. The territory of the Russian Empire increased by almost 20%. This was due not so much to economic goals as. for example, in the case of the British Empire, but military-political tasks, the desire to ensure the security of their borders. The policy of the Russian administration in the annexed territories was based on their military-strategic significance and was aimed at their socio-economic development, and not at using the resources of the new territories for the development of the central provinces of Russia 2 See: Ananyin B., Pravilova E. The imperial factor in the Russian economy // Russian empire in a comparative perspective. M., 2004. pp. 236-237..

In the conditions of the destruction of the Ottoman and Persian empires, some of the peoples they conquered voluntarily became part of the Russian Empire.

The management of the annexed, conquered peoples, their legal status in the empire was built taking into account their socio-economic, legal, religious and other characteristics and was diverse, although it tended towards unification and the extension of the principles of administrative management and laws of the Russian Empire to them.