Lexical synonyms in Russian. Open Library - open library of educational information
Lexical synonyms are words that are identical or close in meaning. Any native speaker can easily pick up synonyms for words friend (comrade, buddy), throw (throw), brave (brave, courageous), huge (colossal, grandiose). It should be borne in mind that absolutely identical synonyms (doublets) of the type hippo - hippopotamus, spelling - spelling, linguistics - linguistics a little, because the language tries to avoid simple duplication of meaning at the lexical level.
Indeed, it is enough to refer to any dictionary of synonyms to see that synonyms, as a rule, differ in certain semantic components. For example, the degree of intensity of quality, action (lot - heap - a lot - darkness - a lot; small - small - tiny - tiny - tiny - microscopic; few - Little - a little - a little; rejoice - rejoice - triumph; beat - beat - beat - bludgeon; stink - stench - stink etc.), additional signs of meaning. Indicative, for example, shades of red in the synonymous series red - scarlet - crimson - crimson - purple - bloody - coral - ruby - cherry - lingonberry - cranberry - burgundy or differences in the nature of the action in a synonymic series to walk - to march - to plod - to trail - to drag - to drag - to stomp.
Of particular importance are the stylistic differences between synonyms, which determine the appropriateness of a particular word in a particular situation, its “attachment” to a particular era, to a particular type of text (bookish, official, business, journalistic, everyday). For example, the word fateful as a synonym for an adjective important used only in literary speech . The words nonsense, nonsense, nonsense, nonsense, nonsense are expressive synonyms for the word absurdity and can only be used in informal situations in colloquial speech. Stylistic differences are very often combined with differences in expressiveness (expressiveness), with the ability of a word to convey an assessment, to express the emotional attitude of the speaker.
Today, lexical synonymy is being actively updated, primarily due to foreign borrowings and vocabulary that came from jargons. This is especially characteristic of the newspaper speech of recent years, with its principled openness and readiness for renewal. The use of synonyms makes it possible to take a fresh look at the old realities, and the natural desire to find new lexical means allows you to update synonymous resources. The following example is indicative, in which a number of colloquial (by origin jargon) synonyms for the word work, new word shuttle replenished the synonymous row with the word dealer, borrowing guest worker fit in with the word worker.
The actualization of synonyms in modern speech is often associated with their ability to serve as explanations, to serve as a means of mastering something incomprehensible, which is especially important when new foreign words, professional terms, jargon, etc. are introduced into the text. Synonymic replacements are diverse and aimed at achieving mutual understanding between speaker and listener, between author and reader. Wed: This happens often: you had a good time on the beach, sunbathed, went swimming, and the next day a cold jumped on your lip.And although in this situation this diagnosis cuts the ear, this is what the people call herpes(Izvestia. 1996.10 Sept.).
Thus, synonyms allow you to adapt speech to specific situations of communication, to show the features of your personality in a specific lexical choice, to perform speech actions. They make it possible to indicate one's speech preferences, discover a linguistic flair, show the volume and richness of one's vocabulary, and, consequently, demonstrate the level of one's education.
synonym polysemy semantic lexical
Any appeal to the problem of synonymy traditionally rested on the attempts of researchers to give the most consistent definition of synonyms, on which the understanding of the place of synonyms in the lexical system depended. However, the versatility of the phenomenon created natural obstacles for the unambiguous characteristics of synonyms, for determining criteria that allow us to single out some genuine synonyms with absolute accuracy.
In the linguistic literature, synonyms have received more than one definition. They all repeat in many respects, at the same time they differ from each other in some way.
The emergence of different and sometimes opposite approaches to the semantic characterization of words that are the object of synonymy comes from the insufficient development of the problem of semasiology, in particular the problem of word semantics.
The definition according to which synonyms are considered to be words that are close or identical in meaning, but differ in shades of meaning, or stylistic coloring, or both, has become the most generally accepted and traditional.
If synonyms are more or less identical in meaning, then they, as a rule, differ in stylistic coloring.
But, firstly, there are few absolute synonyms in the language, and secondly, the evidence of the richness of the language is not absolute synonyms, but ideographic ones, which, being close in meaning, at the same time differ in shades of meaning. After all, the value of synonyms is that they are not absolutely identical, they differ in shades of meaning and stylistic coloring, which makes it possible to convey the subtlest shades of thought.
Therefore, the inclusion in the synonymic series of only words that are identical in meaning is illegal.
More fruitful is the definition of a synonym, which provides for the presence of words that are similar or close in meaning.
Lexical synonyms are one of the most well-studied semantic categories. A lot of works are devoted to them, they are described in detail in synonymous dictionaries. However, the question of the linguistic essence of synonyms is still relevant.
Currently, in Russian linguistics, in the presence of different points of view on the essence of synonyms, there are three main definitions:
- 1. Words that are close in meaning are synonymous.
- 2. Words that are identical in meaning.
- 3. Words close and identical in meaning.
Scientists such as A.N. Gvozdev, B.N. Golovin, N.F. Shumilov and others, synonyms recognize words that sound similar, but are not identical in meaning.
So, for example, B.N. Golovin believes that synonyms are words with extremely close, but not coinciding meanings.
In fact, words in a language can be combined into different groups based on the proximity of meanings: into thematic, associative, hyponymic (genus-species, species-species), etc. And in this case, the definition of synonyms as words that are close in meaning, denoting the same concept , is an essential feature that makes it possible to distinguish them from similar groups. Their difference is manifested in the nature of semantic proximity: the first groups denote different (adjacent, related, cross, close) concepts, and synonyms - the same concept.
The second group includes such researchers as G.P. Galavanova, A.D. Grigorieva and others. They consider the identity of words and individual meanings of a word to be the basis of lexical synonymy.
The identity of words is defined traditionally: words are identical if they replace each other.
So, G.P. Galavanova believes that two features - semantic proximity and interchangeability - should be considered the main criterion in determining the synonymy of words as a special lexical phenomenon that distinguishes it from other phenomena of the language system.
Scientists such as Yu.D. Apresyan, V.A. Zvegintsev, L.P. Evgenyeva and others - adherents of the third group, consider both similar and identical words to be synonymous. They recognize that in words with semantic identity there is a difference between stylistic usage in context. This point of view proceeds from the traditional definition of a synonym and at the same time assumes the criterion of identity - interchangeability in the same texts.
Recently, many researchers have defended this point of view, making an attempt to resolve the following questions: what is meant by the term "synonym", the boundaries of the proximity of values, the function of interchangeability of synonyms, their types, types, etc. P.
In this regard, the remark of N.M. Shansky that synonyms, naming the same thing, always differ from each other in some way. However, the differences nevertheless imply their nominative commonality, which determines the main property of synonyms - the possibility of replacing one word with another in certain contexts.
It follows from this that synonyms, as words that are identical and close in meaning, belong to the same part of speech, occupy the same syntactic position in the text.
The same lexical compatibility (or full valency), as well as semantic identity, in synonymous words, is quite rare. Each synonym of a series, in addition to being close to other synonymous words, may differ from them in some quality.
In particular, this difference often manifests itself in the impossibility of completely replacing one synonym with another in all cases of their compatibility with other words: one word has a wider, the other has a narrower range of lexical compatibility, which is often closely related to the breadth or narrowness of their lexical meaning.
Synonyms, therefore, must have a common syntactic compatibility and, like words that are close in meaning, a common "zone" of lexical compatibility.
Synonyms are words that express the same concept, identical and close in meaning, differing from each other in shades of meaning, belonging to one or another stylistic layer of the language, expressive coloring and having at least partially coinciding compatibility, since only in this case, they are able to replace each other in real language contexts.
Lexical synonyms include words that are close or identical in meaning, naming the same concept in different ways, but differing from each other either in shades of meaning, or in stylistic coloring, or both at the same time: speed - swiftness; faithful - unchanging, devoted; run out - run out, run out.
Since lexical synonymy is a semantic phenomenon, its most significant feature will be the proximity or identity of meaning.
It is this feature that allows modern researchers to talk about the so-called neutralization of the meanings of synonymous words, that is, the erasure of semantic differences between them in a certain contextual position and, therefore, the possibility of their almost complete interchangeability: "Silence reigned all around" and "Silence reigned all around" , where the difference in the meaning of the words silence (absence of sounds) and silence (absence of pronounced sounds) are erased, semantic neutralization occurs and synonyms are positionally interchangeable.
Not all words enter into synonymous relations. Proper names, names of inhabitants, many specific names of household items are not synonymized in the literary language.
As a rule, terms should not have synonyms, although the practice of creating and operating modern terms provides examples of synonymy in this area as well.
Moreover, the so-called absolute synonymy (complete coincidence of meanings) is observed mainly in modern terminologies (linguistics, linguistics).
Lexical synonyms(Greek s ynonymous - homonymous) are words of the same part of speech, close or identical in meaning, but different in sound and spelling. Synonyms can mean the same thing (hippopotamus, hippo) but most often they differ from each other in shades of meaning: red, crimson, scarlet; imitate, copy, imitate,
Synonyms appear in the language for various reasons, for example:
1) as a result of the penetration of similar or identical in meaning with Russian borrowed words: introduction–preamble; conductor– tour guide, guide;
2) as a result of naming the same thing differently in different styles of speech: there is–eat; talker–balabolka;
3) as a result of a different emotional assessment of an object, phenomenon, etc.: cruel–ferocious, heartless, ruthless;
4) as a result of the desire to soften the designation of a concept: thick – full etc.
Depending on the characteristics by which synonyms differ from each other, they are divided into semantic, stylistic and semantic-stylistic. Semantic synonyms differ in shades of meaning: house, palace, shack; run, run.Stylistic synonyms mean the same thing, but are used in different styles of speech: eyes, eyes, zenki; understand, laugh.Semantic-stylistic synonyms combine both of the above features: dress– dress up; frivolous–naughty.
Synonyms that do not differ from each other by any of the listed features are called absolute(or complete): linguistics- linguistics, tiny- tiny.
Synonyms are merged into synonymous series. The word that most fully expresses the concept common to all words of the synonymic series is called dominant(lat. dominants- dominating). The dominant opens a synonymous row and is, as a rule, a commonly used, stylistically neutral word: fearful – timid, timid, timid, cowardly, cautious, cowardly (colloquial).
Synonyms of the same row may differ in lexical compatibility. For example, words large and extensive combined with the word territory, but only one of them is combined with the word tree: big tree. The exact choice of one of the synonyms is determined by the context.
Synonyms are used to enhance the visual and expressive possibilities of the text, for the most accurate and complete characterization of the described phenomenon: 1. Snow blizzard, blizzard, spin yarn for us, whip fluffy snow like swan down. You nimble weavers–whirlwinds and blizzards, give rainbow brocade for shaggy firs(S. Marshak). 2. The runners creaked, screeched, wept, tearing themselves away from the accretion of snow;(A. Kuprin).
Lexical synonyms(gr. synonymos - the same name) - these are words that are close or identical in meaning, which call the same concept differently. Synonyms differ from each other either by a shade of meaning (close), or by stylistic coloring (unambiguous, i.e. identical), or by both. For example: ruddy - pink, rosy-cheeked, rosy-faced, red-cheeked; neighborhood - circle, districts(colloquial); premature - early, untimely(raised, bookish with words death, demise, doom etc.). The former differ mainly in shades of meaning. In the next two synonymous rows, along with semantic differences, there are also stylistic differences (see notes unfold and book.), as well as stylistic (see litter raised.).
The synonymic possibilities of the Russian language are varied; synonyms can be heterogeneous words (greatness - grandiosity; blizzard - blizzard, snowstorm) and single-rooted (greatness - majesty, majesty; blizzard - blizzard; unprincipled - unprincipled). In a synonymic series, along with individual words, combinations of official and significant words can be combined (in spite - in spite; anonymous - without a signature), words and terminological combinations of words (aviation - air fleet; dentist - dentist), etc. Synonyms appear in the language in connection with the penetration of borrowed words that are close or identical in meaning to Russian (cf .: conductor - guide, cicerone; embryo - embryo; introduction - preamble and etc.).
A group of words consisting of several synonyms is called synonymous next (or nest ). The first place in the synonymic series is usually taken by the defining and stylistically neutral word - dominant (lat. yottapz - dominant) (it is also called the pivotal, main, supporting word). Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, supplement it with evaluative values. So, in the example brave - courageous, courageous, fearless, fearless, fearless, daring, dashing the dominant of the series is the word brave, it most succinctly conveys the meaning that unites all synonyms - "fearless" and free from expressive and stylistic shades. The rest of the synonyms are distinguished in the semantic-stylistic sense and in the peculiarities of their use in speech. For example, intrepid- a book word, interpreted as "very brave"; daring- folk-poetic, means "full of daring"; dashing- colloquial - "bold, risk-taking." Synonyms brave, courageous, fearless, fearless differ not only in semantic nuances, but also in the possibilities of lexical compatibility (they are combined only with nouns that call people; one cannot say "brave project", "fearless decision" etc.).
Members of the synonymic series can be not only individual words, but also set phrases (phraseological units), as well as prepositional case forms: a lot - over the edge, without counting, chickens do not peck. All of them, as a rule, perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.
By the number of words, synonymous series are not the same: some have two or three words ( marriage - matrimony; authority - weight, prestige), others include a large number of words and phrases ( win - overcome, smash, defeat, overcome, break, overpower, triumph, overpower, cope, take over, win and etc.).
Synonyms always belong to the same part of speech. However, in the word-formation system, each of them has related words related to other parts of speech and entering into the same synonymous relations with each other; cf. beautiful - charming, charming, irresistible - beauty - charm, charm, irresistibility, to think - to think, to think, to think, to think - thoughts - thoughts, reflections, reflections, thoughts. Such synonymy is stably preserved between derivative words: harmony - euphony, harmonious - euphonious, harmony - euphony; harmonious - harmonious. This pattern clearly demonstrates the systemic connections of lexical units.
The Russian language is rich in synonyms, rare synonymic series have two or three members, more often there are many more. However, compilers of synonym dictionaries use different criteria for their selection. This leads to the fact that the synonymic rows of different lexicographers often do not match. The reason for such discrepancies lies in the unequal understanding of the essence of lexical synonymy.
Some scientists consider the designation of the same concept by them as an obligatory sign of synonymous relations of words. Others take their interchangeability as a basis for highlighting synonyms. The third point of view boils down to the fact that the proximity of the lexical meanings of words is recognized as the decisive condition for synonymy. At the same time, the following is put forward as a criterion: 1) proximity or identity of lexical meanings; 2) only the identity of lexical meanings; 3) proximity, but not identity, of lexical meanings. According to D.E. Rosenthal, I.B. Golub and M.A. Telenkova, authors of the textbook "Modern Russian language" (M., 2003), the most important condition for synonymous words is their semantic proximity, and in special cases - identity. Depending on the degree of semantic proximity, synonymy can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent. For example, the synonymy of verbs hurry-hurry expressed more clearly than, say, laugh - laugh, burst, roll, roll, giggle, snort, squirt with significant semantic and stylistic differences. Synonymy is most fully expressed with the semantic identity of words: here - here, linguistics - linguistics. However, there are few words that are absolutely identical in the language; as a rule, they develop semantic shades, stylistic features that determine their originality in vocabulary. For example, in the last pair of synonyms, differences in lexical compatibility have already been outlined; compare: Russian linguistics, but structural linguistics.
Full (absolute) synonyms are most often parallel scientific terms: spelling - spelling, nominative - naming, fricative - slot, as well as single-root words formed with the help of synonymic affixes: wretchedness - wretchedness, guard - guard.
With the development of the language, one of the pair of absolute synonyms may disappear. So, for example, the original full-voiced variants fell out of use, giving way to Old Church Slavonic in origin: licorice-sweet, kind-brave, helmet-helmet. Others change the meanings, and, as a result, there is a complete break in synonymous relations: lover, lover; vulgar, popular.
Synonyms, as a rule, designate the same phenomenon of objective reality. The nominative function allows you to combine them into open series, which are replenished with the development of the language, with the emergence of new meanings for words. On the other hand, synonymic relations can break up, and then individual words are excluded from the synonymic series, acquiring other semantic connections. Yes, the word scrupulous, formerly synonymous with haberdashery[cf.: trades London scrupulous (P.)], now synonymized with the words thin, delicate, word vulgar no longer synonymous common, popular(cf. the hope expressed by the writer Trediakovsky that the book he wrote would be even a little vulgar ) and approached next to: vulgar - rude, low, immoral, cynical; at the word dream the semantic correlation with the word is currently violated thought[cf.: What a terrible dream! (P.)], but preserved with the words dream, dream. Accordingly, the system connections of related words also change. The semantic structures of the given lexical units influenced the formation of such, for example, synonymous series: scrupulousness - sophistication, delicacy; vulgarity - rudeness, meanness, dream - dream.
Synonymy is closely related to the phenomenon of polysemy. For example, the word quiet has several meanings, and each of them can have its own synonyms. Yes, in the phrase quiet sleep its synonyms are - calm, serene, but these words cannot replace the word quiet combined with the word Human. Synonyms for it in the phrase quiet person is an - inconspicuous, modest; in the phrase quiet voice - weak, barely audible; in the phrase quiet ride adjective quiet synonymous - slow, calm etc. Word profit also has several synonyms: profit, profit, gain. However, it is not always possible to replace this word with any of the indicated synonyms. So, in the phrase Prokhor Petrovich meanwhile made a semi-annual calculation of turnovers. balance showed profit (Shishk.) no word profit replace, for example, with the words profit, profit or gain, since the meaning of the whole phrase will be distorted; word profit in this context is stylistically the most appropriate and accurate.
Synonymic connections of words confirm the systemic nature of Russian vocabulary.
Lexical synonyms are words that are close or identical in meaning, which call the same concept in different ways. Synonyms differ from each other either by a shade of meaning (close), or by stylistic coloring (unambiguous, i.e. identical), or by both. For example: ruddy - pink, rosy-cheeked, pink-faced, red-cheeked; neighborhood - circle, districts (colloquial); premature - early, timeless (raised, bookish with the words death, death, death, etc.). The former differ mainly in shades of meaning. In the next two synonymous rows, along with semantic differences, there are also stylistic and stylistic differences. Depending on the semantic or functional-stylistic differences, three main types of synonyms are conventionally distinguished: 1) ideographic (gr. idea - concept + grapho - record), or actually semantic,
2) stylistic (by reference to one of the functional styles (see the above litters of colloquial and bookish,
3) proper stylistic (i.e., those in the meaning of which there are additional evaluative and expressive shades, see litter raised). The last two types are usually closely related to each other (cf., for example, synonyms for the interstyle and stylistically neutral word life: colloquial life, common-colloquial, family life-life and common-colloquial, predominantly neglected being ). Consequently, belonging to a style is often clarified by indicating an additional appraisal or connotation, i.e. stylistic characteristic. Such synonyms are often also called semantic-stylistic, since they all have differences in meaning.
The emergence of synonyms of the above types in the language is due to a number of reasons. One of them is the desire of a person to find some new features in an object or phenomenon of reality and designate them with a new word, similar in meaning to the already existing name for this object, phenomenon, quality (cf., for example, the use of the words hearing, rumor, news, news, message and others to refer to one concept). Synonyms appear in the language in connection with the penetration of borrowed words that are close or identical in meaning to Russian (cf., for example: conductor - guide, chicherone; germ - embryo; introduction - preamble, etc.). Sometimes words that are close in meaning appear in the language due to the fact that in different expressive-stylistic groups of words, in different styles of speech, the same object, the same phenomenon can be called differently. So, the words eye, hand, go, this one, in vain and others are common. In sublime speech, in poetic speech, their synonyms can be the words eyes, hands, outdated for the modern Russian language, coming, this, in vain. For example, A.S. Pushkin, we observe the use of synonyms for eyes - eyes:
No, not agate in her eyes, but all the treasures of the East are not worth the sweet rays of her midday eye ...
To reduce the style, some of them in colloquial everyday speech are replaced by synonyms of a colloquial or dialectal nature: eyes - peepers, eyeballs, balls, etc .; hands - paws; goes - stomps.
Synonyms also arise when an object, sign or phenomenon of reality is given a different emotional assessment (cf. cruel - ruthless, heartless, inhuman, fierce, ferocious, etc.). Synonymous in the modern Russian language are not only individual words, but also individual phraseological turns. Synonymy is closely related to the phenomenon of polysemy. For example, the word quiet has several meanings, and each of them can have its own synonyms. So, in the phrase quiet sleep, its synonyms are calm, serene, but these words cannot replace the word quiet in combination with the word man. Synonyms for him in the phrase a quiet person are - inconspicuous, modest; in the phrase, a quiet voice is weak, barely audible; in the phrase quiet ride, the adjective quiet is synonymous - slow, calm, etc. The word profit also has several synonyms: profit, profit, profit. However, it is not always possible to replace this word with any of the indicated synonyms. For example, “The balance showed profit” in this sentence the word profit cannot be replaced with words like profit, profit or benefit, since the meaning of the whole phrase will be distorted; the word profit in this context is stylistically the most appropriate and accurate. In context, words can be interchangeable with synonyms (for example, gaze - look; pedestal - pedestal; calm - calm; giant - giant, colossus, giant, titan, etc.). However, words grouped in a common synonymous series cannot always be interchangeable (see the example with the words profit - profit, profit, etc.). Synonymous words have one, as a rule, stylistically neutral core (main) word in the synonymic series, which is usually called a dominant (Latin dominans - dominant). Such is, for example, the verb to speak in relation to words stylistically colored - to say, utter, grumble, etc.
The synonymic possibilities of the Russian language are varied; synonyms can be heterogeneous words (greatness - grandiosity; blizzard - blizzard, snowstorm) and single-rooted (greatness - majesty, majesty; blizzard - blizzard; unprincipled - unprincipled). In a synonymic series, along with individual words, combinations of official and significant words can be combined (in spite - in defiance; anonymous - without a signature), words and terminological combinations of words (aviation - air fleet; dentist - dentist), etc. The role of synonyms in speech is exceptionally large: they help to avoid unnecessary repetitions of the same word, more precisely, convey thoughts more clearly, allow expressing the variety of shades of a particular phenomenon, quality, etc.
Along with general literary, accepted, usual (Latin usus - custom) synonyms in the process of use in speech (especially in the language of fiction), words that in ordinary use have nothing in common in their meaning act as synonyms. For example, in the sentence: A ruddy girl came out and knocked a samovar on the table (M. G.), the word knocked is synonymized with the word set, although in general literary language they are not synonyms. Such use is called occasional (lat. occasional - random), due to the individual selection of words only for a given context. For such words, stable consolidation of synonymous meanings in the language system is not observed. They are not listed in dictionaries. By the number of words, the synonymic rows are not the same: some have two or three words (marriage - matrimony; authority - weight, prestige), others include a large number of words and phrases (win - overcome, smash, defeat, overcome, break, overpower, triumph, overpower, cope, prevail, win, etc.)
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