Lyrics

Lyrics, lyric poetry(from the Greek λυρικός - “performed to the sounds of a lyre, sensitive” “lyrical; lyric”) reproduces the subjective personal feeling or mood of the author.

The listed types of folk songs appear very early among all European peoples. The oldest mentions of Slavic songs go back to the 7th century. In Germany, love songs, lamentations, and wedding songs are mentioned very early on. Traces of French folk song can be seen in anonymous lyric plays of the 12th and 13th centuries.

They differ greatly from the artificial troubadour music that was dominant at that time and, on the contrary, are similar to the songs of the 16th century. Ancient Italian folk literature did not reach us until the 13th century, but its early existence can be inferred from some works of the 13th century. (for example, the play Ciullo d'Alcomo) and based on songs of the 15th century.

The oldest works of artificial literature that have come down to us are the Psalms of King David and the Song of Songs. The psalms subsequently formed the basis of religious Christian literature and were translated into all European languages. The Song of Songs, attributed to King Solomon, can be called a lyrical drama. poem; its content has given rise to many different interpretations.

The latter is considered the first author of a bucolic shepherd's song. The influence of the Dorian school also spread to southern Italy, where the poet Ivicus lived, whose works were purely erotic in nature. Erotic literature reached its highest perfection with the poet of the Ionian school Anacreon (6th century BC).

In France, the first imitator of Petrarch is Melin de S.-Gelais. This movement was especially strongly reflected in England. Here until the 16th century. Literature was generally little developed: there was a ritual and everyday folk song, as can be assumed from fragments of songs in Shakespeare, but the lyrical-epic song glorifying the exploits of Robin Hood was especially popular.

Chaucer's attempt to introduce the French ballad did not take root. Thus, here sonnets did not have to supplant the national L. A number of English sonnetists begin with Watt and Serret; they are followed by Sidney, Shakespeare, etc. Sonnetism continues in the literature of Italy, France, England and in the 17th century. and here, together with the madrigal and the epigram, takes on a salon character ridiculed by Molière.

In Italy and Spain he was updated with a new mannerism under the influence of the poets Marini and Gongora. From French sonnetists of the 16th and 17th centuries. issued by Ronsard, Voiture, Balzac. Corneille did not neglect this type of poetry either. In Germany, Sonnetism flourished among the so-called. Pignitzschäferov. Italian fashions, which spread throughout Europe along with humanism, also brought greater interest in the ancients.

Joachim Dubella (in mid-16th century c.), rejecting all types of poetry inherited from the Middle Ages, recommended first of all ancient literature: odes, elegies, anacreonic songs, epigrams, satires, etc., and only in addition pointed to sonnets. From then on, throughout the reign of the so-called. of the false-classical direction, we see precisely these types of literature in literature. They flourished in France, and in Germany, and in Russia, as soon as it accepted Western European civilization. The pompous false-classical court ode was first introduced into France by Ronsard.

Malherbe followed him; odes by Boileau, Perrault, La Motta and others are also known, but in general the entire false-classical period was very poor and L. did not produce anything significant in this area. Lyric poetry came to life in France only at the end of the 18th century. in the elegies and iambics of Andrei Chenier, who drew inspiration from the ancient Greek. lyricists.

In Germany, pseudo-classicism and imitation of France also produced the court ode. The national tradition lasted for a long time only in the form of student leipz. songs and awakened to a new life only under the influence of patriotism. Such are Gleim’s “Prussian War Songs of the Grenadier,” which have caused many imitations.

A long series of Russian odes begins with the ode to the capture of Danzig by Tredyakovsky, who blindly followed Boileau. Of Lomonosov’s 19 odes, many do not rise above an ordinary court ode, but among them there are those whose subjects are close to Lomonosov’s heart and deeply felt; this is for example ode from the book of Job, “Discourses on God’s Greatness” and many others. etc.

Derzhavin knew how to combine the bombast of an ode with a variety of satire and skillfully used descriptions of nature. His ode “God” is especially famous. He also wrote imitations of psalms, anacreontic songs, etc. Next to Derzhavin there were many writers of odes, less talented and sincere. The need to compose odes became something of a disease of the century and was finally ridiculed by Dmitriev in “Alien Talk.”

The English romantics Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Byron, Shelley, Keats are primarily lyric poets. The same can be said about the French. romantics: Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Musset, and about the Italians Monti, Ugo Foscolo, Leopardi. The lyrical mood also inspires our poets of the beginning of the century - Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Ryleev, Pushkin, Lermontov, Vyazemsky, Baratynsky, Alexander Odoevsky.

Lyricism permeates all types of poetry, even narrative poems. "The Sorrows of Young Werther", "Song of the Bell", "Corsair", "Queen Mab", "Rolla", "Gypsies", " Prisoner of the Caucasus", Mickiewicz's "Grandfathers" bear a lyrical imprint. The form of L. becomes free and obeys only internal esto-psychological laws. Lyrical plays of the romantic period and modern literature are called simply poems (Gedichte, po e sies) and most often do not fit into any of the categories. traditional forms.

True, Goethe writes elegies, Wordsworth writes sonnets, Victor Hugo writes odes, but these types of poetry are accepted along with the entire complex of poetic forms ever developed by mankind. A ballad was specially developed by romantics, the plots of which are taken either from the Middle Ages or from modern folk life.

Its emergence was influenced, among other things, by those that had enormous success in the 18th century. songs of Ossian, partly composed, partly adapted from Scots. ballads by McPherson. Romantic ballads were written by Schiller, Burger, Uhland in Germany, and in England by Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey. Their ballad is more realistic in content. Mickiewicz also wrote such ballads.

Our ballad began with a translation, as for example. from Zhukovsky, but later acquired national character, like the Poles, for example. from Pushkin, from Alexei Tolstoy. This is the only definite type of romantic love; the rest of L. romantics can best be divided according to internal content- for poems dedicated to the depiction of feelings, perceptions or ideas. The first group embraces the most subjective plays, e.g. love.

Poems that respond to perception include, first of all, descriptions of nature. Goethe was the first to turn to the depiction of nature in his lyrical plays. Poems of a descriptive nature often coincide with those depicting the poet’s personal mood, but are often limited to purely descriptive purposes, and this is a characteristic feature of romantic and modern poetry.

The last department of lyric poetry, ideological, reproduces any philosophical, political or social thought. During the romantic period, European literature reached its highest perfection; but soon the realistic direction came to replace romanticism, and from that time on poetry ceased to be predominantly lyrical. More objective types of poetic creativity come to the fore: the novel, story, etc. L. partly continues to live in the old tradition, like the “Parnassians” in France, Tennyson in England, Alexei Tolstoy, A.

The rapid development of information technology has its negative sides. Humanitarian sciences turn out to be undeservedly forgotten, but their name comes from the Latin word humanus - “human”.

Not every confident Internet user will be able to give a clear answer to the simple textbook question: “What are lyrics?”

The word lyrics comes from the title musical instrument- lyres. Lyrics originate in ancient times, when songs and poems were composed and performed to the sounds of the lyre. A work based on the personal feelings and moods of the author is called lyrical.

Today the term "lyrics" widely used in literature and music. In colloquial speech, this word refers to the emotional sphere, the opposite of practical thoughts and actions (example: “let’s leave the lyrics, let’s get down to business”).

Ozhegov's dictionary classifies lyrics as a type of literary works expressing feelings and experiences. In Ushakov’s dictionary the formulation is somewhat different: there lyrics are described as a type of poetry that expresses the personal moods and experiences of the poet. There are many elegant formulations, but they have the same essence: the lyrics are based on human feelings and experiences.


Lyrics imply sincerity and frankness, openness of feelings and emotional sophistication. The main lyrical genres are poem, romance and elegy. At first glance, these poetic genres are not in high demand today, but in fact this is not entirely true.

Lyric poetry is widely used, for example in song lyrics; Many popular hits are essentially lyrical works. If you remember your favorite songs, there will probably be several examples of song lyrics among them. By the way, in musical terminology the word “lyrics” is also used.

Lyrics are a type of musical work in which the emotional component predominates. Works of a wide variety of musical genres can be lyrical; it is important that they evoke intense empathy in the listener on a deep emotional level.

The lyrical component plays important role in many classical musical works, nowadays musical lyrics are widely used in such genres as jazz, blues, rhythm and blues, chanson, urban romance, art song, as well as electronic and.


Good lyrical music can be understood without words; the listener perceives the feelings embedded in it, regardless of the language in which the composer who wrote it speaks and thinks.

The oldest lyrical works that have survived to our times are biblical texts - the Song of Songs and the Psalms of King David. The Song of Songs, attributed to King Solomon, is a complete example of a lyric-dramatic poem. Imbued with deep religious feeling, the Psalms became the basis of Christian lyrics and were translated into all modern European languages.

But the real flowering of lyrical literature came only in the 19th century. A bright mark in the development of lyrics was left by such outstanding masters of words as Byron, Percy Shelley, Victor Hugo, F. I. Tyutchev, A. A. Fet, N. A. Nekrasov, I. A. Bunin, A.K. Tolstoy. Lyrics, which are still the classic standard of lyrical Russian poetry, have gained worldwide fame.

Let us give specific examples of lyrical literary works.

A. S. Pushkin. Poems “Winter Evening”, “Village”, “I Loved You”, “Prophet”, “To the Poet”, “To the Sea”, “I Remember a Wonderful Moment”.

N. A. Nekrasov. Poems “Troika”, “Elegy”, “Knight for an Hour”, “Poet and Citizen”, “I don’t like your irony”.

F. I. Tyutchev. Poems “How good you are, O night sea”, “I met you”, “Russia cannot be understood with the mind”, “Autumn evening”, “The gray shadows have shifted”.


Classics of musical lyrics are Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata, Strauss's Tales of the Vienna Woods, and Mozart's Requiem.

Of the modern examples, the most famous are the rock ballads of groups such as Scorpions and Guns N' Roses.

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Lyrics



Lyrics

Lyrics

LYRICS. - The division of poetry into three main types is traditional in literary theory. Epic, literary and drama seem to be the main forms of all poetic creativity. Moreover, by epic (see) we mean poetry that objectively tells about facts and phenomena; under L. - poetry, the object of which is the personal or collective experiences of a person in the form of directly expressed feelings; under drama - works that require stage performance, but are primarily characterized by the fact that each character, expressing his beliefs, feelings, striving for his goals, etc., is combined with other characters into some objective whole. Drama (see) is so. arr. as if a synthetic kind of poetry, including both lyrical-subjective and epic-objective moments.
Hegel most clearly formulated the differences between types of poetry. According to Hegel, epic is a narrative kind of poetry. Both epic and dramatic poetry, which depict action through the medium of a stage, have as their goal the display of an external fact, and the goal of this poetry is to evoke in listeners the very sensations that would be caused by the fact itself, which is the material of this poetic work. On the contrary, in lyric poetry the goal is to express the poet's intimate feelings. Therefore, Hegel classifies the first two types as objective poetry, while the third characterizes it as subjective poetry: “Lyrical poetry,” he says, “depicts the inner world of the soul, its feelings, its concepts, its joys and sufferings. This is a personal thought, which lies in the fact that it contains the most intimate and real, expressed by the poet, as his own mood; it is a living and inspired product of his spirit.” L. is closely connected, according to Hegel, with poetic. inspiration.
It must be said, however, that, despite the convenience of such a division, which gave it an enviable longevity, doubt about its correctness and clarity arose very early. Goethe already pointed out its conventionality and artificiality quite clearly. “Looking more closely at all the accepted categories of poetry,” he says, “you come to the conclusion that genres are sometimes determined by external features, sometimes by objects, less often by the essential features of their form. It becomes noticeable that some of them merge with each other, while others turn out to be subordinate to others. In particular, as for the main types of poetry - epic, lyrical and dramatic, their elements are found in every smallest poem. Take for example the ballad, how it arose among various peoples. In the ancient Greek tragedy you can also easily ascertain the presence of all these three genera, sometimes combined with each other, sometimes separated. While the choir played the main role here, lyric poetry essentially dominated. When the choir became spectators, the other two types sharply appeared. When the action narrowed and took on a character approaching the events of everyday life, the chorus turned out to be completely unnecessary, the lyrical moment in this sense disappeared. In French tragedy, the expositions are epic, the environment is depicted dramatically, but one can fully recognize as lyrical those tirades in the last act that are filled with passion and enthusiasm. In essence, the types of poetry are infinitely diverse, their elements can be combined in the most bizarre way. That is why it is extremely difficult to establish any really lasting order in order to place the genera of poetry next to each other or in subordination to each other.”
This division is criticized even more persistently by those areas of modern bourgeois literary criticism that use the method of idealistic dialectics. Thus, B. Croce, who has slipped from left to right Hegelianism, fiercely criticizes the doctrine of literary genders as one of the destructive “intellectualistic misconceptions,” recognizing for it only the narrowly applied significance of an arbitrary grouping for the purpose of practical cataloging (“Aesthetics as the science of expression and as general linguistics").
Marxist literary criticism in this case, as in all others, must put the idealistic dialectic “from head to foot,” based on the dialectical unity of being and consciousness as its “image, mirror image” (Lenin, Materialism and Empirio-Criticism). Each genus arises from certain social needs, in a certain social environment, and within each of them there is a very large variety. Therefore, it is possible to accept, for example, the epic creativity of mankind as some kind of unity only extremely conditionally. The same applies to drama and literature. Here we are dealing with living life, each manifestation of which is determined by specific conditions; the classification here is formal and artificial.
Indeed, in essence, the classification of poetry into genera is based on the opposition of subject and object, on the unresolved contradiction of the subjective and objective. But in the system of materialist dialectics, these contradictions are subject to removal in dialectical unity (not at all identity). Therefore, it is quite natural that the question of poetic genera should be reconsidered (see Genera).
The narrowly applied nature of the division into types of poetry is also indicated by the history of its origin. The division accepted in European literary criticism is based on attitudes that arose in ancient Greece. However, the Greeks did not attach to their divisions the meaning that we find in expanded form, for example. in Hegel. These divisions are much less artificial. They stem from formal and technical - indeed very heterogeneous - features artistic creativity. Thus, the Greeks distinguish between epos and melos, that is, what is said and what is sung. We are dealing here with two different verbal arts. In the first, the word is the main carrier of the artistic value of the work. Of course, epic works were also chanted; a certain rhythm and certain modulations were also introduced into them, both forever ordered, semi-musical (recitative), and emotional in nature (increasing, decreasing, accelerating, weakening sounds) depending on the content. In melic creativity, music and sound come first. It can take on the character of an ordered organization, a sound sequence or sound combinations, into which a word is inserted, obeying the flow of the melody; A more fluid expression of emotions is also possible, in which case music becomes a very eloquent expression of the artist’s experiences in its own way and is very flexibly combined with words. There are various transitional forms - from a firmly constructed, natural melody to a directly flowing song formed by a given experience. The Greeks did not directly equate melic song, poetic creativity, and poetry, but not because they moved to another, internally justified definition. The word "L." comes from the word "lyre", a special instrument originally made from the shield of a tortoise, which served as a resonator for several strings. The melic poetry of the Greeks was not limited to this accompaniment. Quite often she resorted to flute accompaniment. So. arr. L. was originally the name for the type of songs that were performed by the singer to his own accompaniment, which could not be done with a flute, and which were supposed to be distinguished by simpler rhythms and less obsession with the immediate wave of feeling.
The original content of individual genres changes in the same way. Elegy (q.v.) originally meant any song performed to the sound of a flute; later it was a kind of meditation, or aphoristic poetry. Ballad (see), as can be seen from the word itself, was the original name for such songs, which were performed in some Romanesque countries medieval Europe accompanied by dance; later the ballad was defined by a number of special formal settings; finally, ch. arr. under the influence of English (more precisely Celtic) romance, a ballad was defined as a short poetic story about an event - miraculous or meaningful and exciting. So. arr. the ballad could have been classified as an epic, if not for the presence of the author’s inner emotion, which ensured the ballad’s place among lyrical works in the classification that has been established so far.
So, the adopted terminology, both in origin and in essence, is neither objective nor completely satisfactory and therefore is subject to significant revision. The three elements that Hegel speaks of are undoubtedly and incessantly intertwined with each other, and there is no reason to believe that the epic artist should avoid lyrical or dramatic moments in his poem. There is no reason to think that a lyrical work will be “spoiled” if significant narrative moments are introduced into it (this is always done in a ballad). Drama can introduce into speech in the widest possible way characters, in the prologue, epilogue, in the performances of the choir or one or another person who is a commentator on the action, any lyrical or epic moments. However, this does not reject the certain convenience of the generally accepted division, which can be accepted in the future as conditional.
In the history of poetry, in the light of this conventional division, one can distinguish the appearance of each of the genera and the separate fate of each of them. There is no doubt, however, that all three types of poetry have the same root.
The deeper we go through the layers of folklore to the original phenomena poetic activity person, the more clear its syncretic character becomes. However, it is necessary to be sufficiently critical of the theory of primitive syncretism due to the idealistic mistakes it makes in resolving the problem of the genesis of art, in particular verbal art. Such errors clearly appear among representatives of idealistic schools, such as. from Alexander N. Veselovsky and the French sociologist Lévy-Bruhl, but some attempts at a materialist restructuring of this theory are not always free from them (see Syncretism).
There is hardly any need for special proof of the impossibility of individual lyrics in pre-feudal formations (tribal and earlier) in the absence of corresponding prerequisites in the economy, public, public consciousness. Individuality very little distinguishes itself among its own kind. A tribe, a clan, a group united by a totem, is what we find at this stage of development; in these ancient eras of the existence of mankind, the need to contrast the collective with its individual member is not yet realized, which is equally reflected in the structure of language. and in the forms of poetry, in particular L.
One of the foundations of the life of the clan is precisely all sorts of ceremonies, during the performance of which the clan feels its unity. But it is not so much the feeling of unity as the real significance of these peculiar games, acting as maneuvers, as exercises for activity (depictions of hunting, battles, etc.) that gives public celebrations (such as the Australian corroboree, studied by Ernst Grosse) the character of real practical value . The presence of rhythms, manifested in movements and sounds, undoubtedly has a disciplinary and binding character, beneficial for the strength and vitality of the race. Poetry, like any art, plays a highly practical role here, from which it does not follow that a person of primitive culture had a correct idea of ​​\u200b\u200bpractice. But can this explain the entire content of the original poetic creativity? Most of existing theories primitive syncretism brings forward here the moment of magical pre-logical thinking characteristic of these social formations. The creator of primitive syncretic art - the tribe - and the bearer of his consciousness - the old people - imagined the practical usefulness of the ceremony as its magical power. In this kind of magical action of the ceremonial of a tribe or clan, we have a combination of all aspects of poetry. Facts are partly told (epic), partly directly depicted (drama). Choreography, music and words take a huge part, and the presence of a living, immediate feeling is the germ for the further development of lyrical poetry.
No matter how convincing these constructions are, which derive syncretic art from the magical action (with a materialistic approach to it, understood as a labor-magical or quasi-production process), in reality, in the labor-magical process we are dealing with a much later superstructure, with those “ foggy formations in the brains of people,” which are already “sublimates of their material, empirically ascertainable and associated with material conditions, life process” (K. Marx).
Although among the so-called peoples of primitive culture there are various forms of magical literature, reflecting relatively later forms of deformed “pre-logical” thinking, we also inevitably find among them forms of a typologically incomparably more primitive work song, regulating the working rhythms of a particular production (rowing songs, lifters, drivers, pile drivers, etc.).
If the theory of the labor-magical origin of primitive art deserves serious revision in the light of the Marxist doctrine of the origin of society, then the theory of the so-called. “inspiration”, connecting forms of primitive magic with pathological phenomena of a biological order.
Hegel’s definition, which we cited above, emphasizes agreement with the fact that literature, being an expression of the direct experiences of the soul, is particularly closely connected with “inspiration.” Indeed, the appearance of individual lyrics against the backdrop of public choral syncretic poetry was often associated with “inspiration.” Inspiration, however, as evidenced by the facts of ethnography, archeology and cultural history, is nothing more than a psychopathic phenomenon, partly natural, partly simulated. “Possessed by the spirit” - this is neutral ground, from which a prophet, inspired by the gods, can stand out on one side (this is what the poet is for a long time), and on the other side - a possessed one. Facts of such possession, which, of course, have nothing to do with any spirit, undoubtedly occur. There is also no doubt about the great importance they acquired. A person in a seizure is regarded by those around him as the receptacle of some spirit that has “rolled over” him; he becomes the subject of intense attention, fear and reverence - phenomena observed from the so-called. "primitive culture" up to at least feudalism. Further, respect for this kind of possessed people is shown only insofar as the remnants of feudalism are alive.
It goes without saying that the biological substrate - no matter whether it is the spells of shamans or prophecies - is only an empty form that is filled with content by a certain social environment. In this case, the individual is only an organizer of elements that arise in the social environment and influence it, and a fighter for the interests of this environment. But with the advent of this kind of individuality, as a master of his craft, as a specialist, we meet only at a certain height cultural development with the already quite obvious decomposition of primitive communism, often with the completely obvious appearance of class stratification. Subsequently, the role of the possessed person speaking on behalf of God becomes more and more and is peculiarly intertwined with the role of priests and clergy. This defines all religious poetry, such as the sayings of the biblical prophets, the so-called. Psalms of David and countless similar lyrical phenomena.
But the lyrical poets, who branched away from religious prophecy and began to create their works in the order of musically organized secular journalism and “songs,” have, one might say, preserved, up to the present day, the tradition of connecting more or less successful moments of their work, just as his talent in general, with the old priestly theory of “inspiration”.
One of the most striking manifestations of this relationship is the so-called. lyrical disorder, which back in the 18th century. even rationalist literary theorists considered it acceptable and necessary in odes as a reflection of such obsession, as a kind of rudiment, an indication of the chaos brought into the thoughts and feelings of a person by the spirit that invaded him (see Classicism and Ode).
The roots of lyricism, as well as of primitive art in general, should be sought not in the work-magical action, and even less in the phenomena of “possession” of a biological order, but in the immediate needs of the collective production process and the consciousness generated by it - in the work song that regulates work rhythms. The latter - in countless variants - is represented both in the oral folklore literature of the peoples of primitive and high culture, and in the written monuments of the literature of the classical East that have come down to us (cf., for example, work songs ancient egypt) and the ancient world, Near and Far East.
Along with this, however, almost all of the listed literature also presents various forms of dating back to later social formation magical L. - from the often abstruse shamanic spell (examples of such rhymed spells can be indicated in ancient Arabic poetry) to a thematically developed dithyramb or hymn, like the hymns of the Rig-Veda (see Hymn). The same applies to a large extent to the forms of non-cult journalistic lyrics - ode, encomia, qasida, etc. If the ode, which undoubtedly arose later, is already the work of an individual poet, specialist, singer and composer, then nevertheless the ode should be directed to an object that has universal or very broad significance, and in an elevated, qualitatively high form to express the feelings that are inherent in the entire social group behind the poet. Only in later eras (for example, in the ancient social formation) does the poet increasingly move away from this universality and lay claim to originality. However, originality in ode comes down mostly to the growing sophistication of form. While an ode is alive, it cannot acquire a purely individual, intimate, subjectively original, personal character. Ode remains a form of public L.
Since poetry is not only a reflection of class existence and consciousness, but also a direct weapon of class attack and defense on the ideological front, the forms of cult and non-cult literature are early imbued with elements of satire and sarcasm. This is how numerous forms of propaganda L. are created, on the one hand, and parody L., on the other; already in the hymns of the Rig Veda there are mocking songs about brahmanas, just as ancient Greece knows the robber song and iambic combat, and Rome knows satire and epigram (see the relevant articles about this).
The accumulation of practical and pseudo-practical experience of a collective (tribe, clan, totemic group) gives rise - in the absence of sufficiently developed methods of graphical consolidation - to the need for mnemonic formulas for transmitting it from generation to generation. This is how forms of didactic literature are created, standing on the border of poetry and scientific literature, in its most primitive forms: saying, gnome, proverb and question-and-answer forms, primarily riddles; Many of these forms later acquire the character of a cult L. - cf. eg riddles in the Vedas. All these genres are typical mainly for collective, public literature, and not for individual. The latter can be distinguished, since we agree to unite under this name subjective elements, the direct emotional experiences of a person. But he does not yet recognize them or in any case express them as inherent in him.
Everything that has been said will be correct for the next large genre of lyrical poetry (the term “genres” is used here in the conventional meaning that we discussed above). The song may be of a choral nature. In this way, just like an ode, it is connected through hymn-like choirs to the original collective syncretic actions. The initial syncretism of the song is also reflected in its differentiation into two main types: dance and non-dance (compare, for example, in the L. Western European feudal formation the difference between Lied and Reigen, canzo and ballata, dansa).
But the song strives to be an expression of the experiences of an individual, however, not in its isolation, uniqueness, but, on the contrary, precisely in its widespread repeatability. Tracing the fate of the so-called folk song, we will see that it is very broadly divided, arising in connection with the age-sex division of labor and changes in family forms - songs for men, women, songs that specifically mark one or another moment in the life of an individual and even different moods - joy, grief, etc. However, it is easy to notice that the original form of this kind of lyrics are labor and ritual songs. It is here that various, always equally generally accepted, sometimes even firmly fixed sensations also have an individual character: the separation of the bride from her friends, etc.
So. arr. The art of folk song lies precisely in the fact that gradually, by selecting individual expressions, certain feelings, expressive poetic and melodic works are created, included in the treasury of a given tribe, people, in its everyday life, which are widely disseminated precisely because that such a position of an individual, such sensations and a similar way of expressing them in a given environment are extremely typical. Hence, of course, the widest possible borrowing is possible.
Impersonal literature, both essentially having a mass, choral character, and individualized, but not having an individual author behind it, is limitless. It is found among all peoples and constitutes a huge part of the folklore wealth of humanity. From it stands out the written L., into which a very large amount of the previous content is initially poured. Since the art of writing is initially a monopoly of narrow layers of the ruling class (priesthood, feudal elite), either cult (or perceived as cult) forms of literature or non-cult forms such as odes, encomia and similar genres are consolidated in writing. We can find many examples of this kind of literature in Indian and Chinese literature, in the remains of the literature of Babylon, Assyria, Egypt, in the Bible of the Jews, in the epigraphy of the ancient world (Scipio's epitaph), later in Arabic and Persian literature, etc.
However, as we have already indicated, the impersonality of folklore literature is very relative. This is a reflection of various experiences, joyful and sad, in connection with more or less typical events in the life of individuals, and it is the similarity of these individuals that ensures the widespread and durable preservation of such songs. When we come to an era with a pronounced division of classes, with class struggle and a number of individuals who find themselves pulled out of the usual environment, knocked out of the usual rut, then more and more sharply expressed individual, even individualistic L. appears. and this individualistic lyricism can only spread if any social groups take up the work as an expression of their own feelings and thoughts.
Generally speaking, the emergence of individual, and even more so individualistic, literature is possible only in the presence of an intense class struggle and in the conditions of that class, the direct spokesman and defender of whose interests the given poet is. We can say that individual lyrics, i.e. lyrical works, the authors of which are obviously known and who claim that they express their personal experiences with their poetry, can vary significantly along two lines, between which there are all intermediate ones. On the one hand, the lyric poet may become famous precisely because he expresses the most general feelings of a class, which is a highly qualified mouthpiece for its very common experiences. This can only be the case when society is sufficiently developed to provide masters and specialists even for such a refined need as fiction, and on the other hand, when the class still has real unity. On the contrary, the more such class unity is violated, the greater the disintegration we notice in the class, the more another character of L. predominates - namely, L. is individualistic, extremely valuing its originality, very refined, the assessment does not at all imply that the evaluator accepts this lyrics for the full expression of their experiences. The reader at this time highly values ​​the original lyric poet even when the moods of this poet coincide with his own moods only in the main, otherwise appreciating in him only a related personality. Such a reader at the same time glorifies the subtlety, peculiarity and uniqueness of the poet’s experiences. The bourgeois period of cultural development, as a generally individualistic period, especially in the era of the collapse of the bourgeois order, is especially characterized by individualized L.
However, it would be an absolute simplification to reduce the entire history of love to the alternation of social history and individualistic history. Not to mention the fact that, as mentioned above, the concept of the impersonality of folklore is very relative (the folklore of most peoples knows individual singers, whose names are often preserved, cf., for example, the ashugs of Transcaucasia, songwriters among the unliterate peoples of the North Caucasus), similar reduction replaces the genuine dialectics of literary development with an abstract scheme. The reduction of the history of L. to the struggle between form and content is also schematic.
Of course, in the history of L. one can note a transition from traditional content, which the poet finds in folk songs that characterize the experiences and heritage of the collectivist era, to increasingly lively individualized content, reflecting the diversity of events of a given time, and then to the loss of this content and to a greater and greater appreciation of questions of pure form. Such a formal petrification of poetry, in which the content is in most cases once and for all established, varies very little, and formal tasks are especially difficult exercises in various more or less firmly established and always very difficult to perform rhythmic and constructive forms (cf. in L. of the ruling class in the era of late and decaying feudalism, the flourishing of such constructive forms as the ballad, rondel, virele, sonnet, etc.), characterizes the internal decline of this class and the culture led by it in those cases, however, when society has not yet put forward new forces and new classes, which could seriously threaten the elite. We find such periods of extreme formalistic death of L. at different times and among different peoples. As an example, we can cite the late Persian and Arabian literature, the late literature of the Icelandic skalds, the ossification of the Meistersang in Germany, etc. However, this opposition is very conditional and abstract; The supposedly dead forms of lyrics perfectly serve the goals of the class struggle in reality.
If the classification according to the main types of poetry, the convenience and stability of which are relatively great, must be approached with extreme caution, as some kind of conventional division, increasing its significance in an era when the poet himself is subject to more or less pedantically established school rubrics, and weakening in eras, when the new wave of poetry brought by a new class tends very easily to break these rubrics, this applies even more to individual genres as divisions within genera. Even such fairly stable genre concepts as ballad and elegy, which we have already discussed, are very vague and shaky.
The more formalistic a given era of the development of class culture is, the more higher value has a division of L. according to external forms. At some points, this comes to the creation of many different headings, exclusively determined by well-known constructive conventions (cf., for example, the division of literary forms in the poetics of eastern feudal formations). Such a division, of course, is not significant and cannot be durable; it usually dies for the most part along with the culture of the declining hegemonic class that created it (the conditions under which formalism develops).
In some conditions, however, along with the stability of rhythmic and metrical forms (foot and stanza), which, having been determined by Ch. arr. in Greece, have existed to this day and will probably exist in the future; other artificial forms invented during the period of a more or less formalistic attitude to poetry, such as the sonnet or the oriental “ghazal,” also turned out to be stable.
In contrast to these formal distinctions and, in general, to any once and for all external forms of literature, the idea of ​​literature is put forward as an art to such an immediate degree that it does not tolerate any rules over itself. So eg. in French poetry since the 80s. last century, a strong movement began against the very precise rules of caesura, rhyme, euphony, etc. that constrained French literature. The lyricists of the new generation, partly reflecting the decadent social impotence of the petty bourgeoisie, partly the offensive of the new class (Verhaerne), sought to create free verse ( see) (vers libre), which must obey the internal dictates of the experience itself. At the same time, in the idealistic (mostly subjective-idealistic, psychological) poetics of bourgeois literary criticism, there are attempts to divide literature into genres according to the dominant emotion or worldview. These are eg. dividing L. into metaphorical and rhetorical L. (Harnack), into direct and mediated L., into gnomic, contemplative and musical L. (Girt), into intuitive-spiritual, visionary-meditative and naive-heart L. (Marquardt ), An attempt was also made to divide literature into genres based on objects. They talked about religious, philosophical, socio-political, moral and everyday life, landscape, table, erotic, etc. The artificiality of such divisions is obvious; one can easily find in practice a variety of connections and fusions of these divisible genres.
So, any construction of the history of L. in isolation from the real existence of class reality and class struggle, in isolation from the study of change and struggle artistic methods and literary styles as its reflection and instrument leads to idealistic abstractions and formalistic schemes. That is why, instead of giving the history of L. in isolation from literature as a whole, we prefer to refer the reader to articles characterizing the development of the literature of individual languages, here we illustrate our positions with one detailed example - the history of L. in the era of industrial capitalism and imperialism - in XIX and early XX centuries.
The great socio-political shift that the French Revolution brought to life in Europe had a tremendous impact on the destinies of Latvia. The collapse of the social ties of the old feudal-absolutist society, the victory of the new individualistic principles put forward by the bourgeoisie - all this could not help but direct Latvia along a new path. The inner world of a self-sufficient human personality becomes the main subject of its depiction. The literary movement that arose under the influence of the French Revolution and known as romanticism is characterized by the development of lyric poetry in this direction and the dominance of poetry over all other types of poetry, the creation of lyrical drama, lyric poem, etc.
L. of this era revealed all the conventionality of genre divisions, often violating their boundaries or pouring into traditional forms content that seemed completely unusual for them (odes by V. Hugo, sonnets by Wordsworth, etc.). Fulfilling its social-class function, the philosophy of the new, post-revolutionary society declares war on classicism with its aristocratic forms, which assert with their conventions, their “high style” the class hierarchy, a kind of “pathos of distance” between the masters “by the grace of God” and the servants. After the French Revolution, democratization and simplification of L. takes place. Folk song, not canned and smoothed over ancient mythology becomes its source, bringing his intimacy and artlessness into the individual L. The greatest poets of the era turn to folk song: Goethe, Brentano, Shelley, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Burns, T. Moore, etc.
The creative method of this L. can be characterized as idealistic. It takes on a more or less mystical character, especially in Germany, where the development of lyric poetry coincided with the heyday of the classical philosophy of idealism (Novalis, for example). Human consciousness, "spirit", is the highest reality, essence and basis of being. Its properties are transferred to nature. The object is either denied, then opposed and subordinated, or absorbed by the subject.
These are the most general features that allow us to speak of a post-revolutionary or “romantic” period in the history of Latvia. But within this broad framework, sharply different phenomena are grouped: reconciliation with reality and even obvious reactionaryness (Brentano and other German romantics), renunciation of politics or open service to the “evil of the day” (German patriotic L. during the Napoleonic wars, Kerner), rebellion against reality, protest against reaction (Shelley, Byron). L. becomes not only a more or less disguised, but also an obvious weapon of class struggle.
All these processes of transformation of Western European literature were uniquely reflected in Russian literature. Here already at the end of the 18th century. The middle and small nobility began to contrast their style with court poetry. The sharper the process of stratification of the nobility becomes, the sharper this opposition becomes. The process of capitalization of the middle nobility, on the one hand, and the emerging declassification of the small landed nobility, on the other - all this is expressed in fiction in general and in literature in particular. Zhukovsky and Batyushkov are preparing the way for Pushkin, the great creator of this new noble L. Its main feature is the simplification of themes, genres and languages. Pushkin introduces lively colloquial speech into L., even a “common syllable.” Instead of the ode, the so-called genres acquire predominant importance. "intimate L." (especially elegy). Erotic motifs receive a particularly sophisticated development.
The so-called lyricists are associated with Pushkin. “Pushkin galaxy” - Vyazemsky, Delvig, Baratynsky. The collapse of the Decembrist movement prevented the development in Leningrad of civic motives that resounded loudly in the works of the Decembrist Ryleev. The most complete representative of romanticism on Russian soil was Tyutchev - both in terms of his creative method, which corresponds to Schelling’s philosophy of identity, and in terms of the meaning of “mythological metaphor” in his poetry.
As the era of new revolutions (1830–1848) approaches, the development of Western European literature enters a new phase. New ones are growing stronger social connections, the bourgeoisie is consolidating, the question of eliminating the last strongholds of feudalism and absolutism is becoming increasingly acute. Elements of realism were to be developed in L. The democratization of its forms, which was the merit of the romantic movement, had to receive a different content. The cult of the inner world and the creative method associated with it are denied in the lyrics of Heinrich Heine, permeated with irony. Civil law receives special development from him; in the previous era, Ch. the image of the sarcastic protester L. Byron. But the vague ideas of Byron and his followers about freedom, the public good, tyrants, etc. are replaced in Heine’s lyrical and satirical pamphlets by a more clear idea of ​​classes and class struggle. The expression of this new understanding of social life is facilitated by Heine’s favorite “contrast construction”: irony - pathetic lyricism. Heine also used the fable genre as a weapon of topical political struggle.
Simultaneously with Heine, but inferior to him in the breadth of his grasp and the sharpness of his penetration into the world of social relations, he created his “iambs” Barbier in France and wrote his popular satirical songs with Beranger’s refrain. So. arr. poetry of the 1848 revolution in France and Germany is being prepared. Having gone through the school of Heine, Herwegh, Freiligrath, Prutz and others are fighting the feudal-absolutist reaction. The classical traditions that are so close to it are often used against it (Herwegh).
The voices of political poets from the petty-bourgeois intelligentsia are beginning to be joined by voices from working-class and semi-working-class backgrounds (E. Elliott, T. Goode in England, Dupont in France, Bromberger in Germany). At that time, working-class poets were not yet able to overcome the influence of bourgeois literature.
IN close connection With the development of Western European literature, the further evolution of Russian literature also occurs. Byronism, outlived by Pushkin at the time of artistic maturity, continues to manifest itself brilliantly in L. Lermontov, who, however, following Pushkin, at the end of his creative activity, turned to realism. The entire group of poets of the 40s was strongly influenced by Heine. This poetry " extra people" - the poetry of the noble intelligentsia, doomed to powerless vegetation in the conditions of pre-reform Russia, is especially close to Heine’s melancholy irony. Ogarev follows Pushkin's realism in a unique way, with his prosaisms emphasizing both the futility and doom of the aspirations of the noble intelligentsia, as well as their painful self-analysis. “Self-pleasure in the very process of suffering, inflated by fantasy,” is characteristic of the typically noble L. Fet. These same features are, to one degree or another, characteristic of such lyricists as Maikov and Polonsky.
If Russian noble L. 40-50s. mostly intimate, then L. 60s. - L. of the various intelligentsia - is distinguished by its emphasized social character. The pathos of the class struggle against the nobility and its culture permeates it. This powerful expression a new style found in L. Nekrasov, a number of other poets are adjacent to him (Mikhailov, Kurochkin, etc.). Contrasting the noble ideology, both reactionary and liberal, with the ideology of revolutionary democracy, expressing the interests of the peasantry and the urban lower classes, Nekrasov and his group reduce the noble canon of L. with its individualism and aestheticism, sarcastically denying and parodying it, contrasting it with revolutionary realism and openly pointed bias.
The literary style consolidated in the mid-19th century. industrial capitalism, which manifested itself in the field of drama and the novel, did not leave noticeable traces in the field of L. But the style of the decadent elements of bourgeois society, its layers divorced from production, is abundantly represented in it. Impressionism and symbolism, difficult to separate from each other, represent an extremely significant stage in the history of L., heralded by the already famous “Flowers of Evil” by Baudelaire. The “canon” of this L. was established in the 80s. Verlaine, with his painful individualism, the cult of twilight, uncertain moods, irrational lyrical symbolism - L. allusion, in which the musicality of the verse prevails over its semantic side. A product of the nervous life of a capitalist city, impressionism and symbolism reflect the fragmentation of the painful psyche of a city dweller already in their very rhythms. Syntactic unity is violated, instead of canonical sizes, the so-called. free verse (Kann, Mallarmé, Verhaerne, etc.). Symbolism thus paves the way for futurism, this style of the era of capitalism that has already begun to decay, destroying syntactic unities and poetic forms not in order to better express the experiences of a “refined soul”, but in order to pour out its admiration for despiriting technology and the armored fist of imperialism (Marinetti).
But the voice of the class - the antagonist of the bourgeoisie - begins to sound louder and louder in Latvia as the class struggle unfolds. The developing labor movement is reflected in L., influencing also some of the petty-bourgeois poets, such as for example. on Verhaeren, who passed through symbolism, one of the creators of the so-called. urbanism (see) in L.
Russian symbolism, or Russian decadence, originates in the era of reaction of the 80s. with its denial of the public, the cult of the irrational, the proclamation of “pure art.” In the first period of its development, it is an imitative movement, repeating Baudelaire, Verlaine and others. But later, under the influence of the rise of Russian industrial capitalism in the 90s, it also acquires unique features. Decadence is far from homogeneous in its class composition: it reflects the decadent moods of the degenerating nobility, the corruption of the bourgeoisie, and the claims of its most advanced elements to a leading political and cultural role. These claims of the Russian industrial bourgeoisie were most clearly expressed by V. Bryusov; bourgeois decadence - F. Sologub; mystical mindset of the degrading nobility - A. Blok.
The bloc completed the revolution in the field of form begun by Bryusov. Having survived the innovations of the commoners, syllabic-tonic meters, exact rhyme, regular stanza give way to imprecise rhyme, purely tonic verse. The melodiousness and irrationality in the construction of images (the predominance of metaphor and its mythological character) make us recall the lyrics of romanticism. In the years preceding the war, the abstract mystical-idealistic lyrics of symbolism provoked a reaction in its own ranks (Acmeism). The cult of thingness, certainty and clarity is proclaimed (S. Gorodetsky, Kuzmin). The new direction was more in line with the pre-war sentiments of the landowners and big bourgeoisie, who found in the most prominent poet of Acmeism, Gumilev, an exponent of their imperialist aspirations. Another heir of symbolism was futurism, created in our country by petty-bourgeois bohemia, in opposition to bourgeois culture.
Although the original features of the evolution of young proletarian poetry in our country, both in Russian and in other languages. of our Union, will be revealed in articles on relevant literatures and especially in the article “Proletarian Literature” (see), nevertheless we consider it necessary to make some comments here regarding proletarian L.
First of all, it is obvious that proletarian literature will not adhere to strict divisions, will not be afraid of the fact that the epic and lyrical principles are mixed with each other. This does not, of course, deny that proletarian poetry will also reflect the so-called. subjective moods, i.e. directly emotional ideas and experiences of the individual. There can be no doubt that the proletariat needs in this sense its own L. In proletarian L., in the first place, as one would expect from such an active and integral class, is the personal-social L. The poet in in this case is the mouthpiece of his class (sometimes somewhat narrower than that of his avant-garde - his party, which does not deprive poetry of its deep class character, but, on the contrary, raises this character to an even greater height). The poet expresses his personal experiences, taking them as characteristic of a genuine communist or a genuine Komsomol member, proletarian, citizen of the Soviet country; he seems to claim that he experiences these experiences brighter and more clearly than the average person and, in any case, can express them more clearly and clearly. Only this distinguishes a talented poet from the masses - otherwise, he proudly declares himself a person of this mass and does not see any significant difference between his experiences and the experiences of the masses. The inspiration here is not the mystical spirit, but in any case the pathological phenomenon of “inexplicable” creative upsurges, supposedly independent of the creator himself - the inspiration here is the impression from great events of a social nature, from a high mass wave that lifts the poet, in a word - social forces as they invade, expand and elevate the human personality. The poet, of course, can at the same time pour his works into previously established forms, for a formal task often helps to save in expression, the external framework turns out to be a support for the creator; he can also set some formal conditions for himself, choose one or the other constructive method, which will pass through his lyrical work from beginning to end, but he can just as completely abandon any formal settings and give free rein to the rhythm and melodiousness that are born in him directly under the influence environment and social experience.
As an example of both, we can take the forms of L. from Mayakovsky. Mayakovsky's general rhythm is completely free. Of course, the unity of the author’s personality and a certain unity of the theme determine a certain commonality of rhythm, nevertheless, in each case it can change completely freely depending on informal settings. But, on the other hand, Mayakovsky extremely clings to rhyme. True, he showed special skill in the matter of rhyming, which consisted in the extreme expansion of rhyming words, in transitions to very subtle consonances. This does not interfere, however, with the fact that Mayakovsky was aware of the enormous importance of rhyme as a mnemonic (facilitating memorization) moment, as a moment that enhances expressiveness and gives completeness to each individual sentence. This method has found quite widespread use among other proletarian poets of our time. It is very likely that it will be more or less stable.
However, the lyrical poetry of the proletariat is not limited to such simultaneously personal and mass experiences. An individualist poet or an individualistic lyric work, by its very essence, places itself outside the boundaries of the span. poetry, but communism ensures the development of individuality to a high degree.
Individualism is the idea of ​​one’s “I” as something isolated and even hostile to other “I”, while a widely developed individuality feels itself as something complementary to others, and the especially valuable originality of experience, etc. only brings new colors and sounds to a common whole, into a symphony of social life.
In our transitional time, when a new personality is just being created, of course, these searches for the development of individuality, which at the same time coincide with the development of the general, do not pass without painful phenomena, without breakdowns, as well as without achievements of a socio-psychological nature. All these processes, by which the social life of the class and the living personality itself overcome the remnants of the old and establish the unprecedented, are worthy of full attention. Hence, it is quite possible and necessary in proletarian poetry for the emergence of deeply individual, personal poetry, which in its details may not coincide with the experiences of the masses or very many other individuals. Here, too, the reader will value the poet only as a deeply relatable personality and, perhaps, will value his originality and independence especially highly.
From this point of view, the life of the proletariat will by no means be less colorful, less rich than the life of the era of the highly developed bourgeoisie, but the difference will be that the development of individuality in the bourgeois world always goes hand in hand with either wolfish individualism or the desire for recluse , exclusivity, or with deep melancholy a person who feels lonely and isolated. All the features of the individual poetry of the bourgeoisie are symptoms of the collapse of society, although in themselves they are sometimes literary very subtle. On the contrary, all the features akin to proletarian individual poetry will mean that harmony of the highest development of a classless society and the most diverse personalities combined in it, which we call communism and the path to it must be illuminated from within proletarian literature.
Naturally, this desire for internal illumination of this process can often fail. Thus, in some cases, for the same Mayakovsky, his individual L. revealed the face of a petty-bourgeois poet. Thus, with poets like Utkin and Zharov, who devoted quite a lot of attention to illuminating these psychological processes, not everything was quite successful and, often not without reason, their works were seen not as symptoms of the growth of individuality, but as symptoms of the penetration of petty-bourgeois elements into proletarian poetry. However, such isolated disruptions should in no way hinder the all-round development of proletarian literature. There is absolutely no reason to assume that lyric poetry will be alien to socialism; on the contrary, there is every reason to think that like all other types of art, lyric poetry will flourish in socialist and especially communist society. Bibliography:
Aristotle, Poetics, Academia edition, Leningrad, 1927; Bely A., Symbolism, M., 1910 (article “Lyrics and experiment”); Veselovsky A. N., Poetics, vol. I, St. Petersburg, 1913; Bobrov S., O lyrical theme, “Works and Days”, M., 1913, I-II; Tiander K., Historical perspectives of modern lyrics, “Questions in the theory and psychology of creativity,” vol. I, ed. 2nd, Kharkov, 1911; Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky D. N., Lyrics as a special type of creativity, “Issues of the theory and psychology of creativity,” Edited by B. A. Lezin, vol. II, no. II, St. Petersburg, 1910 (and in “Collected Works” by Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky); Kartashev F., Lyric poetry, its origin and development, ibid., volume II, no. I, St. Petersburg, 1909; Zhirmunsky V., Composition of lyric poems, P., 1921; Bem A., Towards an understanding of basic historical and literary concepts, “News of the Department of Russian Language and Literature Russian Academy Sciences", vol. XXIII, book. I, P., 1918; Eikhenbaum B., Melodics of Russian lyric verse, P., 1922; Zhirmunsky V., Melodics of Verse, “Thought”, 1922, No. 5 (and in the collection of articles “Questions in the Theory of Literature”, Leningrad, 1928); "Lyrics", art. in the “Dictionary of Literary Terms”, vol. I, M. - L., 1925; Larin B., About lyrics as a variety artistic speech, “Russian speech”, vol. I, L., 1927; Malakhov S., How a poem is constructed, M. - L., 1928; Yunovich M., The problem of genre in sociological poetics, “Russian language in the Soviet school”, 1929, book. IV; Aseev N., Work on poetry, Leningrad, 1929; Tomashevsky B., About poetry, M. - L., 1929; His, Theory of Literature. Poetics, ed. 5th, Moscow - Leningrad 1930; Timofeev L., Problems of poetry, M., 1931. From German works: Werner, Lyrik und Lyriker, 1890; Hirt E., Das Formgesetz der lyrischen, epischen und dramatischen Dichtung; Nef W., Die Lyrik als besondere Dichtungsgattung, Zurich, 1899; Litzmann B., Goethe's Lyrik (introduction), 1903; Geiger E., Beitrage zur einer asthetik der Lyrik, 1905; Witkop P., Das Wesen der Lyrik, Heidelberg, 1907; Volkelt J., Gesammelte Aufsatze, 1908; Ermatinger E., Das dichterische Kunstwerk, 1921; Bock K., Das Gedicht, 1922; Sieburg Fr., Die Grade der lyrischen Formung, Munst., 1922; Hefele H., Das Wesen der Dichtung, 1923; Werner H., Die Ursprunge der Lyrik, 1924; Hartl R., Versuch einer psychologischen Grundlegung der Dichtungsgattungen, 1925. See also literature for genres and literatures mentioned in the text. For a detailed bibliography, see the book. Balukhatogo S.D., Theory of Literature, L., 1929 (section VIII. Lyrics and epic).

Literary encyclopedia. - At 11 t.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .

Lyrics

(Greek lyrikos, from the name of the musical instrument lyra), one of the three main childbirth literature, serving, unlike epic And dramas, to depict the author’s subjective reaction to life phenomena, his experiences and emotional and logical assessments. If epic and drama are characterized by a narration about the changing phenomena of the external world, then the author’s task in a lyrical work is to describe his own inner world, to show the reader emotional movements, and in a figurative form.
But the lyricist cannot depict his changing feelings and states of consciousness only with the help of direct references to the facts of inner life (“I feel good”, “I feel bad”, “I’m in love”, “I’m indignant”, etc.), without mentioning those phenomena of objective reality to which he responded internally, and beyond the representation of personal mental movements manifested in the form of physically expressed actions. To find out why this is impossible, let us turn to two examples from the lyrics of A.S. Pushkin.

I feel sad and light; my sadness is light;

My sadness is full of you...

(“The darkness of the night lies on the hills of Georgia...”)

Years passed. The storm is a rebellious gust

Dispelled old dreams

(“I remember a wonderful moment...”)
Each time the author finds an explanation for his inner state: “sad and light” in the first example is the lyrical hero’s reaction to thoughts about his beloved, the feeling for whom in his mind is associated with a certain mood, like cause and effect; the state “I forgot” in the second example is represented by the result of the action of objective laws of time characteristic of the external world. The reader could not be imbued with the author’s emotions and moods if he did not understand why they arose, if the life situations that served as the reasons for their occurrence were not supertypical. Consequently, while depicting a personal feeling, the lyricist - while emphasizing subjectivity - still strives to give it a universal character.
The lyricist balances between objective assessments and subjective associations. On the one hand, the reader should have the opportunity to “measure” other people’s feelings with his own experience (“I am familiar with the state of mind expressed by the author, because I also had it in a similar situation”); on the other hand, when describing feelings, the author should not repeat predecessors. Therefore, the subject of depiction in the lyrics is the individual experience of a universal human feeling. Lyrics introduce a person not to a feeling, but to its rare shade: all people have to experience sadness from time to time, but in A.S. Pushkin (in the first example), sadness turns out to be “light” (i.e., pleasant).
The individuality of experiences in the lyrics determines, first of all, the choice of artistic images, in which they materialize, and the choice of stylistic means. In general for lyrical style expression is characteristic. It manifests itself in the selection of verbal formulas - capacious, but figurative, containing free associations of heterogeneous phenomena. The metaphorical structure of the lyrics forces the reader to read slowly, thoughtfully, to decipher the poetic language, to guess the associative connections that the author used. In some cases, such associations are either stereotyped for poetry or easily guessed, in others they are hidden deeply in the context of the whole work (compare the expression of A. S. Pushkin “my sadness is bright” with the expression of O. E. Mandelstam“My sadness is fat” in his poem “January 10, 1934”).
Lyrics differ from epic and drama not only in the subject of depiction and stylistic features. Each of the genders has its own speech form, with the help of which the writer communicates with readers. In drama, the speech of the characters is of particular importance; the author’s voice is heard only in stage directions. In the epic, the narration is conducted either on behalf of the author, or on behalf of a certain fictional narrator, who is endowed with his own biography, has gender, age, social status, etc. that does not necessarily coincide with the author’s. And in the lyrics we are presented with the most complex speech form - the form lyrical hero, who in ideas, emotions and even a dotted biography is not too different from the author, but never coincides with him. This is the middle link that connects the author and the reader: the lyrical hero is always presented in such a way that it is easy for the reader to put himself in his place, which means it is easy to empathize with him.
Finally, time and space are organized in a special way in the lyrics. Since it is not reality that is depicted, but its perception by the consciousness of the lyrical hero, time and space are also embodied in their psychological reflection. The psychologization of time and space is clearly manifested in the lyrics in the form of a mixture of various chronological and topographical plans. Thus, in Pushkin’s elegy “To the Sea,” the hero’s consciousness arbitrarily slides through various time periods (the present: “Farewell, free elements!” - the recent past: “... along your shores / I wandered ..." - the near future: “Wherever now / Have I set off on a careless path?” – distant past: “Napoleon was fading away there,” “Another genius rushed away from us” – near future: “Now where/Would you take me, ocean?” – present: “Farewell, sea!” .” – and, finally, the future: “I will not forget/Your solemn beauty”). Just as freely, the imagination takes him to various points in space (a certain shore - the shores - the surface of the sea - a distant island with a “rock, the tomb of glory” - the shore - the “forests” and “silent deserts” awaiting the hero). This imaginary chaos is not only possible in lyrics - it is almost obligatory for it. Only in this case does the image of the working consciousness of the lyrical hero acquire a lifelike quality.
There are various classifications of types of lyrics: they are distinguished by theme (love, civil, etc.), by emotional mood (ode, satire, elegy, idyll), by function ( message, epitaph) etc. The main form of lyrical works is poem, but it should be remembered that lyrics also exist in prose: these are inserted lyrical fragments in epic works (these are some extra-plot elements of “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol), and isolated lyrical miniatures (some of “Poems in Prose” by I.S. Turgenev, many stories by I.A. Bunina).

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .

Lyrics

LYRICS. By this word we mean that type of poetic creativity, which is a disclosure, expression of the soul(whereas epic tells, consolidates external reality, events and facts in words, and drama does the same thing, not on behalf of the author, but through direct conversation, dialogue between the characters themselves). But now it is necessary to make a reservation that the division of poetry, borrowed from the ancient Greeks and expressed in Greek words, is to some extent artificial, because in fact, often there is a connection, a combination of all these three types of poetry, their merging into one artistic whole, or a combination of lyric and epic, epic and drama, drama and lyric is carried out. And if we are to look for the primary basis, the root of poetry, then it must be seen precisely in the lyrics. We can say that in essence there is only one poetry - lyrical. For the soul is innately lyrical. Both epic and drama are just a hardening, a crystallization of primordial lyricism. The soul is the lyre (an ancient Greek string instrument, the playing of which accompanied songs and from which lyric poetry took its name). Lyrics satisfy the poet in his need to reveal and name, both first of all, to himself, and secondarily, to others, his inner world, his excited soul. And since the soul is excited not so much by thought as by feeling, emotion, then lyric poetry is the expression of feelings; it has a predominantly emotional character, it reflects the mood of the heart, the whole gamut of soulful music. That is why the lyrics are intimate, subjective - in many of their manifestations, tender and sincere. What is intellectual through and through, permeated with the cold blade of just one thought - this is not suitable for lyricism. True, there is also lyricism of thought, philosophical lyricism (as, for example, in Baratynsky), but in this case the latter already leaves its chilly logical heights, already loses its dispassion, and takes on fire, or at least the warmth of feeling. However, in the unified system of the human spirit, in complex psyche In ours, the elements of feeling, knowledge and will are not sharply separated from each other: they are intertwined with each other in a variety of ways; and therefore it is necessary to say about the lyrics that feeling only plays a predominant role in it, but not that it lies entirely on the other side of the mind; Pushkin’s clever demand that poetry be “stupid” applies to lyric poetry more than to any other type of poetry - this is true, but lyric poetry, this predominant vessel of feeling, should not go into the unenviable expanses of emptiness and thoughtlessness. In this regard, it is also necessary to point out that the controlling and restraining, ordering power of thought saves lyrics from abuse of that right to subjectivity, which, as we just mentioned, constitutes its most essential feature. As is clear from the best examples of world poetry, the lyric poet in his very subjectivity remains understandable and captivating for others, for everyone; This is precisely where one of his charms lies: speaking about himself, telling himself, he tells us too, he brings his readers to himself, who in his they will find out their moods their; the soul of the poet is the soul of humanity, and here the subjective, by the magic of beauty, merges with the objective. Therefore, everything that is overly individual, bizarre, exotic, everything that is psychologically unnecessary does not find its rightful place in the lyrics.

This does not mean, of course, that the area of ​​legitimate lyricism is limited only to a few, straight and elementary lines: no, everything that is in the soul can be in poetry - only a certain stamp of universal humanity and universal significance is necessary. Cornflowers have their own beauty, and chrysanthemums have their own. Lyrical poems are always flowers, no matter whether they are in the field or in the garden, naive children of meadows or well-groomed pets of greenhouses. Both are acceptable, because beauty is diverse; we only demand that it be real, not artificial, and that all kinds of flowers be alive. The refined is as right as the simple; but the most sophistication should be natural, i.e. there is no need to look for her. The entire whimsical spectrum of life dissolves in the white color of simplicity. And that which cannot be reduced back to a higher unity, to the ordinariness of the daily sun, spread throughout the entire world, is guilty of some kind of internal idleness and uselessness. Since lyrics are poetry of mood and the most captivating thing about it, as in music, is its tone, psychological and sound, this brings it closer, more than other types of poetry, to music. It is not for nothing that the famous French lyricist Verlaine demanded music first of all from his art, and contemptuously considered the rest only “literature.” And it is not without reason that in the early stages of human culture, lyrical works were not read, but sung, so that even now we readily apply the name of a song to a lyrical poem. “There are sounds: the meaning is dark or insignificant, but it is impossible to listen to them without excitement,” these words of Lermontov should be attributed precisely to lyrical poetry, where the charm of sounds, simply as such, in addition to their logical fullness, in itself reaches a high artistic effect. With all this, however, to identify lyric poetry with music, to follow Verlaine’s path to the end, would mean neglecting the specific nature of poetry, would mean removing its semantic element from the latter, emptying it of its intellectual content. After all, the word is smart, because the word is the intended bearer of reason. At the same time, as music weaves garlands of, so to speak, selfless, i.e. meaningless sounds and strict thought does not dare to make its demands on it, to encroach on its free charter - literature, in particular poetry, and even more particularly lyric poetry, will be empty if it is only sonorous, only musical. Lyrics are music, but certainly classical: this means that here, first of all, meaningfulness is needed, and that royal idleness, that unburdenedness with thought, which is inherent in the art of Ariel, the airy bow of music, is inappropriate and impossible. But, on the other hand, lyricism is unthinkable without melodiousness, and musical combinations of sounds, their melodic interplay, greatly help a lyric poem penetrate someone else’s ear and spirit. Indeed, it is none other than lyric poets who complain about the insufficiency and inexpressiveness of words, about their rudeness and approximateness (“Oh, if only one could speak one’s soul without a word!” exclaims, for example, the subtle lyricist Fet); they feel that words are powerless to convey the most delicate shades of feelings: this is where sounds come to the rescue, this is where music raises its exciting voice. That is why in a lyric poem the music of the verse is especially important, the rhythm in which its verbal stream flows and gurgles. And this music is not a simple accompaniment, much less some kind of external sound appendage that can be dispensed with: no, it is an integral part of the poem, one of the most important facets of its inner essence. The Russian literary theorist Shalygin correctly refers to Schiller’s admission that the music of many of his lyric poems appeared in his soul before their text and even the plot, naturally therefore, musicality also plays a very important role in the influence that lyrical poems have on the soul of the reader-listener. role, so without it, without this role, the play itself will not be successful: by carelessly backing up and violating or somehow changing the melodiousness of the lyrical work, we thereby break it, take out the core from its melodious reed. It is remarkable that when lyricism does not penetrate into its favorite element, i.e. not into the elements of verse, but into prose, then it also exhibits noticeable rhythmicity, and it still joins the same music.

By combining the spell of words and musicality, lyric poetry asserts its dominance over the hearts of readers. And it is clear that, revealing the soul, it embraces in itself absolutely everything that is included in the sphere of human interests, everything that our feelings touch. In this regard, nature has a very large share in the lyrics - this endless reservoir of moods; Moreover, not only does she, nature, inspire us, awaken various emotions in us, but in turn, we seem to return these mental states to her, endow her with feelings, transfer ourselves into her. And together with us, nature cries and has fun, loves and suffers, speaks and grieves - from the most elementary to the most refined sensations, taking from itself, man attributes to nature, personifies, humanizes it, and the best lyricists of world literature depict it to us as living , a subtle and nervous, spiritualized creature. “He breathed life with nature alone, understood the babbling of streams, and understood the conversation of tree leaves, and felt the vegetation of grass” - these words of Baratynsky about Goethe can be applied to any true lyricist. In general, from his innate lyricism, the poet, a representative of humanity, generously devotes to the external world, so that in lyric poetry the problem of external and internal receives its solution, i.e. psychic reality and objective reality merge into an organic unity. If we set out to establish certain types of lyrical works, then, bearing in mind that an exhaustive classification would be impossible here and would only be of an artificial nature, we can still name such varieties of lyric poetry as elegy, ode, satire, not to mention those nameless and endless versions of poems - songs that awaken the feeling of all feelings - love. A prominent place in the lyrics is occupied in the first place by the one we named elegy, i.e. a poem imbued with grief, melancholy, sadness, melancholy, despair, hopelessness, lamentation, complaint, bitter bewilderment: is this surprising? after all, it is precisely these feelings, with all their shades, that are so essential for the human soul, they receive so much nourishment and support from our sorrowful life, and color such a significant strip of our psyche in their dark color. Almost most often lyricism is elegism. And anyway, psychological property sadness and its spiritual synonyms are such that it penetrates into someone else’s heart more powerfully and contagiously than anything else; Therefore, in lyric poetry, it is elegy that is most irresistible. And in those moments when the soul experiences a special uplift, when it is lifted above everyday life by the wings of delight, from it, in the poet, emerges Oh yeah- i.e. religious lyrics (“God” by Derzhavin) or patriotic, those in general that meet the human need to worship something, recognize something as one’s shrine, as an inspiring value. On the contrary, where we give free rein to our feelings of condemnation, denial, rejection, there, in the mouth of the poet, is realized satire; it can be complacent (like Horace) or angry (like Juvenal), but its internal basis in both cases is certainly some positive ideal, faith in man, otherwise ridicule of man, a satirical attitude towards it loses its serious meaning, turns into laughter for the sake of laughter and leaves in the reader’s soul a painful feeling of emptiness and moral dissatisfaction. For the psychology on the basis of which lyricism is generally born, this spiritual contact of the two poles of lyric poetry - ode and satire is very interesting: ode is affirmation, satire is negation, but the common foundation for both is the recognition of the absoluteness and authority in the world of some ineradicable moral dogmas; and satire is only “proof by contradiction,” a roundabout proof and proof of the very values ​​that the ode reveals directly, in outbursts of lyrical delight. We can say: a person breathes the air of lyricism, and lyricism forms one of the main elements of life and creativity. This is why lyric poetry dates back to ancient times: it is difficult to imagine a person who does not sing, who does not accompany his work with a song or some kind of encouraging rhythm. The grain of lyricism is in folk songs, where the soul expresses its joys and sorrows directly and naively, in simple words and in simple tunes. And it is natural that in that country, which in general was the cradle of European culture, in ancient Greece, lyricism flourished in lush and delicate colors; it is enough to name the names of Archilochus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon, Pindar. The tradition of lyricism penetrated into Western European literature, however, not so much through the bearers of these names, but through Roman poetry, which in the 1st century BC created high images of lyricism in the poems of Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, Horace, and Ovid. Then, who doesn’t know at least by hearsay about the singers of love - about the Provençal troubadours, about the trouvères of northern France, about the German Minesingers, about the Sicilian lyric poetry, about the sonnets of Petrarch, about the French lyric poetry of the late 18th century with Parney and Andre Chénier, about Byron and Shelley, about Victor Hugo and Alfred Musset, about the glorious galaxy of Russian lyricists from Zhukovsky through Fet and Tyutchev to Alexander Blok? The flow of song, the tremulous nerve of lyricism runs through all new and recent literature (how abundantly lyrical creativity is here, in present-day Russia!). Isn’t this because lyrics are one of the best expressions of personality?..

Yu. Podolsky. Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925

Lyrics

LYRICS-And; and.[from Greek lyrikos - pronounced to the sound of a lyre, sensitive]

1. One of the three main genera fiction(along with epic and drama), in which reality is reflected by conveying deep, sincere experiences, thoughts and feelings of the author; works of this kind. Russian classical l. L. Lermontov. Pushkinskaya l. Love L.

2. Element, part of something. a work that reflects the thoughts and feelings of the author. L. newspaper article. The novel is more lyrical than epic.

3. Razg. A state, a mood in which the emotional element prevails over the rational; sensitivity. Get lyrical. Get into the lyrics(to become sensitive, to become overly emotional about something).

◁ Lyrical (see).

lyrics

(from the Greek lyrikós - pronounced to the sounds of the lyre), a literary genre (along with epic, drama), the subject of which is the content of inner life, the poet’s own “I”, and the speech form is an internal monologue, mainly in verse. Covers many poetic genres, such as elegy, romance, ghazal, sonnet, song, poem. Any phenomenon and event of life in the lyrics is reproduced in the form of subjective experience. However, the poet’s “self-expression” acquires universal human significance in the lyrics thanks to the scale and depth of the author’s personality; she has access to the fullness of expression of the most complex problems of existence. High examples of lyric poetry were created by Anacreon, Catullus, Arab poets of the 6th-8th centuries, Li Bo, Saadi, F. Petrarch, J. Byron; in Russia - A. S. Pushkin, A. A. Blok.

LYRICS

LYRICS (from the Greek lyrikos - pronounced to the sounds of the lyre), a literary genre (along with epic, drama), the subject of which is the content of inner life, the poet’s own “I”, and the speech form is an internal monologue, mainly in verse. Covers many poetic genres, e.g.: elegy, romance, ghazal, sonnet, song, poem (cm. POEM). Any phenomenon and event of life in the lyrics is reproduced in the form of subjective experience. However, the poet’s “self-expression” acquires universal human significance in the lyrics thanks to the scale and depth of the author’s personality; she has access to the fullness of expression of the most complex problems of existence. High examples of lyric poetry were created by Anacreon, Catullus, Arab poets of the 6th-8th centuries, Li Bo, Saadi, F. Petrarch, J. Byron; in Russia - A. S. Pushkin, A. A. Blok.

encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .

Synonyms:

See what “lyrics” is in other dictionaries:

LYRICS. The division of poetry into three main types is traditional in literary theory. Epic, literary and drama seem to be the main forms of all poetic creativity. Moreover, by epic (see) we mean poetry that objectively tells about... ... Literary encyclopedia

Lyrics- LYRICS. This word means that type of poetic creativity that represents the revelation, expression of the soul (whereas an epic tells, consolidates external reality, events and facts in words, and drama does the same, not from... ... Dictionary of literary terms

Active ingredient ›› Pregabalin* (Pregabalin*) Latin name Lyrica ATX: ›› N03AX16 Pregalabin Pharmacological group: Antiepileptic drugs Nosological classification (ICD 10) ›› G40 Epilepsy ›› G62.9 Polyneuropathy… … Dictionary of medicines

LYRICS, lyrics, many. no, female (Greek lyrike). 1. Type of poetry, preem. expressing the personal moods and experiences of the poet. || A type of music with a predominance of emotionally subjective elements. 2. The totality of works of this type of poetry. Russian… … Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

- (from the Greek lyrikos pronounced to the sounds of the lyre), a literary genre (along with epic, drama), the subject of which is the content of inner life, the poet’s own self, and the speech form is an internal monologue, mainly in verse. Covers many... Modern encyclopedia

- (from the Greek lyrikos pronounced to the sounds of the lyre) a literary genre (along with epic, drama), the subject of which is the content of inner life, the poet’s own self, and the speech form is an internal monologue, mainly in verse. Covers... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

LYRICS, and, female. 1. The type of literary work, mainly. poetic, expressing feelings and experiences. Russian classical l. 2. The totality of works of this type of poetry. L. Pushkin. 3. transfer The same as lyricism (in 2 meanings). | adj.... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Noun, number of synonyms: 7 sincerity (14) lyricism (10) minnesang (1) ... Synonym dictionary

- (Greek lirikos - pronounced to the sounds of the lyre) a type of literature (along with epic and drama), an image of the inner life, individual states of a person, his experiences, feelings, thoughts caused by the surrounding life situation; covers... ... Encyclopedia of Cultural Studies

Lyrics- (from the Greek lyrikos pronounced to the sounds of the lyre), a literary genre (along with epic, drama), the subject of which is the content of inner life, the poet’s own “I”, and the speech form is an internal monologue, mainly in verse. Covers... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

LYRICS- (from the Greek lýra musical instrument, to the accompaniment of which poems, songs, etc. were performed), a type of literature (along with epic and drama), in which it is not the object that is primary, but the subject of the statement and his relationship to what is depicted. IN… … Literary encyclopedic dictionary

Ushakov's Dictionary

Lyrics

Lee Rick, lyrics, pl. No, wives (Greek lyrike).

1. Kind of poetry preim. expressing the personal moods and experiences of the poet.

|

2. A collection of works of this type of poetry. Russian lyrics. Lyrics of the 19th century. Pushkin's lyrics.

3. trans. Emotions, the predominance of the emotional element over the rational ( decomposition). Leave the lyrics, get to the point. “Father got into lyricism.” Chekhov.

Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language

Lyrics

Latin - lyra.

The borrowing of the word occurred in the 19th century. The primary source is Latin, from where the word passed into Greek. The meaning is “lyre”. From Greek the word passed into French, German, English and Italian. In Russian, the word appeared by borrowing from the French language - lyrique. In this case, a suffix was added to the Greek word lyra.

In modern Russian, the word “lyrics” has the following meanings:

1. Type of literary works;

2. The totality of works of this kind.

Derivative: lyrical.

Culturology. Dictionary-reference book

Lyrics

(Greek lirikos - pronounced to the sounds of the lyre)

a type of literature (along with epic and drama), an image of the inner life, individual states of a person, his experiences, feelings, thoughts caused by the surrounding life situation; covers many poetic genres that are capable of expressing in the form of subjective experiences the fullness of the most complex problems of existence.

Ancient world. Dictionary-reference book

Lyrics

concept, Crimea in modern times. Lit.-Ved. a number of antique genres are united. poetry. In Dr. In Greece, the term L. appeared only in Alexandrian philology and served as a synonym for the concept Melika. Currently vr. L. also includes works written in declamatory meters - elegies, iambs, epigrams. Development of antiquity L. passed several times. stages. 1. Early Gr. period, in which archaic is sometimes distinguished. (VII - VI centuries; Alcaeus, Sappho, Archilochus, Solon) and classic. (V century: Pindar, Bacchylides) L. The most important problem of this time. yavl. self-determination of the individual in the conditions of the formation and strengthening of other groups. city-states. 2. The Hellenistic period (III - II centuries), when L. loses its broad society, content and focuses on images. internal the world of man (Callimachus, Theocritus). Particularly flourishing in the III - I centuries. epigram reaches, preem. erotic content. 3. Rome, L-, emerging in the 1st century. BC e. in the works of the Neoterics (including Catullus) and then presented by the poets of the “age of Augustus” (Horace, Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid). Mastering the formal achievements of his Greco-Hellenic. predecessors, Rome. L. is looking for ways to establish a compromise between man and society, the environment, which is increasingly perceived as something alien to him. To Rome L. I century. n. e. dominates arr. satirical direction (Persians, Martial, Juvenal). 4. Late lat. poetry (IV century AD), associated, in particular, with the names of Ausonius and Claudian, striving for a synthesis of the demands of the New Age. with artist tradition of the past.

(Ancient culture: literature, theater, art, philosophy, science. Dictionary-reference book / Edited by V.N. Yarkho. M., 1995.)

Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism

Lyrics

(from Greek lyrikos - pronounced to the sound of a lyre) is one of the three types of fiction. Unlike epic and drama, which depict certain characters acting in different circumstances, lyrics reflect individual states of character at certain moments in life, the author’s own “I”; the speech form of lyrics is an internal monologue, mainly poetic.

RB: types and genres of literature

Correspondent: drama, epic

Genus: literary gender

Est: lyricism

Ass: poetry

* “In lyric poetry, as in any musical composition, only one tone, one basic feeling predominates” (F. Schelling).

“Everything that occupies, excites, pleases, saddens, delights, torments, calms, worries, in a word, everything that constitutes the content of the spiritual life of the subject, everything that enters into him, arises in him - all this is accepted by the lyrics as its legitimate property" (V.G. Belinsky). *

Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (Alabugina)

Lyrics

AND, and.

1. A type of fiction that reflects reality by conveying the feelings and experiences of the author, as well as the totality of works of this kind.

* Russian lyrics of the 19th century. Blok's lyrics. *

2. trans., decomposition Experiences, feelings as opposed to reason.

* Get lyrical. *

Antiquity from A to Z. Dictionary-reference book

Lyrics

a Greek concept that in ancient aesthetics denoted the terms “lyrical” (from the Greek lirikos - lyre) and “melic” (from the Greek melos - song), which indicated poetic works performed to the accompaniment of a stringed musical instrument (lyre, flute, cithara ) and were distinguished by their unique construction of the artistic image.

encyclopedic Dictionary

Lyrics

(from the Greek lyrikos - pronounced to the sounds of the lyre), a literary genre (along with epic, drama), the subject of which is the content of inner life, one’s own "I" poet, and the speech form is an internal monologue, mainly in poetry. Covers many poetic genres, for example: elegy, romance, gazelle, sonnet, song, poem. Any phenomenon and event of life in the lyrics is reproduced in the form of subjective experience. However "self-expression" the poet acquires in the lyrics, thanks to the scale and depth of the author’s personality, universal significance; she has access to the fullness of expression of the most complex problems of existence. High examples of lyric poetry were created by Anacreon, Catullus, Arab poets of the 6th-8th centuries, Li Bo, Saadi, F. Petrarch, J. Byron; in Russia - A. S. Pushkin, A. A. Blok.

Ozhegov's Dictionary

L AND RIKA, And, and.

1. Type of literary work, predominantly. poetic, expressing feelings and experiences. Russian classical l.

2. A collection of works of this type of poetry. L. Pushkin.

3. trans. The same as (in 2 digits).

| adj. lyrical, oh, oh. Lyric poetry. Lyrical digression (in an epic or lyric-epic work: a digression imbued with lyricism, colored by the author’s intimate address to the reader). Lyrical mood.

Efremova's Dictionary

Lyrics

1. and.
   1. :
      1. One of the three main types of fiction (along with epic and drama), in which reality is reflected by conveying the author’s deep emotional experiences, thoughts and feelings, usually in poetic form.
      2. A collection of works of this kind of poetry.
      3. Emotional elements in a work, in the work of someone. writer.
   2. A type of music with a predominance of emotional and subjective elements.
   3. decomposition A state, a mood in which emotional elements prevail over rational ones; lyricism (2).

Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

Lyrics

lyric poetry - reproduces the subjective personal feeling or mood of the author. The beginning of L. lies in a simple song, in a few words directly expressing the mood of the singer. Similar songs can be overheard among modern savages. When subsequently lyrical. the song outgrows the personality and becomes a ready-made and well-expressed formula of a given mood or feeling, it is involuntarily remembered by every person who knows it, experiencing that feeling or mood, and begins to pass from mouth to mouth, becoming a national property. In the absence of writing, the author is quickly forgotten, and the form itself is easily modified in accordance with the personal initiative of each singer. The song takes on many variations, of which the most successful survive the weaker ones. Along with the depersonalization of L. there is another process that determines its form. Primitive lyric poetry was not only always sung, but in most cases was associated with dancing and facial expressions; There were also elements of a story in it. This mixed kind of poetry is called. lyrical-epic and dramatic cantilena. Having separated into special types of poetry - epic and drama - these elements remain until to a certain extent inherent in lyrical poetry; it includes pictures of nature, a short story on behalf of the author or alleged author, a description of a scene, location, etc. The folk song came to us rather in a period of experience, when much of it began to lose its original meaning under the influence of Christianity, new living conditions, and also a lot of superficial, bookish things appeared. The folk songs known to us were either recorded from the words of the people by collectors of the 18th and 19th centuries, or contained in old songbooks (16th and 17th centuries), or preserved in monuments completely by accident. The collection of songs began under the influence of the Romantics and mainly Herder, who was the first to appreciate their aesthetic merit. In Russia, the first collections of folk songs date back to Catherine's time ("Collection" by Chulkov, 1770). In the present century, the collection and study of folk songs ("folklore") has become scientific and is being carried out with great zeal. However, a strict classification of the collected material has not yet been made, which is explained by the diverse and confusing composition of most of the songs. Russian and generally Slavic folk lyrics preserved in a more recent and archaic form. It can be divided into two sections: ritual songs and everyday songs. The first group includes songs related to the main folk holidays and associated with dances, round dances and visiting the homes of fellow villagers. This includes, on the one hand, Stoneflies, Rusal and Semitic songs among the Slavs, May and winter dance songs in the West, on the other hand, our carols, ovsenevye, shchedrivka, volochobnye and kotyrka songs and many great songs in the West. The dialogical or dramatic form of songs, also related to festive rituals, is also common; these are disputes(e.g. “dispute between winter and summer” in Germany, ancient joc partit in southern France) and transformations. Other ritual songs - wedding, table, table And patches - belong to rituals Everyday life. Everyday songs correspond to different typical moods; There are, for example, love songs, for men and women, for girls and for married women, and songs for performing various works, like songs at the spinning wheel. This also includes songs for children, recruits, soldiers, and bandits. The same plot is found in songs of different uses. They are often based on short stories close to fairy tales (like songs about an evil fate, about the little goat prince), or are included in the so-called category. lower epic motifs. Mythologists like to give a symbolic explanation for the content of many ritual songs; But modern science she left this interpretation even regarding visual symbols (like the rose girl). Very few attempts have been made to group lyrical-epic songs (ballads, romances) and lower epic plots, although, undoubtedly, the comparative historical method should be applied here (see Borrowings). The listed types of folk songs appear very early among all European peoples. The oldest mentions of Slavic songs go back to the 7th century. In Germany, love songs, lamentations, and wedding songs are mentioned very early on. Traces of French folk song can be seen in anonymous lyric plays of the 12th and 13th centuries. They differ greatly from the artificial troubadour music that was dominant at that time and, on the contrary, are similar to the songs of the 16th century. Ancient Italian folk literature did not reach us until the 13th century, but its early existence can be inferred from some works of the 13th century. (for example, the play Ciullo d'Alcomo) and based on songs of the 15th century.

The oldest works of artificial literature that have come down to us are the Psalms of King David and the Song of Songs. The psalms subsequently formed the basis of religious Christian literature and were translated into all European languages. The Song of Songs, attributed to King Solomon, can be called a lyrical drama. poem; its content has given rise to many different interpretations. The Indian Vedas (q.v.), which were often seen as the original work of Indo-European lyricism, can only partly be attributed to literature (for Indian literature, see Indian literature). Under Mohammedan influence, ancient Indian literature disappeared, and its remains were given a conditional mystical significance (in the 12th century AD). In ancient Greece, all the main types of folk lyrical songs (odes) existed: prayer hymns and round dance songs, love songs, wedding songs, drinking songs and lament songs; but trace her ancient period very difficult due to its connection with mythological legends. What is certain is that it was created under the influence eastern civilization. Oldest species Greek lyrical elegy (from the Armenian word meaning sadness) and iambic are associated with the name of the Phrygian poet-musician Olympus. Elegies of a political nature were first composed by Kallin, a native of Asia Minor Ionia (in the 7th century BC). He was followed by Tyrtaeus in Attica, Archilochus in Paros, Mimnermus in Smyrna. In the first period of Greek lyric poetry, it was sung mainly to the accompaniment of a flute, which was preserved later. An improved string guitar, attributed to Terpander, appears on Lesbos. Alcaeus also belonged to the lesbian, or Aeolian, school, composing choral political songs, hymns to the gods, as well as songs dedicated to wine and love. A contemporary and compatriot of Alcaeus was Sappho, who, in addition to love songs, composed hymens, that is, wedding songs, and epithalamus, that is, patches. The Dorian school had a different character; it developed from a round dance song associated with the liturgical rite. The most ancient authors of choral songs glorifying political events were Alcman and Stesichorus. The latter is considered the first author of a bucolic shepherd's song. The influence of the Dorian school also spread to southern Italy, where the poet Ivicus lived, whose works were purely erotic in nature. Erotic literature reached its highest perfection with the poet of the Ionian school Anacreon (6th century BC). Another poet of the same school, Simonides, addressed political events in his L. He wrote songs of praise in honor of winners at public games (epinikia), which were highly developed by Pindar (also in the 6th century). Pindar combined the influence of the Dorian and Aeolian schools. He wrote all types of choral poetry: hymns to the gods, dithyrambs, songs for processions, or prosodies, dance or mime songs, maiden round dances, table and laudatory odes. Victories at the games brought glory not only to the winner himself, but also to his people or tribe. Therefore, Pindar's odes were given high importance, and he himself saw them as a social feat. After Pindar, Greek L. produced nothing but imitations of the old; in the 5th and 4th centuries. elegies and drinking songs were composed by Ion of Chios, Dionysius the Athenian, Critias the Athenian, and others. Among the lyricists of the last period, Greek. literature, so-called Alexandrian period, issued by Callimachus. In the 3rd century. Shepherd poetry is being revived again in Sicily. Its highest exponent was Theocritus, whose plays are lyrical and epic in nature. Theocritus is followed by Moschus and Bion. Greek L., having developed from folk song, thus developed certain types of poetry: ode, elegy, love song and bucolic poem (see. Greek literature). The oldest types of Latin lyric. poetry of folk origin and belongs to religious literature; such are the songs of the Arval brothers and the songs of the Sali priests. They did not receive literary development; all lyrical the poetry of subsequent times imitates Greek models. Latin literature reached high perfection in the person of the poets of the 1st century. BC - Catullus, Virgil, Horace, Tibullus, Propertius, Ovid. Catullus wrote in all types of letters developed by the Greeks; Love plays a prominent role in his poems. Lucretius’s long poem “On Nature” is also lyrical in nature. Virgil's "Bucolics" consist of eclogues (as short poems were called in Rome), partly imitating Theocritus; putting into the mouths of the shepherds thoughts unusual for them and the topic of the day, they form the basis of conventional shepherd poetry. Horace imitated Archilochus in his sketches. The odes of Horace are of a completely different character from those of Pindar; some of them express the poet’s personal feelings or moods, others have a moralizing content, and others relate to political events. Tibullus - creator of the Latin erotic elegy; Proportius followed more the Alexandrian school than the ancient Greek one, as a result of which his elegies shine with learning and are dotted with mythological subtleties. In his youth, Ovid labored in the field of love elegy; such are his famous "Amores". After Ovid, Latin literature no longer produced anything outstanding or original. Christianity gave birth to poetry corresponding to it in the form of hymns (for example, the hymns of Fortunatus in the 6th century) and sequences - a special poetic form that belonged to the so-called. folk Latin. Both of these lyrical forms were also sung during worship. Similar works were composed very early and in Old English, among the Anglo-Saxons. Latin and Old English translations of the psalms are also common. In the 9th century, in the circle of Charles the Great, secular literature was revived: these are the small plays of Alcuin and Paul the Deacon, which have the character of an epigram. The eclogues were written by the poet Naso, mainly imitating Virgil. Further Latin literature moves further and further away from classical forms and approaches folk ones: from the 11th century. Even one ballad, written in Latin, has reached us. In France in the 11th and 12th centuries. folk literature has developed several types of songs that are closer to life (conzo, chanson), for example. estrabot (hence the Italian strambotto), retroe nce, joc partit, dé bat (dispute and transformation), alba (morning song), reverdie (spring song), pastoreta (shepherd's song, also spring), chanson de toile (lyrical-epic song behind the spinning wheel), ballata - women's dance song (th ème de la mal marie e). Most of these songs relate to spring rituals. French lyric poetry first took on a personal character in Provence due to the existence here of a special class of professional singers - jugglers and troubadours. Standing temporarily or permanently at the courts of feudal lords, they sang the valor of the master and the beauty of his wife; hence their songs were called service songs (sirventes). They also composed political songs (eg Crusades: chanson d "outr é e) and various others, reworking the above folk types. Among the troubadours, a special understanding of platonic love was created, that is, mainly love for a woman who stands high in society. Reflecting the stormy, warlike the life of feudal lords, the poetry of the troubadours also contains moral instructions, however, most often intertwined with love motives.The perfection of form among the troubadours was great: poetry theorists in the Middle Ages believed that poetry was best expressed in the language of southern France. Main blow Provençal poetry was damaged by the campaign against the Albigenses. Many troubadours sympathized with this sect and were among the associates of Raymond of Toulouse; they had to leave their homeland, and they scattered throughout Italy and Spain. They penetrated into northern France in the 12th century; here their first imitators, the trouvères, appeared. Northern French latin also developed semi-folk forms, such as romance and pastourelle. In Germany, the poetry of the troubadours penetrated along with French fashion at the end of the 12th century. through Flanders and so supplanted folk German L. that no trace remained of it. At the same time, conventional L. originated in Austria. Walter von der Vogelweide managed to free himself from imitation of the Provencals and can be considered the founder of national German lyric poetry. The plays that glorify “lower love,” that is, contradict the troubadour’s understanding of love, are especially unique and folk in nature. Glimpses of this national literature can also be seen in the more ancient songs of Kurenberg, similar to northern French romances (chanson de toile). The plays of Nitgard, who revived the folk winter and spring dance songs, are more national in nature. The lyrical poetry of the Minnesingers soon passed from the environment of knights to the environment of urban philistinism and, having changed in accordance with the new environment, received the name Meistersang. Here she became closer to folk songs and greatly influenced the latter. - Knight's L. has a lot in common with Arabic L.. In ancient Arabic poetry we find the same belligerence, the same enthusiastic attitude towards women, the same panegyrics for princes. Arab L. of the era before Mohammed has come to us in the collections of songs "Hamas" and "Kitab el Agani", which reflected the steppe nomadic lifestyle of the Arabs of that time. After Mohammed, lyric poetry continues to imitate the poetry of the desert: these are the so-called nedzms or mendzums. Abu Taib-Ahmed Motenebbi is recognized as the most outstanding poet of the Mohammedan period of Arabic literature. He wrote, by the way, satires (geje), which are generally not very common among Arabs. Next to the Arabic L. one can also place the ancient Persian one. The greatest Persian poet Hafiz lived in the 14th century. and, despite the spiritual rank to which he belonged, he wrote poems praising wine and love. Some of his plays have a mystical imprint.

European literature received particular development in Italy in the 14th century. Back in the 13th century. under the influence of the Provencals, Italian troubadours begin to appear; There were especially many of them at the court of the imperial poet Frederick II (see Italian literature). The so-called poets The Sicilian school prepared the future flowering of Italian literature and developed its two most important forms: the canzone and the sonnet. At the same time, spiritual music developed in Central Italy - laude, songs of praise to God, imbued with extreme mysticism. In the so-called Florent philosophical lyrical school. poets (see), platonic love acquires a moral and allegorical meaning, which is often impossible to discover without commentary. In Dante, however, the allegorism is somewhat less confusing; among his canzonas there are also plays related to “lower” love. Petrarch's canzonas and sonnets, praising or lamenting his beloved Laura, reach high perfection of form and psychological artistry; love platonism reaches here its highest expression, based on the aesthetic tact and taste of the poet. The influence of Petrarch's sonnets on subsequent lyric poetry, even far beyond the borders of Italy, gradually increases, reaching its climax in the so-called. Petrarchism of the 16th century. However, a more popular form of lyric poetry is also developing: such are the political songs of the folk Florentine poet Burchiello and the strambotti of Lionardo Giustiniani. The lyrical works of Lorenzo de' Medici the Magnificent are also folk in nature. Ballate, barzellette, frottoli go back to the folk dance song, known in the early days of Provençal Latvia; they were usually associated with festive rituals and in Italy were associated with carnival (canti Carnavaleschi). All in. France, where Trouvaire poetry was always closer to folk poetry than in the South, at the end of the 13th century. it takes on an even more popular character when it moves from the feudal castle to the city square. Literary societies (puis) ​​were formed among the urban population and awarded prizes for the best plays. Different types of petty-bourgeois poetry in France are called dits, chansons, complaintes, etc. Among this petty-bourgeois poetry, one quite personal poet Ruetbeuf (q.v.), a Parisian poor man, responsive to the topic of the day. The poetry of vagants (q.v.) is international in nature; the largest collection of their works, Carmina Burana, originated in Germany. Echoes of Trouvaires' L. continue in France in the 14th century; All attention is paid to the form, somewhat updated by the folk trend. L.'s favorite types were rondeau (round dance song), vireloi, ballade, chant royal. Ballads especially became fashionable, as widespread as sonnets in Italy. The last knight-poet was Charles, Hertz. Orleans (see). Another outstanding poet of the 15th century. in France, Villon (q.v.), again introduces us to the environment of the poorest class of the population, close to Rutbeuf.

French history entered a new phase of independent development at the beginning of the 16th century. It is renewed by the idea of ​​humanism and reformation, but the form has not yet broken away from the Middle Ages. The collection of poems by Margaret of Navarre vividly reflects the bright hopes and broad views of the beginning of the French Renaissance. The most talented poet of that time was Clément Marot (see). The reformation movement in Germany caused a revival in Latvia, mainly of a religious nature. Already in the 15th century. Heinrich von Laufenberg composed spiritual plays, using the form of folk songs; It was this type of lyric poetry that Luther renewed. The polemical plays of Ulrich von Hutten can also be classified as religious literature. German literature of the 16th century, like French, is of a national character and is close to the Mastersingers; but both in France and in Germany, national literature retreats to Petrarchism, that is, imitation of Petrarch’s sonnets. The main Petrarchist of the XYI century. in Italy there was Bembo (see). In France, the first imitator of Petrarch is Melin de S.-Gelais. This movement was especially strongly reflected in England. Here until the 16th century. Literature was generally little developed: there was a ritual and everyday folk song, as can be assumed from excerpts of songs from Shakespeare, but the lyrical-epic song glorifying the exploits of Robin Hood was especially popular. Chaucer's attempt to introduce the French ballad did not take root. Thus, here sonnets did not have to supplant the national L. A number of English sonnetists begin with Watt and Serret; they are followed by Sidney, Shakespeare, etc. Sonnetism continues in the literature of Italy, France, England and in the 17th century. and here, together with the madrigal and the epigram, takes on a salon character ridiculed by Molière. In Italy and Spain he was updated with a new mannerism under the influence of the poets Marini and Gongora. From French sonnetists of the 16th and 17th centuries. issued by Ronsard, Voiture, Balzac. Corneille did not neglect this type of poetry either. In Germany, Sonnetism flourished among the so-called. Pignitzschäferov. Italian fashions, which spread throughout Europe along with humanism, also brought greater interest in the ancients. Joachim Dubelle (in the middle of the 16th century), having rejected all types of poetry inherited from the Middle Ages, recommended first of all ancient literature: odes, elegies, anacreonic songs, epigrams, satires, etc., and only in addition pointed to sonnets. From then on, throughout the reign of the so-called. of the false-classical direction we see in L. precisely these types of it. They flourished in France, and in Germany, and in Russia, as soon as it adopted the West. -European civilization. The pompous false-classical court ode was first introduced into France by Ronsard. Malherbe followed him; odes by Boileau, Perrault, La Motta and others are also known, but in general the entire false-classical period is very poor and L. did not produce anything significant in this area. Lyric poetry came to life in France only at the end of the 18th century. in the elegies and iambics of Andrei Chenier, who drew inspiration from the ancient Greek. lyricists. In Germany, pseudo-classicism and imitation of France also produced the court ode. The national tradition lasted for a long time only in the form of student leipz. songs and awakened to a new life only under the influence of patriotism. Such are Gleim’s “Prussian War Songs of the Grenadier,” which have caused many imitations. A long series of Russian odes begins with the ode to the capture of Danzig by Tredyakovsky, who blindly followed Boileau. Of Lomonosov’s 19 odes, many do not rise above an ordinary court ode, but among them there are those whose subjects are close to Lomonosov’s heart and deeply felt; this is for example ode from the book of Job, “Discourses on God’s Greatness” and many others. etc. Derzhavin knew how to combine the bombast of an ode with a variety of satire and skillfully used descriptions of nature. His ode "God" is especially famous. He also wrote imitations of psalms, anacreontic songs, etc. Next to Derzhavin there were many writers of odes, less talented and sincere. The need to compose odes became something of a disease of the century and was finally ridiculed by Dmitriev in “Alien Talk.” The 18th century, despite its fascination with false classicism, did not disdain folk songs. Catherine II loved this type of L. and inserted folk songs into her comedies. At the same time, rich people began to support choirs of singer-songwriters, which was reflected in the so-called popular L. "lackey songs". One of best songs This kind of song, “The gentleman came out of the little forest,” is still sung to this day. Romanticism gave a powerful impetus to the development of poetry. The revival of lyricism in the second half of the 18th century. in Germany it was influenced by the fact that literary taste had far stepped beyond the narrow boundaries set for it by classicism; the rights of individualism, both national and personal, were restored, and literature was seized with an ardent desire to invest new ideas in art. When German. Romanticism embraced all the literatures of Europe, they also became lyrical; this was influenced by Goethe, Schiller, Burger, Uhland and Tieck. The English romantics Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Byron, Shelley, and Keats are primarily lyric poets. The same can be said about the French. romantics: Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Musset, and about the Italians Monti, Hugo Foscolo, Leopardi. The lyrical mood also inspires our poets of the beginning of the century - Zhukovsky, Batyushkov, Ryleev, Pushkin, Lermontov, Vyazemsky, Baratynsky, Alexander Odoevsky. Lyricism permeates all types of poetry, even narrative poems. “The Sorrows of Young Werther”, “Song of the Bell”, “Corsair”, “Queen Mab”, “Rolla”, “Gypsies”, “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Grandfathers” of Mickiewicz bear a lyrical imprint. The form of L. becomes free and obeys only internal esto-psychological laws. Lyrical plays of the romantic period and modern literature are called simply poems (Gedichte, po é sies) and most often do not fit into any of the traditional forms. True, Goethe writes elegies, Wordsworth - sonnets, Victor Hugo - odes, but these types of poetry are accepted along with the entire complex of poetic forms ever developed by humanity. A ballad was specially developed by romantics, the plots of which are taken either from the Middle Ages or from modern folk life. Its emergence was influenced, among other things, by those that had enormous success in the 18th century. songs of Ossian, partly composed, partly adapted from Scots. ballads by McPherson. Romantic ballads were written by Schiller, Burger, Uhland in Germany, and in England by Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey. Their ballad is more realistic in content. Mickiewicz also wrote such ballads. Our ballad began with a translation, as for example. from Zhukovsky, but later acquired a national character, like the Poles, for example. from Pushkin, from Alexei Tolstoy. This is the only specific type of romantic love; the rest of the poetry of the romantics can best be divided according to its internal content - into poems devoted to the depiction of feelings, perceptions or ideas. The first group embraces the most subjective plays, e.g. love. Poems that respond to perception include, first of all, descriptions of nature. Goethe was the first to turn to the depiction of nature in his lyrical plays. Poems of a descriptive nature often coincide with those depicting the poet’s personal mood, but are often limited to purely descriptive purposes, and this is a characteristic feature of romantic and modern literature. The last department of lyric poetry, ideological, reproduces any philosophical, political or social thought. During the romantic period, European literature reached its highest perfection; but soon the realistic direction came to replace romanticism, and from that time on poetry ceased to be predominantly lyrical. More objective types of poetic creativity come to the fore: the novel, story, etc. L. partly continues to live in the old tradition, like the “Parnassians” in France, Tennyson in England, Alexei Tolstoy, A. Maykov, Polonsky, Tyutchev, Fet, Pleshcheev in Russia, is partly influenced by realism, as in the works of Coppe, Baudelaire, Lecomte de Lisle, Richpin in France, and is partly imbued with social and political ideas, as in the works of Heine, Nekrasov, Ogarev, Nadson and others. The philosophical ideas of the century are also reflected in lyrical poetry, mainly from Browning, Victor Hugo and Sully Prudhomme.

Literature about Russian folk songs, see Art. Folk literature. Wed. Yagich, “Historical Evidence of the Singing and Songs of the Slavic Peoples,” in Zaderatsky’s Slavic Yearbook (1878); Voltaire, “Materials for the ethnography of the Latvian tribe” (1890, part I). About German folk literature, see Bibliography in volume II of "Grundriss der Germanischen Philologie", ed. v. Paul; about the French one by Jeanroy, “Les Origines de la po ésie lyrique en France au moyen â ge” (1889) and a review of this book by G. Paris, in the “Journal des Savants” (1891-1892). See also Rhys, "L. Poetry from the Bible" (1894); Basset, "La po ésie orale préislamique" (1880); Flach, "Geschichte der Griechischen Lyrik" (1832); Gorra, "Delle origini della poesia lirica del Medio Evo" (1895); Gautier, "La poésie, religieuse dans les cloî tres du IX et XI s." (1887); Meyer, "Die Altgermanische Poesie" (1889); Bartsch, "Deutsche Liederdichter" (1893; bibliography here); Franke, "Zur Geschichte der lateinischen Schulpoesie"; Gaspary, "Sicilianische Dichterschule"; Cesarco, "La poesia siciliana etc." (1895); Graf, "Petrarchinti", in "Attraverso il cinque ceuto"; Arullon), "Lyrica e lyricici nel XVII" (1893); Br ünettere, "L"évolution de la poésie lyrique en France" (1895); Phelps, "The Beginnings of the English Romantic Movement" (1893); Larrozin, "La renaissance de la poésie anglaise 1798-1889" (1889), Miles; "Modern English poets"; Chmielowski, "Ad. Mickiewicz" (1886).

E. Anichkov.

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