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Introduction

Acquaintance with any science begins with its key concepts, categories, methods, basic laws. Sociology is a young science that is actively developing, new directions appear in it. Sociology is a word consisting of the Latin "socio" and the Greek "logos", that is, the science or doctrine of society. Of course, there are other social sciences, but sociology has its own subject of research.

The term "sociology" was introduced into scientific circulation by Auguste Comte in his "Course of Positive Philosophy" in 1842. O. Comte believed that the new science should consider society as a structural organism in which every cell must be studied from the point of view of the public good. In this regard, he divided all sociology into social statics and social dynamics. O. Comte believed that the laws of mechanics can be used in the study of society. He was characterized by an empirical approach to sociological knowledge. O. Comte did not leave a big scientific mark in sociology, but his idea that the science of society should be based on positive facts, built on the example of the natural sciences, is extremely important. It is no coincidence that sociology was originally called social physics. Currently, sociology is one of the fastest growing sciences. Its methods and tools are adopted by other social sciences: economics, law, demography. Among them, sociology begins to play approximately the same role that mathematics plays in the natural sciences, since sociological methods make it possible to give accurate quantitative estimates of many processes of social development.

1. Modern sociology

modern sociology commonality personality

Modern sociology is a multitude of currents and scientific schools that explain its subject and role in different ways, and give different answers to the question of what sociology is. There are various definitions of sociology as a science of society. "A Concise Dictionary of Sociology" defines sociology as a science about the laws of formation, functioning, development of society, social relations and social communities. The Sociological Dictionary defines sociology as the science of the laws of development and functioning of social communities and social processes, of social relations as a mechanism of interconnection and interaction between society and people, between communities, between communities and the individual. The book "Introduction to Sociology" notes that sociology is a science that focuses on social communities, their genesis, interaction and development trend. Each of the definitions has a rational grain. Most scientists tend to believe that the subject of sociology is society or certain social phenomena. However, one can argue here. Social phenomena are studied not only by sociology, but also by a number of other sciences - the theory of law, political economy, history, psychology, philosophy, etc. Sociology, in contrast to the special sciences, does not study certain social phenomena, individual special aspects or series of social phenomena , but studies their most general generic properties, which are not studied by any of them. Legal branches of knowledge explore only law. The theory of art is only art, and so on. None of the sciences studies those common properties that exist in economic, legal, artistic and religious phenomena, etc. And in view of the fact that they are private types of social activity, then all should have common generic features and in life should regularities common to all social phenomena appear. It is these very general properties and regularities, characteristic of all social phenomena and not studied by any social science, that are the closest object of sociology.

Consequently, sociology is the science of generic properties and the basic laws of social phenomena. Sociology not only chooses empirical experience, that is, sensory perception as the only means of reliable knowledge, social change, but also theoretically generalizes it. With the advent of sociology, new opportunities have opened up for penetrating the inner world of the individual, understanding his life goals, interests, and needs. However, sociology does not study a person in general, but his concrete world - the social environment, the communities in which he is included, the way of life, social ties, social actions. Without diminishing the importance of numerous branches of social knowledge, sociology is nevertheless unique in its ability to see the world as an integral system. Moreover, the system is considered by sociology not only as functioning and developing, but also as experiencing a state of deep crisis. Modern sociology is trying to study the causes of the crisis and find ways out of the crisis of society. The main problems of modern sociology are the survival of mankind and the renewal of civilization, raising it to a higher stage of development. Sociology seeks solutions to problems not only at the global level, but also at the level of social communities, specific social institutions and associations, and the social behavior of an individual.

2. Functions of modern sociology

Sociology, as an independent branch of knowledge, implements all the functions inherent in social science: epistemological, critical, descriptive, prognostic, transformative, informational, worldview. In general, the functions of the humanities are usually divided into two groups: epistemological, that is, cognitive, and actually social. The epistemological functions of sociology are manifested in the most complete and concrete knowledge of various aspects of social life. Social features reveal ways and means of optimizing them. Functions exist and operate only in interconnection and interaction.

The main epistemological function of sociology is epistemological, critical. We are talking about the assessment of the cognizable world from the standpoint of the interests of the individual. Realizing the critical function, the sociology of differentiation approaches reality. On the one hand, it shows what can and should be preserved, strengthened, developed - after all, not everything needs to be changed, rebuilt, etc. On the other hand, it reveals what really requires radical transformations. The epistemological, critical function, of course, consists in the fact that sociology accumulates knowledge, systematizes it, and strives to compose the most complete picture of social relations and processes in the modern world. The theoretical-cognitive function of sociology includes objective knowledge about the main social problems of the development of modern society. As for applied sociology, it is designed to provide reliable information about the various processes taking place in different social spheres of society, namely, about changes in the social structure, family, national relations, etc. Obviously, without specific knowledge about the processes taking place within individual social communities or associations of people, it is impossible to ensure effective social management. The degree of consistency and specificity of knowledge of sociology determines the effectiveness of the implementation of its social function.

The descriptive function of sociology is systematization, description of research in the form of analytical notes, various kinds of scientific reports, articles, books, etc. They attempt to recreate an ideal picture of a social object, its action, relationships, etc. When studying a social object high moral purity and decency of a scientist is required, because on the basis of data, facts and documents, practical conclusions are drawn and managerial decisions are made. These materials are a starting point, a source of comparison for future generations of mankind. Sociology not only cognizes the world, it allows a person to make his own adjustments to it. But a person must always remember that the transformation of society is not an end in itself. And transformations are needed only when they correspond to the needs and values ​​of people, lead to an improvement in the well-being of both society and people. No matter how good the social information received by sociologists is, it does not automatically turn into decisions, recommendations, and forecasts. The cognitive function of sociology is continued in forecasts and transformative functions.

The prognostic function of sociology is the issuance of social forecasts. Usually, sociological research ends with the formation of a short-term or long-term forecast of the object under study. A short-term forecast is based on a revealed trend in the development of a social phenomenon, as well as on a fixed pattern in the discovery of a factor that decisively affects the predicted object. The discovery of such a factor is a complex type of scientific research. Therefore, in sociological practice, short-term forecasts are most often used. In the current conditions of development of Kazakhstan, when the scientific substantiation of social problems is of great importance, the social forecast occupies an important place in research on the development of a social object. When a sociologist studies a real problem and seeks to identify the best ways to solve it, naturally, we are driven by the desire to show the perspective and the end result that stands behind it. Consequently, one way or another, the course of development of the social process is predicted.

The essence of the transformative function of sociology is that the conclusions, recommendations, proposals of the sociologist, his assessment of the state of the social subject serves as the basis for the development and adoption of certain decisions. It is already clear to everyone that the implementation of large engineering projects requires not only a feasibility study, but also a socio-economic justification. This is where processes are remembered. But sociology is only a science, its function is the development of practical recommendations. As for their implementation, implementation is the prerogative of the governing bodies, specific leaders. This explains the fact that many very valuable and useful recommendations developed by sociologists for the transformation of modern society have not been implemented in practice. Moreover, often the governing bodies act contrary to the recommendations of scientists, which leads to serious consequences in the development of society. Broader and deeper reveal the main directions of the renewal of society and makes it possible to identify deviations from the general civilizational development. The essence of the reform in Kazakhstan, or rather, the transformation of society, is to create conditions and opportunities for the conscious, purposeful activity of the personality of social communities. The problem is to overcome the alienation of a person from rational activity, to optimize and improve its efficiency. The task of sociology is to theoretically ensure the successful flow of the process of reformation and democratization of public life in Kazakhstan. The process of transformation of society in Kazakhstan goes from one qualitative state to another precisely in connection with the conscious transformation of goals into a result, and the results into prerequisites, conditions and means for the deployment of conscious activity, the democratization of society. Ignoring sociological recommendations is explained not so much by the insufficient qualifications of sociological personnel (although this also takes place, since their professional training in the country began only a few years ago), but by the unformed need for the majority of managerial personnel in the sociological substantiation of managerial decisions.

The information function of sociology is the collection, systematization and accumulation of information obtained as a result of research. Sociological information is the most operational type of social information. In large sociological centers it is concentrated in the computer memory. It can be used by sociologists, managers of facilities where research was conducted. In accordance with the established procedure, information is received by state and other administrative and economic institutions.

The ideological function of sociology stems from the fact that it objectively participates in the socio-political life of society and, through its research, contributes to the progress of society. The ideological function of sociology is expressed in the use of truly correct verified quantitative data, facts that are the only ones capable of convincing modern man of anything. After all, what is an ideology? This is one of the levels of social consciousness, a system of ideas that expresses the interests, worldview of any social stratum, social community. History shows that in most social revolutions, reforms and reconstructions, transformations, it was precisely sociological concepts of one kind or another that were leading in social development. The sociological views of John Locke played an important role in the revolution of 1688 during the establishment of a liberal democratic regime in England, the works of Francois Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau and other encyclopedists played a transformative role in France, etc. Kazakhstan. Racist ideology became the basis of the Nazi Putsch and the Third Reich in Germany.

So, the main functions of sociology determine not only the tasks, but also the place of sociology in the system of social sciences.

3. Contemporary sociological theories

In the modern world there is a wide variety of special sociological theories. The idea of ​​their development and the term itself belong to the American sociologist Robert Merton. But theories arose much earlier. They are set forth in the works of the classic sociologists Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and others. The development of special sociological theories in the 20th century is associated with the names of the largest sociologists Karl Mannheim, Theodor Adorno, Talcott Parsons, Paul Lazarsfeld, and others. Special sociological theories are a system of branches of knowledge of sociology, who study special forms and spheres of social life and the social realization of forms of social consciousness, their general, and especially specific patterns of functioning and development. Unlike sociological theory, the main function of which is to consider social processes and phenomena, forms and types of social being and social consciousness at the level of society, special sociological theories consider them at the level of specific social institutions and systems. Each sociological theory considers this or that sphere, social community or social process as a relatively independent system with its general and specific connections, characteristics, conditions of origin, functioning and development. A certain special sociological theory considers any social object as a special social institution of a functioning social system in the general system of social relations. Thus, labor is considered as a complex social process within the sociology of labor. The moral system of any society is studied by the sociology of morality. Features of the educational system are studied by the sociology of education. Management as a social system is studied by the sociology of management, etc.

In modern sociology, several groups of socio-psychological theories are distinguished. First, special sociological theories that study the basic forms and types of human activity (sociology of leisure, work, everyday life, etc.). Secondly, special theories that arose at the intersection of sociology and the humanities. These are the sociology of law, economic sociology, the sociology of politics, the sociology of culture, the sociology of religion, etc. Thirdly, theories that characterize the social structure of society, its elements and the interaction between them. These are the sociological theories of classes and social groups, the sociology of the city and the countryside, and so on. Fourthly, special sociological theories that study the activity of social institutions. These are the sociology of management, organization, the sociology of the family, the sociology of education, science, etc. Fifth, theories of deviation of behavior and anomalous phenomena, etc.

Of course, the main task of any special sociological theory is the study and explanation of social phenomena and the functions of the social system. Special sociological theories -- independent sociological knowledge due to the specifics of the subject of study and attitude to the object of study.

Thus, by the end of the twentieth century, sociology has become a complex structured science. The main structures in it are:

macrosiology and microsociology

General and applied sociology (the first deals with the development of the fundamental foundations of sociology, the second - with the study of specific topical social problems);

Theoretical and empirical sociology, which solve questions of either a theoretical nature, or a complex of methodological and methodological problems of organizing and conducting specific sociological research;

Branches of sociology (sociology of personality, feminosociology, sociology of education, political sociology, economic sociology, etc. etc. The number of branches of sociology is large and constantly growing);

Directions and schools of sociology, i.e. unions of like-minded sociologists who profess the same paradigms, close theories, common methodological and methodological orientations. If such an alliance has clear spatial and temporal boundaries, a recognized leader (or several leaders), more or less pronounced formalization, then it is called a school. The direction of sociology is a more amorphous, as a rule, an international association of like-minded people.

Sociology is a multilevel science representing the unity of abstract and concrete forms, macro- and micro-theoretical approaches, theoretical and empirical knowledge.

What are the macro and micro levels of sociology? The wet-sociological level means an orientation towards the analysis of social structures, communities, large social groups, layers, systems and processes taking place in them. The social community that serves as the object of macrosociological analysis is civilization and its largest formations. The macrosociological approach does not require a detailed consideration of specific problems and situations, but is aimed at their comprehensive coverage. The macrosociological approach to phenomena is connected with social world systems and their interaction, with different types of cultures, with social institutions and social structures, with global processes. The macrosociological approach to phenomena is of interest to society as an integral social organism. Unlike macro-microsociology, it analyzes social processes in certain spheres of public life and social communities. Microsociology is addressed to social behavior, interpersonal communication, motivation of actions, incentives for group, community actions, etc.

Theoretical sociology has a four-level character. Distinguish: a) paradigm level of theorizing; b) "large", i.e. general sociological theories; c) the theory of the so-called. "intermediate level"; d) special (or private) concepts.

General sociological (“big”) theories are called upon to give a complete explanation of the social form of the material world, to reveal the basic patterns of the social life of people and their groups, the trends in the development of social relations as an integral system. This is claimed by the theoretical constructions created by G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, G. Simmel, K. Marx, M. Weber, P. Sorokin, T. Parsons, A. Schutz, J. Mead, J. Homans, P. Bourdieu and other classics of sociology. However, none of the "grand" sociological theories ever proposed can be recognized as fully consistent with its claims. All of them are characterized (some to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent) by a one-sided interpretation of social life, an underestimation of one or another of its facets and patterns. Social matter is so complex that it cannot be comprehended even by geniuses. But you can get a fairly complete picture of it if you study all the available general sociological theories, each of which interprets social life in any one aspect (or a certain combination of them).

The theories of the "middle level" include those that claim to comprehend not all social life as an integral system, but only some of its structures (strata, classes, ethnic groups, labor collectives, etc.) and processes (conflicts, socialization and adaptation of the individual , abnormal behavior of people, etc.).

A general sociological theory can be compared with a globe - a model of our planet, and a middle-level one - with a geographical map of a certain continent and/or country.

The main parameters of geographical maps, as is known, are predetermined by the location of the mapped object on the globe. Similarly, the content of the middle-level theory depends on the content of the general sociological theory that it concretizes.

Continuing the geographical analogy, we note that when people travel to some unfamiliar country, they prefer not to use a globe, but maps of the corresponding area. By this we want to say that in certain cases middle-level theories turn out to be more necessary than general sociological ones. We are talking about the situations of developing programs for empirical sociological research, formulating hypotheses, determining methods and techniques for testing them, and interpreting the information received. The increased theoretical and methodological role of middle-level concepts in empirical research explains the abundance of the latter in the absence of a general sociological theory that satisfies all sociologists.

There are much more middle-level sociological theories than "big" ones. Their number is constantly growing and this is one of the vectors of development of sociology. It is on the basis of these theories that numerous branches of sociology are formed and developed.

No less, and for the practice of empirical research more significant are special (private) theories that specify the middle-level ones. For example, one of the theories of the middle level is the concept of the collective. Studies based on it have established that the patterns of the team manifest themselves in different ways in industrial, educational, military, managerial and other types. Moreover, regularities specific to each type of collective have been found. Therefore, special theories of the above types of collective have developed, which are of a particular nature with respect to this middle-level concept. Naturally, a researcher who undertakes to study any problematics of the collective, say, a workshop of some enterprise, first of all, will need a special theory of the production collective.

4. Prospects for the development of sociology

As A.O. Boronoev, new directions, schools in sociology are already beginning to take shape, new leaders are emerging. Several factors contribute to this: 1) sociology has become a university science; youth began to engage in it; 2) there is an intensive exchange of ideas with foreign countries; 3) the institutionalization of sociology as a science is deepening.

But at the same time, one should not forget that in a society where there is a lot of traditionalism and where the initiative has been banned for a long time, changes are difficult to make and this takes a long time.

The criterion for recognition, self-affirmation and self-determination of any science, including sociology, is the formation of its own special relationship to the object under study, the allocation of its own subject or subject area in it, the development of its own cognitive means and methods, and the development of its own categorical apparatus, than At present, Kazakhstani sociologists have begun to actively engage in.

The globalization of all spheres of human life, the Internet, information technology, genetic engineering - these and other achievements of modern civilization point to completely new forms of social organization that will dominate the 21st century. There are new methods of socio-political regulation of the relationship between man and the environment.

The general systemic crisis of human society, generated primarily by the crisis of Western civilization, which consumes incomparably more than what it is capable of creating, makes completely new demands on sociology. Everywhere they say that from a science that explains phenomena, it must turn into a science that creates a new social reality. Moreover, the modern paradigm of sociology should not consist in the awareness of this role, but in the assimilation of a new philosophy of the meaning and purpose of human development, since consumer approaches have revealed their complete unsuitability.

But where can one get such a philosophy? Which state to choose as a model of the desired development, as an example to follow? Many point to the US. Alas, the United States, where, as Vice-President A. Gore admitted in his book "The Earth in the Scales", the market-consumer civilization has created an impasse.

The truth of the current era is that at present there is neither a state nor a philosophy that could serve as a guiding thread (development goal) for all mankind in this respect.

The urgent need to develop a new basic sociological theory was recognized by A. Zinoviev in his time. “Without such a theory,” he wrote, “the studies of empirical sociology, specific measurements and calculations turn into fraud, into tools of ideology and propaganda, and formal constructions turn out to be empty mental (symbolic) constructions. In a word, the exact methods of social research, without a meaningful theory adequate to a given society, turn from tools for understanding this society into tools for clouding minds.

So what is sociology in the context of the evolution of power? This is the science of the patterns of controlled interaction of all social objects and subjects in their past, present and intended state. Having a developed categorical apparatus, it is able to create its own engineering (social technologies), thus exploring the future.

Quite often they talk about some special mission of sociology in comparison with other branches of knowledge. I would like to note that the state of sociology is limited by the development of all other sciences, and above all philosophy. A sociologist, if he needs to go beyond the accepted (his) philosophy, is forced to create (seek) a new one.

In the future, sociology will return to its origins, identified long ago by the young P. Sorokin. He believed that “all types of world energy or world being ... in abstracto can be divided into known categories, of which each category has its own specific properties” and singled out three main types of energy (and, accordingly, interactions): inorganic (physical -chemical), organic (life), psycho-social (or mental) (society). Accordingly, the sciences can be divided into three groups: physicochemical, biological, social. He went on to say that “all processes of interaction that have a psychic nature, completely irrespective of between whom or what they are performed, represent social interaction and are thus the object of sociology.”

But even more important than this definition, borrowed from Tarde or Petrazhitsky, is the conviction of P. Sorokin that a huge array of phenomena now considered biological will move into the field of sociology: “In the world of people and higher animals, biological functions acquire a new, namely, mental character. which makes them objects of special science. It is this connection of the psyche, and nothing else, that makes them consider social phenomena and gives the right to study them not only to a biologist who studies the purely life forms of these relations, but also to a sociologist who studies their conscious, social forms.

Of course, it is necessary to distinguish sociology as an empirical study of social facts, known (used) since ancient times, from sociology as a theoretical science that has become possible, according to the law of the development of human knowledge discovered by Auguste Comte, only in our time, after the scientific justification, first of theoretical chemistry, and then abstract biology.

As you can see, modern sociology has developed relatively recently. Moreover, when O. Comte began to read lectures in Paris, from which a six-volume essay on “Positive Philosophy” was later compiled, only a few dozen people listened to him.

Sociology is closely related to philosophy. Communication is based on the original integrity of the social thought of mankind. The most important task in the development of modern philosophical thought is the substantiation of the model of the emerging information technology civilization, which has a huge impact on the state of the natural and space environment, finding ways to solve global problems of mankind, understanding deep integration processes in the world community, understanding the need for new approaches to solving modern ethnic processes. A fundamentally new solution in modern philosophy and sociology is also received by the problem of man, his value-semantic orientation in the modern world. The principle of anthropocentrism is filled with new theoretical content, within the framework of which it becomes possible for philosophy and sociology, in relation to certain historical spatio-temporal boundaries, to play a substantive role.

Conclusion

Modern sociology is a multitude of currents and scientific schools that explain its subject and role in different ways, and give different answers to the question of what sociology is.

Sociology is the science of the formation, development and functioning of social communities, of social processes and social relations between communities, between communities and the individual, the science of society and social relations.

In the modern world there is a wide variety of special sociological theories.

The main structures in it are:

macrociology and microsociology

general and applied sociology (the first deals with the development of the fundamental foundations of sociology, the second with the study of specific topical social problems);

theoretical and empirical sociology, which solve questions of either a theoretical nature, or a complex of methodological and methodological problems of organizing and conducting specific sociological research;

branches of sociology (sociology of personality, feminosociology, sociology of education, political sociology, economic sociology, etc., etc. The number of branches of sociology is large and constantly growing);

directions and schools of sociology, i.e. unions of like-minded sociologists who profess the same paradigms, close theories, common methodological and methodological orientations. If such an alliance has clear spatial and temporal boundaries, a recognized leader (or several leaders), more or less pronounced formalization, then it is called a school.

Of course, the object of sociological knowledge is society. But not just society, but the sphere of social reality to which the process of cognition is directed: social institutions, social communities, layers and groups, social processes, social relations, etc.

List of used literature:

1. Volkov Yu.G., Mostovaya I.V. Sociology. Textbook / Yu.G. Volkov I.V. Bridge - Moscow, 1998.-365s.

2. Zborovsky G.E. Introduction to sociology / G.E. Zbrovsky-Moscow, 2004., 71-119p.

3. Lavrinenko V.N. Textbook for university students / V.N. Lavrinenko-Moscow, 1998.-435p.

4. Radugin A.A. Sociology / A.A. Radugin-Moscow, 1999.-160p.

5. Frolov S.S. Sociology textbook / S.S. Frolov-Moscow, 1996.-159p.

6. Kharcheva V.G. Fundamentals of sociology / V.G. Kharcheva-Moscow, 1998.-302p.

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The essence of modern sociology. Object and subject of sociological science. Functions of modern sociology. Modern sociological theories. Prospects for the development of sociology.

In modern sociology, there are two main approaches to the analysis of social structures: objectivist and subjectivist.

Objectivist approach to the analysis of social structures: structural functionalism, exchange theories and conflict theories.

Structural functionalism. The works of Talcott Parsons (1902–1979), a classic of structural functionalism, formulated the basic principles of a consensus approach to the study of society. The very concepts of "function", "functionality" indicate that in society, heterogeneous elements (institutions and social roles) should act as parts of a well-functioning mechanism. Social activity, both at the level of the individual and at the level of the group, turns out to be aimed at maintaining the stability of the social system. Functionalists have made a great contribution to the development of a systems analysis of society.

The concept of social exchange was created by the American sociologist George Homans (1910–1089) in opposition to structural functionalism. The concept explains such concepts of sociology as "role", "status", "conformity", "power", etc., not by the action of macrosocial structures, as is customary in functionalism, but from the point of view of the social relations that give rise to them. Homans sees the essence of these relations in the desire of people to receive rewards and benefits and to exchange them mutually.

Along with Homans, Peter Blau (b. 1918) is considered one of the creators of the concept of social exchange. In his writings, Blau brings to this concept the categories of structural functionalism and conflict theory. In interpersonal relations, Blau attaches a decisive role to economic aspects (reward, benefit, benefit) and sets the task of deriving from the simplest forms of social exchange the "mergent properties" of the social structure: role relations, power and legitimacy, collective values, relationships of complex social organizations. Sociological theories of social conflict A conflict is a situation in which each side seeks to take a position that is opposite to the interests of the other side. There are three main conflict theories:

1. The concept of positive-functional conflict by Lewis Coser (1913-2003). According to this concept, social inequality is inherent in society, and hence the constant psychological dissatisfaction of its members, tension in relations between individuals and groups. Social conflict in this case is understood as a struggle for values, for a certain social status, power and resources, the purpose of which is to neutralize or destroy rivals.

2. The conflict model of society by Ralf Dahrendorf (b. 1929). In accordance with this model, any society relies on the coercion of some of its members by others (inequality of social positions in relation to the distribution of power), the difference in the social position of various social groups and individuals causes mutual friction, contradictions and, as a result, a change in the social structure of the society itself;

3. Kenneth Boulding's (1910–1993) general theory of conflict is that all conflicts have common patterns of development. Their detailed study and analysis provide an opportunity to create a "general conflict theory" that will allow society to control conflicts, manage them, and predict their consequences.

Subjectivist approach to the analysis of social structures Symbolic interactionism. Interactionists sought to consider society as the result of interactions (interactions) of people, as a subjective reality, permeated with the subjective intentions and actions of individuals. Within the framework of symbolic interactionism, the American sociologist Erving Goffman (1922-1982) proposed a dramatic approach, the main idea of ​​which is that people constantly play a certain performance in front of each other.

Phenomenological sociology. The Austrian philosopher and sociologist Alfred Schutz (1899–1959) is considered the founder of phenomenological sociology. In philosophy, Schutz developed a peculiar version of non-transcendental phenomenology, close to Heidegger's existentialist interpretation of phenomenology. In relation to the field of social knowledge, Schutz tried to solve the task set by Husserl - to restore the connection between abstract scientific concepts and the life world, the world of everyday knowledge and activity. Using the descriptive phenomenological method and the ideas of Weber, Bergson and Mead, he put forward the idea of ​​understanding sociology, tracing the processes of the formation of human ideas about the social world from single subjective meanings that are formed in the flow of experiences of an individual subject, to highly generalized, intersubjectively justified constructions of social sciences containing these meanings. in a modified, "secondary" form.

In many respects, ethnomethodology continues the line of phenomenological sociology and sociology of knowledge - a direction that studies the interaction of people and their attitude to what is happening from a position close to ethnographic. Closely related to ethnomethodology is the method of "conversation analysis", developed by the founder of ethnomethodology, Harold Garfinkel and Harvey Sachs.

7. An important aspect of the study of sociology, like any other science, is the study of the history of its formation and development. Although sociology as a science took shape in the 19th century, even before that, thinkers were interested in the problem of society for many centuries.

Undoubtedly, the views of these scientists need to be considered, since so far there has not been a single theoretical direction in sociology, and their study can be of significant help in this process. Moreover, it would be simply stupid to reject the rich theoretical material created at the pre-scientific level of sociology.

In the period of antiquity, the first complete idea of ​​society was given within the framework of social philosophy by Plato (“Laws”, “On the State”) and Aristotle (“Politics”). It was Plato who first developed the doctrine of social stratification in his works. He distinguishes three estates that should exist in an ideal society: rulers-philosophers; warriors and producers: merchants, artisans and peasants.

Aristotle also proposed his theory of social stratification. According to it, the society is divided into: the rich stratum (plutocracy), the middle class and the dispossessed class. Moreover, the philosopher notes that for the normal functioning of society, the majority should be precisely the middle class. It is easy to see that this theoretical proposition has not lost its relevance even in modern times.

Close attention to the problems of social stratification of ancient scientists was not accidental. The transition from the primitive communal system to the early class society was accompanied by a deepening of the processes of social differentiation of the population and an intensification of the struggle between different strata of society, which reached its climax in ancient Rome. As for the nature of knowledge itself, in antiquity it had primarily a mythological, idealistic and utopian meaning. The main goal of ancient socio-philosophical concepts was the desire to improve society, save it from internal conflicts and prepare it to fight against external danger.

In the Middle Ages, studies of society were strongly influenced by Christianity and the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore were exclusively theological in nature. The core of the worldview was the medieval Christian religion. In this regard, there was a reorientation of philosophical interest from the values ​​of earthly life to the problems of the absolute, supernatural world order.

Social antagonism is translated into the plane of the struggle between two worlds: divine and earthly, spiritual and material, good and evil. Another important trend of medieval thought was Arabic social thought. It also took shape under the influence of the world religion - Islam. The second source of the formation of Arab social thought was the concepts of Plato and Aristotle.

The central themes were the problems of the state and power. Significant theoretical developments appeared in the issue of the evolution of society and, above all, the state. A feature of Arab political thought was the study of various social communities. Thus, one of the most prominent thinkers of the Arab Middle Ages, Ibn Khaldun, closely studied the behavior of large social groups, making up the "anatomy of human society."

The largest and most significant events of the late Western Middle Ages were the Renaissance and the Reformation. In their socio-historical essence, they were anti-feudal, early bourgeois phenomena. This period was characterized by such social trends as the breaking of feudal relations and the emergence of early capitalist relations, the strengthening of the positions of the bourgeois strata of society, and the secularization of public consciousness.

Of course, all this was reflected in the views of the thinkers of that time. Concepts of self-worth of the individual, dignity and autonomy of each individual were developed. However, not all thinkers adhered to this concept. So, N. Machiavelli, and later T. Hobbes, noted the anti-social and anti-social nature of people, the asocial essence of man. However, in general, the era of the Renaissance and the Reformation can be called the era of humanism. The main achievement of this period was the appeal to the person, his motivation, his place in the social system.

In modern times, the development of sociology is characterized by a change in previous irrational-scholastic views on man and society, which are leaving their leading positions and are being replaced by emerging concepts of a rational nature, focused on the principles of scientific (positive) knowledge.

During this period of development of social thought, ideas about the mores of people, public morality and traditions, the nature of nations and peoples, social objects (Voltaire, Diderot, Kant, etc.) were widely developed. At the same time, terms arose that determined the formation of the categorical and conceptual apparatus of the future sociological science: society, culture, classes, structure, etc.

A distinctive feature of this period of social thought was the diversity of the spectrum of theories and concepts. One of these rational social theories was the general sociological theory developed by K. Marx and F. Engels.

The founders of this concept believed that the process of social development of society is based on materialistic and social revolutionary principles.

Another direction of rational theories was positivism. The founders of this approach put the spiritual aspects of social life in the first place.

An important trend that determined the development of social thought was the transition from the disciplines of the physical and mathematical cycle to biology, which had a significant impact on social philosophy (evolutionary theory, organicism, etc.).

8. So sociology as an independent science originated in the late 1930s and early 1940s. 19th century In the nineteenth century European society finally and irrevocably enters the path of capitalist development. It was a time of extreme instability in public life.

During this period, it was characterized by social upheavals and a crisis in public relations. The following phenomena testified to this: the uprising of the Lyon weavers in France, the Silesian weavers in Germany, the Chartist movement in England, the French Revolution of 1848. These trends sharply raised the question of the need to create a general theory capable of predicting where humanity is heading, what guidelines can be relied upon find their place and their role in this process. It was under the influence of social upheavals that one of the classical paradigms of sociology, Marxism, was formed.

The founders of this trend believed that such a generalizing theory should be the concept of scientific socialism, the core of which is the theory of socialist revolution.

In parallel, there are theories of a reformist way of resolving social conflict and the development of society. Another important theoretical source for the formation of sociological theories was natural science discoveries (the discovery of the cell, the creation of the theory of evolution).

However, in addition to theoretical prerequisites, the formation of sociology was conditioned by the creation of a certain methodological base that made it possible to study social processes. The methodology and methods of concrete sociological research were developed mainly by natural scientists. Already in the XVII-XVIII centuries. John Graunt and Edmund Halley developed methods for the quantitative study of social processes. In particular, D. Graunt applied them in 1662 to the analysis of the mortality rate.

And the work of the famous physicist and mathematician Laplace "Philosophical Essays on Probability" is based on a quantitative description of population dynamics.

In the 19th century, in addition to social upheavals and revolutions, there were other social processes that required study precisely with the help of sociological methodology. Capitalism was actively developing, which led to a rapid growth in the urban population due to the outflow of the rural population. This trend has led to the emergence of such a social phenomenon as urbanization. This, in turn, led to a sharp social differentiation, an increase in the number of poor people, an increase in crime, and an increase in social instability. Along with this, a new stratum of society was forming at a tremendous pace - the middle class, which was represented by the bourgeoisie, who stood for stability and order. There is a strengthening of the institution of public opinion, an increase in the number of social movements advocating social reforms.

Thus, on the one hand, the “social diseases of society” were clearly manifested, on the other hand, those forces that were interested in their “treatment” and could act as customers of sociological research that could offer a “cure” for these “diseases” objectively matured. .

Of great importance for the development of the methodology and methods of empirical sociological research was the work of one of the largest statisticians of the 19th century. Adolphe Quetelet, On Man and the Development of Capabilities, or the Experience of Social Life (1835). Some researchers believe that it is from this work that one can begin counting the time of the existence of sociology, or, as A. Quetelet put it, “social physics”.

This work helped the science of society move from the speculative derivation of empirically untested laws of history to the empirical derivation of statistically calculated patterns using complex mathematical procedures.

Finally, before becoming an independent science, sociology had to go through a process of institutionalization. This process includes the following stages: 1) the formation of self-awareness of scientists specializing in this field of knowledge. Scientists are aware that they have their own specific object and their own specific research methods; 2) the creation of specialized periodicals; 3) the introduction of these scientific disciplines into the curricula of various types of educational institutions: lyceums, gymnasiums, colleges, universities, etc.; 4 ) the creation of specialized educational institutions in these fields of knowledge; 5) the creation of an organizational form for the association of scientists of these disciplines: national and international associations.

Sociology has gone through all these stages of the process of institutionalization in various countries of Europe and the USA, starting from the 1940s. XIX century.

9.The emergence of a new Science Comte substantiated based on the law put forward by him on the three stages of development of the intellectual development of man: theological, metaphysical and positive.

The first, theological or fictitious stage covers antiquity and the early Middle Ages (up to 1300). It is characterized by the dominance of a religious worldview. At the second, metaphysical stage (from 1300 to 1800), a person refuses to appeal to the supernatural and tries to explain everything with the help of abstract entities, causes and other philosophical abstractions.

And finally, at the third, positive stage, a person abandons philosophical abstractions and proceeds to the observation and fixation of permanent objective connections, which are the laws that govern the phenomena of reality. Thus, the thinker opposed sociology as a positive science to theological and metaphysical speculations about society. On the one hand, he criticized theologians who viewed man as different from animals, considered him a creation of God. On the other hand, he reproached the metaphysical philosophers for having understood society as a creation of the human mind.

The transition between these stages in various sciences occurs independently and is characterized by the emergence of new fundamental theories.

So, the first social law put forward by Comte within the framework of the new science was the law on the three stages of human intellectual development. The second was the law on the division and cooperation of labor.

According to this law, social feelings unite only people of the same profession. As a result, corporations and intra-corporate morality arise, which can destroy the foundations of society - feelings of solidarity and harmony. This is another argument for the need for the emergence of such a science as sociology.

Sociology must fulfill the function of substantiating a rational, correct state and social order.

It is the study of social laws that will allow the state to pursue a correct policy, which should implement the principles that determine the structure of society, ensuring harmony and order. Within the framework of this concept, Comte considers in sociology the main social institutions: the family, the state, religion - from the point of view of their social functions, their role in social integration.

Comte divides the theory of sociology into two independent sections: social statics and social dynamics, in which it is easy to see the scientist's obvious sympathy for physics. Social statics studies social connections, phenomena of social structure. This section highlights the "structure of the collective being" and explores the conditions of existence common to all human societies.

Social dynamics should consider the theory of social progress, the decisive factor of which, in his opinion, is the spiritual, mental development of mankind. A holistic picture of society, according to Comte, gives the unity of the statics and dynamics of society.

This is due to his representation of society as a single, organic whole, all parts of which are interconnected and can only be understood in unity.

Within the framework of these views, Comte contrasted his concepts with the concepts of individualistic theories, which considered society as a product of an agreement between individuals.

Based on the natural nature of social phenomena, Comte opposed the reassessment of the role of great people, pointed out the correspondence of the political regime to the level of development of civilization.

The significance of Comte's sociological concept is determined by the fact that, on the basis of a synthesis of the achievements of social science of that period, he first substantiated the need for a scientific approach to the study of society and the possibility of knowing the laws of its development; defined sociology as a special science based on observation; substantiated the natural nature of the development of history, the general contours of the social structure and a number of the most important institutions of society.

The founding father of sociology, as a special science of society, is considered to be the French philosopher O. Comte (1798-1857). Comte was one of the first scientists who stated that society is a reality (and not just a name for a multitude of individuals, as many then believed), that this reality can be studied by the methods of natural sciences and determined the place of sociology in the general series of sciences: mathematics - astronomy - physics - chemistry - biology - sociology. By this, he immediately made it clear that sociology is the most complex of the known sciences.

Why do we need a new science of sociology? - to achieve universal agreement, unity of values ​​and norms! Comte sincerely believed that it was enough to understand the laws according to which society develops, to educate the rulers and give the people sociological knowledge, which should replace religion. Then there will be consensus...

The subject of sociology, according to Comte, is society in its integrity and interconnectedness. Society is primary, and the individual is secondary! The individual is an abstraction, a cast of society.

The main methods of sociology are observation, experiment, comparison (of different societies among themselves and elucidation of similarities and differences, comparison of various successive states of society).

Sociological theory, according to Comte, should consist of 2 parts:

Social statics - "the theory of social order, organization and harmony." Here they study how society works and how it functions.

Social dynamics - "the theory of social progress". Here they study the laws of development and changes in society, the factors of social progress.

The main factors of social progress according to Comte: spiritual and mental development. Secondary factors are: climate, race, division of labor, etc.

Types of social progress according to Comte: a) material (changes in living conditions), b) physical (changes in human nature), c) intellectual (Law of 3 stages: society develops from the dominance of religion, to metaphysics, then to positivism), d) moral (development of collectivism, morality).

Comte considered society by analogy with a living organism, i.e. society is a kind of wholeness with parts. All organs of society are aimed at providing for the whole organism. The interests of the whole are above the interests of the parts. The primary element of society is the family.

Comte distinguishes 3 stages of the mind corresponding to 3 stages of the development of society. Contradictory instincts need to be harmonized, from which comes the formation of norms, worldviews. Contradictory instincts are harmonized through communion with God.

Theological synthesis goes through 3 phases: 1) fetishism - the deification of material objects (until the 14th century). Religious consciousness, since the 14th century, faith in God begins to die. 2) polytheism - polytheism (14-19 centuries). The gradual collapse of faith on the basis of the development of experimental, experimental knowledge. Time of domination of speculative abstractions. Time of anarchy of minds, spontaneous fiction taken for reality. This leads to the rupture of social ties, the development of philosophy and revolution. 3) monotheism - monotheism. There is a new synthesis of mind, reason, society based on exp. science

10. Herbert Spencer(1820–1903), Derby, UK. Born in the family of a teacher, he did not receive a systematic education, nevertheless, with the help of intensive self-education under the guidance of an uncle who was a priest, he became one of the most intelligent people of his time.

The period of the beginning of Spencer's scientific work coincided with the heyday of the British Empire. The era of Queen Victoria, as this stage in English history is called, is often defined as a heroic period of capitalist industrialization. It was distinguished by the high level of economic development of Great Britain as the richest colonial power and the general confidence in the future prosperity. At that time, belief in the universal laws of nature and the unlimited possibilities of the experimental method was extremely widespread.

In the first fundamental work of G. Spencer "Social statics" (1851), which, apart from the name, has nothing to do with the social statics of O. Comte, the idea of ​​social morality is developed: since the world created by God is perfect in its structure, the participation of man in the "divine mind" opens up in the rational observance of public duty.

Here, the ideas of functionalism are introduced to explain the development of social institutions, which later became the basis for the paradigm of structural functionalism: “The law of any organization is the presence of a function for each organ and the possession of each function by its own specific organ.”

G. Spencer is considered the founder of the school of organic analogy, or organicism in sociology. They often talk about the influence of Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory on his teaching, but history shows that Charles Darwin himself spoke about the enormous influence that G. Spencer's ideas had on him.

Speaking from the positions of extreme liberalism, Spencer believes that competition and the survival of only those who are fittest are essential for the development of society. He calls this position, by analogy with natural selection in the animal world, the basic law of social development. The state, expanding the sphere of power control and penetrating into education, health protection, trade, labor and social security, prevents the adaptation of the human community to the environment and the performance of its own functions.

By 1857, he had the idea of ​​a synthesis of biology, psychology, sociology and ethics based on the principle of organic evolution. This idea was realized through the development of a universal law of "natural causality" that operates both in nature and in society.

Society, according to Spencer, is a “real object”, a “superorganism”, and social development is similar to the development of an organism: from simple and formless to complex and structured.

This process is carried out through integration, which occurs in parallel with the strengthening of the differentiation of parts and heterogeneity in society. At a high stage of development of social differentiation, each organ of society, like a living organism, has at its disposal the means of delivering food resources, processing and connection with the whole. Structural differentiation is accompanied by specialization of functions, which is associated with the development of the division of labor.

Spencer singled out and described the main varieties of social institutions as the most important subsystems of society that ensure its existence. Possessing a colossal capacity for work, over 40 years he wrote a huge number of books, the circulation of which amounted to hundreds of thousands of copies. Among them are such fundamental ones as "Foundations of Psychology" (1855), "Basic Principles" (1862), "Foundations of Biology" (1864 and 1867), "Foundations of Sociology" (1876), etc. The most complete edition of his works contains 21 volumes .

H. Spencer had a great influence not only on the subsequent development of theoretical sociology, but also on the popularization of sociology among the masses. In 1883, visiting the United States, he lectured in halls overflowing with enthusiastic listeners. However, already in the first decades of the twentieth century, the name of G. Spencer began to be forgotten, and in reference books he began to appear as one of the theorists of liberalism.

The followers of the evolutionary-organic direction of sociology founded by him, which sought analogies between the organism and society, were: in Germany - A. Scheffle, in France - R. Worms, in Russia - P. Lilienfeld. The works of G. Spencer and his followers anticipated the emergence of a systematic approach to the study of society.

G. Spencer (1820-1903) - English philosopher and positivist sociologist, also considered one of the founders of modern sociological science.

He had a great influence on the emergence and formation of European and, especially, American sociology. His views were influenced by his acquaintance with the works of prominent economists A. Smith and T. Malthus. He highly appreciated Ch. Darwin's Origin of Species and adopted some of the latter's ideas. The works of O. Comte had a very serious influence on Spencer's worldview. science of that time. Sociology for him becomes a comprehensive science, including anthropology, ethnography, and the general theory of historical development.

Spencer introduced two initial principles into sociology that had a significant impact on its entire development: the understanding of society as a living organism and the idea of ​​social evolution (organicism and evolutionism).

According to Spencer, society is not just an accumulation of individuals, but a real entity, a special social organism, resembling biological creatures. Society, like an organism, grows and increases in volume, in the process of evolution it becomes more complex in structure, each part of society performs a certain function. As in a living organism, in it the differentiation of the structure and functions of its individual parts is accompanied by the development of their interaction, and so on. social progress is the process of complication of society based on the division of labor. The division of labor is accompanied by the specialization of the functional characteristics of individual organs of the whole. According to Spencer, for the successful functioning of society, external social control is necessary: ​​- fear of the living (state); - fear of the dead (church);

But Spencer also speaks of the differences between a bioorganism and a social organism. So the constituent parts of a bioorganism are inextricably linked into a single whole, while in society the living elements are more independent; in bioorganisms, the ability to think and feel is concentrated only in certain parts of it, while in society all units are capable of this; in a living organism, elements exist for the sake of a single whole, but in society it is the other way around.

By the way, their last thesis follows that for Spencer, unlike Comte, the individual is primary, and society is secondary!

Evolutionism is the second starting principle of Spencer's theory. Evolution for him is a universal single process of development. Social evolution is a contradictory, but uniform, gradual, automatic process. Intervention in this process is unacceptable! It will only worsen the existing situation.

Spencer's views found great recognition during his lifetime. With his understanding of society as a self-regulating system and analysis of the relationship between social functions and the structure of society, he anticipated many provisions of structural functionalism. He was the first in sociology to systematically use the concepts of “social system”, “social structure”, “function”, “institution.” One of the first he tried to distinguish between the concepts of evolution and progress.

11.Karl Marx (1818-1883) did not consider himself a sociologist. Moreover, he did not recognize and hated Comte with his sociology, but it so happened that the significance of Marx's ideas for the development of sociology turned out to be very great and generally recognized by the sociological community. The following are his key sociological ideas:

He showed the influence of economic factors (productive forces and production relations) on the objective and progressive (that is, independent of the will and consciousness of individuals in history) development of society. Moreover, he showed that their will and consciousness are determined by the natural-historical process;

He created the concept of the alienation of labor, which sociologists successfully use today;

He showed the role of social contradictions and conflict in the development of society. On this basis, K. Marx is called the founder of the conflictological paradigm in sociology.

He put forward the idea of ​​the existence of a "historical interest of the era" and its influence on the "value preferences" of scientists, the results of their activities, and, accordingly, their influence on the development of society. Hence - Marx's recognition of the possibility and even the necessity of active intervention in the evolution of the development of society, even by force.

Thus, in general, Marx's approach was historical, he considered a person not only as an object of social action, but also as its subject, capable of changing his environment. For sociology of that time, Marx's emphasis on the study not of society in general, of man in general, but of a particular society and a particular person, was also of great importance.

However, most sociologists did not accept and do not accept Marx's idea that people can interfere with evolution through violence.

A completely different approach to understanding society than Comte put forward the founder of Marxism, Karl Marx (1818-1883). Together with F. Engels (1820–1895), he proposed a materialistic theory of explaining society and social life.

At the same time, they also proceeded in the creation of their sociological theory from positivist attitudes, focused on the consideration of social phenomena by analogy with natural ones.

The materialist Marxist theory of society was based on a number of fundamental principles: 1) the principle of determining the social being of social consciousness, which is the main feature of the materialism of Marxist sociology; 2) the principle of the laws of social development, the recognition of which indicates the presence in society of certain connections and relations between processes and phenomena; 3) the principle of determinism, the recognition of causal relationships between various social phenomena - a change in social life under the influence of a change in the means of production; 4) the principle of determining all social phenomena by economic phenomena; 5) the principle of priority of material social relations over ideological ones; 6) the principle of progressive progressive social development, which is realized through the doctrine of the change of socio-economic formations (in the natural sciences, these are certain structures connected by the unity of the conditions of education, the similarity of the composition, the interdependence of e elements), the basis of which is the mode of production, that is, a certain level of development of the productive forces and the corresponding level of production relations; 7) the principle of the natural-historical nature of the development of society, which reflected two opposite trends: side, and its dependence on people's activities - on the other; 8) the principle of embodying social qualities in the human personality, determined by the totality of social relations; 9) the principle of coordinating empirical data and theoretical conclusions "with the historical interest of the era", i.e. the impossibility of abstracting scientific data from the subjective attitudes of the researcher. The creators of Marxist sociology themselves have repeatedly admitted that, by its very nature, it was very fundamentally politically and ideologically aimed at expressing the interests of the working class.

Another important element of Marxism was the doctrine of social revolution. According to Marx, the transition from one formation to another is possible only through a revolution, since it is impossible to eliminate the shortcomings of the socio-economic formation by transforming it.

The main reason for the transition from one formation to another is the emerging antagonisms.

Antagonism is an irreconcilable contradiction of the main classes of any society. At the same time, the authors of the materialistic concept pointed out that it is precisely these contradictions that are the source of social development. An important element of the theory of social revolution is the conditions under which it becomes possible: it does not take place until the necessary social, primarily material, prerequisites mature in society.

The doctrine of social revolution in Marxist sociology was not only theoretical but also practical. Thus, it was closely connected with revolutionary practice.

Marxist sociology actually outgrows the framework of science in the generally accepted sense, it becomes a whole, independent ideological and practical movement of the masses, a form of social consciousness in a number of countries that adhered and adhere to the socialist orientation.

According to the Marxist vision of social progress, capitalism is seen as the final stage in the development of an exploitative society, the basis of which is private property.

Contemporary sociological theories

The development of sociology in the 20th century, largely based on the principles developed by M. Weber and E. Durkheim, is characterized by the emergence of numerous schools and trends, each of which is unique in its own way and requires the most careful and serious attitude, because it reveals to us that or another perspective of society.

Be that as it may, but among the various schools of sociology of the 20th century, the following areas are most often distinguished: structural functionalism, conflictological approach, and, finally, the theory of interpersonal interaction.

Functionalist sociology. Speaking, in many respects, the heirs of G. Spencer, modern functional sociologists, and, above all, the American sociologist Robert Merton(born 1912), share the point of view that society as a whole and its individual parts are closely interconnected, which is reinforced by their functions. In other words, everything in society is closely connected and linked with each other. That is why, instead of discussing the internal content of sociological facts and objects, functionalists believe, one should simply consider those real, observable and verifiable consequences that are associated with facts and objects. In them, in the consequences, functions manifest themselves. However, what methodological "tools" does the founder of functionalism use in his analysis?

First of all - the principle of the sociological "theory of the middle level". His brief definition of "midrange theory". R. Merton formulates as follows that the specificity of sociology as a special vision of the social world is primarily, and perhaps exclusively, expressed in that unique “localization” of sociology in the “intermediate space” located between purely empirical working hypotheses and socio-philosophical theories society.

The meaning of the numerous concepts of functionalism lies in their stabilizing significance for the development of sociological thinking. In certain social conditions of destabilization, it is precisely this moral-psychological role of functionalism that turns out to be vital for the survival of sociology as a social science and the preservation of the self-respect of sociologists as scientists.

In parallel and even somewhat earlier than functionalism, another large sociological school began to develop, headed by the American sociologist Talcott Parsons(1902-1979), called "structural functionalism".

The starting point in the formation of structural functionalism was the principle of the systemic structure of society. Parsons argued that all social systems have a set of four basic functions. Each system, regardless of its level, realizes itself in the system of action. In other words, the social system must act, develop - otherwise it dies. All social systems must be so organized as to be compatible with other systems; in order to survive, a system must have the support of other systems. These are the conditions for the existence of any social system, regardless of its scale and importance.

The main idea of ​​functionalism is the idea of ​​social order in society based on the dominance of consent over conflict.

Conflictological theories. In contrast to functionalist approaches, which emphasized in every possible way the stabilization and evolutionist aspects of social development, in modern Western sociology there is, as it were, the opposite style of sociological thinking, which sees in society not a consensus, not a balance of motives and mutual interests, but a struggle between various groups and trends, as a result of which and social structures and relationships are formed. Significant roots of the conflictological approach can be found in the sociological legacy of Karl Marx.

One of the prominent radical sociologists was Wright Mills (1916-1962), an American sociologist who became famous for his studies of ruling elites in modern Western society. Representing modern society as a socio-political and economic structure, Mills argued that the real influence on these structures is exerted by small groups of politicians, businessmen and the military.

The role of social conflict was most fully revealed by another American sociologist, Lewis Coser, who attributed the conflict to the realm of purely ideological phenomena. Conflicts reveal themselves in social development as certain groups compete for power, redistribution of income, for a monopoly on spiritual leadership, and so on. Every society not only potentially contains the possibility of conflicts, but moreover, a society can realize itself only through a balance of conflicts that establish the principles of social interaction between groups and individuals.

German sociologist Ralph Dahrendorf(born 1929) in his "theory of conflict" proceeded from the fact that in every society there are axial lines of social conflicts. The conflict, in his opinion, is born from the fact that one group or one class resists the "pressure" or domination of the opposite social force. Substantiating the main provisions of the theory of conflict, R. Dahrendorf argued that all complex organizations are based on the redistribution of power. The desire of people to redistribute power, and not economic reasons, become a source of conflict, and since one redistribution puts forward another, social conflicts are inherent in any society.

Theories of interpersonal interaction proclaimed, as opposed to the functionalists, the primacy of the mental over the social. Varieties of the theory of interaction were embodied in the theory of social exchange (J. Homans, P. Blau), symbolic interactionism (J. Mead, G. Bloomer, G. Stone).

exchange theory. A very fascinating picture of society was drawn by representatives of the so-called "exchange theory", and, above all, George Homans(born 1910), who suggested that people's behavior is nothing but a constant exchange of values ​​(both literally and figuratively). People act and interact only on the basis of a certain interest that makes them interact. What becomes the subject of exchange? Anything, but necessarily having a social significance. For example, free time that we share with our partner. Thus, the value of each individual person is made up of those qualities that are subject to exchange. It is not difficult to understand that "exchanges" are interactions that follow the principles of a certain symbolism. However, in reality there are never equal exchanges. This explains to us the existence of social inequality.

Symbolic interactionism. The central concept of symbolic interactionism is the concept of interindividual interaction. The term “symbolic” means that this sociological school emphasizes the “meaning” that actors (“actors”) give when they enter into interaction, that is, “interaction” ( interaction).

The founder of symbolic interactionism, an outstanding American sociologist and social thinker George Herbert Meade(1863-1931) in his theoretical constructions proceeded from the fact that society and individual consciousness are formed in the totality of interactions. Interaction analysis begins with the concept of gesture. It is a stimulus to which other participants in the interaction respond, acting as a symbol. A gesture is not only and not so much a physical gesture as a "verbal gesture" - a word. That is, a human action cannot be understood only on the basis of fixing its external manifestations; this requires knowledge of the internal symbolic meaning embodied in a language understandable to the participants in the interaction.

Mead's views on society and the individual were further developed in "dramatic" sociology. Irving Goffman, who, following theatrical terminology, emphasized the process of revealing the personality in behavior. The entire "area" of action, or stage, is divided into the outer part of the stage, where people ("actors") present themselves to the audience, and the inner part of the "stage", where the audience no longer controls what is happening on the stage. There, the "actors" change the meaning of their activities and relax.

The sociology of symbolic interactionism is quite fascinating. It gives a unique perspective of considering all the processes taking place in society. Symbolic interactionists develop their theoretical generalizations on a different level and trace all the basic processes of social life through the prism of collective behavior.

Ethnomethodology. Directly translated, the term "ethnomethodology" means the methods (methods) that people use in everyday life. Founder of ethnomethodology, modern American sociologist Harold Garfinkel developed the main part of his method - the analysis of colloquial statements. Using audio and video recordings, ethnomethodologists study how everyday forms of speech and dialogue reveal hidden patterns of behavior. In order to penetrate into this "Through the Looking Glass" of everyday behavior, Garfinkel proposed to sharply break the usual situations of communication, break the established rules of interaction and thereby draw the attention of the participants of the experiment not to the established "reduced" forms of behavior, but to the "background" meaning behind it. communication.

The modern development of sociological theory provides rich ground for various kinds of generalizations. Sociology provides every person who has become acquainted with its classical and latest achievements with the basis for an independent analysis of certain situations of any level and nature. And although, as it becomes clear, the creation of one universal sociological theory is impossible, but each of the existing theories can enrich us with a unique, original point of view on what is happening in the surrounding social world.

Modern sociology includes many scientific schools and individual teachings, each of which explains the essence of sociological science in its own way. There are also quite a lot of definitions of sociology at the present stage. The most common are such definitions as “the science of the laws of the passage and development of social processes and social communities, the mechanism of relationships between people and society”, “the science of the laws of the formation, development and existence of society and social relations”.

Modern sociology refers to society or individual social phenomena as its subject. At the same time, sociology studies not just the phenomena themselves, but their most general properties that are not considered by others (history, philosophy, psychology, political economy, theory of law).

In this regard, it can be concluded that modern sociology- this is a separate science about the general laws of social phenomena and their generic properties. In research, sociology not only relies on but also theoretically generalizes it.

Sociology studies not just a person in general, but explores the whole world of his existence, which includes the community in which he is included, social ties, lifestyle, social actions. Sociology views the world as a system. Such a system is seen by her not only as functioning and developing, but also as being in crisis. Modern sociology seeks to study the causes of the crisis and tries to find possible ways out of it, and one that will be the least painful for society and the most promising.

Features of modern science lie in the fact that it is trying to solve the most acute problem of our days - the survival of mankind for the possibility of further updating civilization and raising it to a more developed stage of relations. Sociology is looking for a solution to these problems not only at the global level, but also at the levels of individual social communities, social institutions, through the study of individuals. This science explores the stages of formation, progressive development and the present functioning of societies and communities of people. At the same time, she seeks the essence of phenomena and their causes in deep social processes, relations between individuals and communities.

Directions of modern sociology disagree on two criteria. All schools of modern sociological science are divided into two groups. it microsociological and macrosociological theories.

In the latter group, social conflict theory and structural functionalism are most influential. All schools are based on the achievements of modern science.

The foundations of structural functionalism were brought out by Talcott Parsons, who proposed to look at the structure consisting of interconnected functional elements. To such elements he attributed individuals, collectives, groups and other communities, between which there is a relationship. In this theory, the emphasis is on the stability of social systems and the evolutionary forms of their development.

The theory of social conflict (the conflictological direction of sociology) has developed in opposition to structural functionalism. The most famous representatives of this trend are L. Koser and R. Dahrendorf.

Coser is the author of the theory of positive-functional conflict, which states that the stability of a social system presupposes the existence of a mandatory conflict of interests, manifested in social conflicts and clashes. Dahrendorf developed the concept of a conflict model of the development of society. The main postulates of his theory boil down to the following: society is in a constant process of change, conflicts are inevitable in it, all individual elements of society contribute to its changes and integration, in society some members always dominate over others.

Microsociological theories focus on the study of the behavior of individuals in their social relationships. The main theories of microsociology include phenomenology, symbolic interactionism, social exchange theory, and ethnomethodology.

Symbolic interactionism (George Herbert Mead) states that people act based on symbolic meanings that need to be interpreted. Phenomenology (Alfred Schutz) explores social reality through the study of the daily lives of individuals. Ethnomethodology considers reality as the result of the interpretive activity of people. The theory of social exchange (George Homans) is based on the principles of behaviorism to explain social processes.

Sociology as a science began to develop in the 19th century thanks to the works of the French scientist Auguste Comte. O. Comte, the founder of sociology, was the first to declare the need to create a science of society. He is the founder of the positivist trend.

Stages of development of sociology

Problems related to the social structure were considered by Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece, T. More, F. Bacon and Machiavelli in the Renaissance, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, J. Rousseau, Montesquieu in modern times.

In the 19th century, sociology begins to actively develop. The works of G. Spencer, O. Comte, K. Marx, F. Engels appeared. This time can be called the first stage in the development of sociological science (1840-1880).

The second stage (1890-1920) of the evolution of the science of society was associated with the development of analysis and the development of the categorical apparatus. The positivist concept of H. Spencer and O. Comte continued to develop in the works of the French scientist E. Durkheim, the author of a theory based on social institutions. Around this time, the scientific school of M. Weber, the founder of "understanding" sociology, began to take shape, which, in his opinion, should understand social action and try to explain its development and results.

The third stage (from 1920 to 1960) is characterized by the beginning of the active development of sociology in the United States, and its empirical component. The most significant at this stage was the theory of T. Parsons, which made it possible to present society as a kind of dynamic functional structure. C. Mills created the so-called "new sociology", which gave rise to the sociology of action and critical.

The fourth stage in the development of science, which began in the 1960s, is represented by a wide variety of approaches, concepts, and many authors: the theory of R. Merton, the ethnomethodology of G. Garfinkel, the theory of symbolic interactionism of G. Mead and G. Bloomer, the theory of conflict between Koder and other.

Modern sociological theories also include the theory developed by J. G. Mead and C. Cooley. Personality, as C. Cooley believed, is the result of communication. A person becomes a personality through interactions (interactions) between individuals. J. G. Mead proposed the idea that the individual, as well as social action, should be shaped by the symbols acquired by individuals in the process of their socialization.

Modern sociological theories cannot be imagined today without the phenomenological sociology of A. Schutz, who says that phenomena exist directly in consciousness and are not associated with logical conclusions. P. Berger and T. Luckman became famous thanks to their work on P. Berger and T. Luckman, society can simultaneously exist as an objective and subjective reality.

The leading representatives of neo-Marxism were T. Adorno, G. Marcuse, E. Fromm. The main methodological principles of neo-Marxists are: adherence to humanism, rejection of positivism with its separation of values ​​and facts, liberation of the individual from the most diverse forms of exploitation.

P. Bourdieu, the founder of constructive structuralism, made an attempt to avoid the confrontation between theoretical and empirical sociology.

These are the main modern sociological theories.