Topical issues and difficulties of developmental education. Report on the topic "Prospects for the system of developmental education" methodological development on the topic
Psychological principles and ways to solve it.
Plan:
The concepts of development, training and learning.
The objective necessity of developmental education.
1. The concepts of development, training and learning.
Human development is a natural process determined by biological and psychological laws, as well as social factors.
Development – these are natural continuous changes in the body and psyche of a person from the moment of birth to the end of life, as well as the formation of a person as a social being.
Education - this is a process of interconnected activity of a student and a teacher, during which the teacher equips students with ZUN, and students acquire knowledge, master skills and abilities.
Doctrine is the activity of students in the learning process.
Learning - these are changes in the activities and behavior of a person under the influence of training or other previous activities.
Psychological science of the relationship between learning and development.
In psychology, there are three views on the relationship between learning and development:
Any training develops the human psyche, training is development. This view was held by psychologists W. James, E. Thoridike.
Education does not develop the psyche of the child. Even good training only brings everyone to his own ceiling, which is predetermined by individual heredity. The adherents of this view are A. Binet, V. Stern, J. Piaget and others.
Education develops the psyche, but not all education, but only that which takes into account the zone of proximal development of the child, and is organized as an active, purposeful, independent activity of students. This is the opinion of many domestic and foreign psychologists - K. Koffka, L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankov, A.N. Leontiev and others.
3. The objective need for developmental education.
At present, the secondary school is focused mainly on equipping students with knowledge and supplying speech, and developing children in the learning process. At present, modern society presents the school with a social order for the formation of an intuitive, creative, socially active personality. Therefore, developmental education is an objective necessity. In the learning process, it is necessary to develop: natural inclinations, inclinations and individuality of each child.
The problem of developmental education in pedagogical psychology.
The problem of developmental education in pedagogical psychology has been posed and solved for a long time. Domestic psychologists P.F. worked on this problem. Kapterev, L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankov, A.N. Leontiev, N.A. Menchinskaya, P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina, V.V. Davydov D.B. Elkonin, D.N. Epiphany.
In the 1950s L.V. Zankov conducted a mass experiment in the country's primary schools. As a result, he developed a new didactic system of developmental education in the primary grades.
The principles of learning according to the system of L.V. Zankov:
Learning at a high level difficulties overcome by students in the course of their learning activities;
The leading role of theoretical knowledge in teaching;
Accelerating the pace of learning;
Systematic work on the development of each student.
In 1959, a monograph by D.N. Bogoyavlensky and N.A. Menchinskaya "Psychology of learning at school", which reveals the psychological patterns and terms implementation of developmental education at school.
1. Mental activity of students in the process of mastering knowledge.
2. Mastering the operations of comparison, analysis, synthesis and generalization.
3. Formation of methods of mental activity.
4. Taking into account the individual characteristics of the cognitive activity of schoolchildren.
In the late 50s P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina created the Theory of the phased formation of mental actions, according to which educational activity will be developing if mental actions are gradually formed in schoolchildren.
Stage 1 - the formation of a motivational basis for actions
Stage 2 - indicative basis of action
Stage 3 - the formation of actions in a material or materialized form
Stage 4 - repetition of the action in the form of sound speech
Stage 5 - the transition from external loud speech actions to internal speech actions
Stage 6 - the speech process leaves consciousness, leaving only the substantive content of actions.
Psychological principles, tasks and solutions, problems of developmental education.
In the 1970s, they developed principles of developmental education:
The principle of cognitive activity of students in learning.
Problem principle.
The principle of formation of educational activity of schoolchildren.
The principle of the formation of methods of mental activity.
The principle of individualization and differentiation of training.
1) Early detection of individual developmental characteristics and their individual consideration in the learning process. For this you need:
a) identification and accounting of the type of GNI (features of perception, thinking, memory);
b) determining the level of development of educational activities;
c) identification of inclinations and inclinations and their consideration in the process of educational activities.
2) Reorientation of the content of the forms and methods of teaching to the formation of the personality of students and the acquisition by students of such qualities as:
a) the ability to self-regulate;
b) a high level of development of consciousness and self-awareness;
c) the ability to positively influence the personality of other people (methods of self-regulation);
d) the need for creative activity.
The most important personality trait is orientation- stable, dominant systems of methods, views, spiritual needs, aspirations, interests, beliefs.
3) Identification of creative inclinations and development of creative abilities. One of the main directions of restructuring the work of teachers is the reorientation of the content and methods of teaching to the development of the spiritual needs and creative abilities of students.
4) Teaching schoolchildren the ability to learn, independently acquire knowledge and use the methods and techniques of mental activity necessary for this.
Description of the presentation on individual slides:
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Sections: Psychological portrait of a teacher. 2. Causes and characteristics of underachieving students. 3. Practical application. 4. Problems of KRO.
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1. Well educated, know your subject well, have good erudition. 2. Basic personal qualities: responsible, purposeful, kind, fair, honest, balanced, able to be strict. 3. Gestures and facial expressions should express a friendly attitude towards students, have pleasant manners. 4. Timely notice the fatigue of students and skillfully respond to them. 5. Speech is understandable and accessible, expressive, emotional, convincing. 6. Solve problems of varying complexity based on experience and knowledge. 7. Be able to take into account the capabilities of their students. 8. Unite students, unite the team. 9. Constantly improve, love to experiment, look for new forms and methods of work. 10. Come to work in a good mood, treat students with warmth and care. 11. Positively perceive oneself, students and colleagues.
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Causes of failure: features of the student's body; features of the student's personality; living conditions; features of education in the family; features of training and education at school; causes of shortcomings in living conditions;
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Features of underachieving students low level of knowledge, as a result of this low level of intellectual development lack of cognitive interest elementary organizational skills are not formed students require an individual approach from a psychological and pedagogical (in terms of learning) point of view there is no reliance on parents as allies of the subject teacher children, mainly , from asocial families lack of adequate self-esteem on the part of students frequent absences from classes without a good reason, which leads to a lack of a system in knowledge and, as a result, a low level of intelligence
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The system of correctional and developmental education (CED) is a form of education differentiation that allows solving the problems of timely active assistance to children with learning difficulties. To enhance the effectiveness of work with low-performing students, new educational technologies, innovative forms and teaching methods are used: Zuldis V.V. - memos for students, various algorithms. Isina O.Zh. – student-centered learning Aitchanova Zh.K. - various situations of success (developmental education) Tukaeva V.F. - game tasks Tatarkina V.L., Akylbekova N.N. - helper cards, physical minutes. Muravyova S.V. - multi-level tasks.
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Reminders Speech sounds The sounds of our speech are formed by the organs of speech. Sounds are consonants and vowels. Consonant sounds: Voiced: l m n r b c g j z Deaf: p f k t w s x z h sch Solid: b p v f g k d z s l m n r x j w z Soft: y "h "u" b" p" c "f" g "k" d "t" z" s" l "m" n "r" x"
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Vowels: a, o, y, s, and, e Castle - castle, flour - flour, couples - couples. One syllable in a polysyllabic word is pronounced more slowly. The emphasis falls on him. It is stressed. The rest of the syllables in the word are unstressed. Consonants and vowels in a word merge with each other to form syllables. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels in it. The syllable that is stressed is called the stressed syllable. Syllables that are not stressed are called unstressed.
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Plan for the sound and letter analysis of the word 1. Pronounce the word as it is heard. 2. Determine how many syllables are in this slo What slok is stressed, which syllables are unstressed? 3. Determine what sounds are made up of syllables. 4. Designate these sounds correctly with letters on the letter. Sample: / [ language ] - language. d - consonant, soft a - vowel, unstressed z - consonant, hard, voiced s - vowel, stressed k - consonant, hard, deaf 4 letters, 5 sounds.
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Plan for parsing a word by composition 1. Determine which part of speech the word belongs to. Does it change or not? 2. Highlight the changeable part in the word - the ending (if the word is declined or conjugated). 3. Highlight the stem in the word. 4. Choose related words for the word. Select their common part - the root. 5. Select the prefix in the word (if any). 6. Highlight the suffix in the word (if any). Sample: Suburban, city
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Student-centered learning. Route sheet. Name ____________________________ Subject: ________________________________ 1._______________________________ 2._______________________________ 3._______________________________ 4._______________________________ Assess your work: 1. Center. "Management" 2. Center. "Tasks" 3. Center. “Expression” In the lesson I learned _________________________________ It was interesting ______________________________________ It was difficult _____________________________________________
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Evaluation paper. Name _________________________________________________ I can distinguish __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2) I can without help ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3) I can, but I need help __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4) I did not understand anything on the topic __________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Situations of success (developmental education). The gender of nouns. House, land, soldier, lake, book, nest, sea, school, bread. 1. Read the words. 2. What do they have in common? 3. What is a noun? Prove it. 4. Divide these nouns into three groups. In the first column, include the words to which you can substitute OH MY. In the second column, to which you can put SHE IS MINE. In the third column, to which you can substitute IT IS MINE. Conclusion: Having distributed nouns according to these three groups, we divided them by gender. Gender is a grammatical feature of a noun. What kind of nouns to which you can substitute the words he is mine? She is mine? is it mine?
Report
Developmental learning
MBOU Sukhovskaya secondary school
Cherkavskaya L.V.
I.
In recent decades, theorists and practitioners of domestic education have been paying more and more attention to the problems of developmental education. Moreover, one of the main principles of reforming the Russian school is the principle of developing education.
World and domestic trends in the development of education require that the general education school ensure a significant increase in the general education and culture of graduates, the maximum development of the abilities, creativity and individuality of all students, form a humanistic system of values and relationships in them, preserve and strengthen the physical and psychological health of children. The educational process of the school, capable of realizing these requirements, should be based on its maximum adaptation both to the capabilities and needs of the individual student, and taking into account the interests, social environment and society as a whole.
A modern person lives and works in situations where real processes and phenomena are presented to him through the repeated display of the properties of objects in texts, numbers, graphs, etc. In order to make the right decisions, he is forced to evaluate the essence of the matter by its signs, that is, to act on the basis of a theoretically represented reality. In everyday practice (that is, in everyday life, in simple communication between people), such a (theoretical) approach to business can appear only by chance. Naturally, it arises and is cultivated in science, industry, art, politics, law and other historically developing types of human activity, where, according to the content of tasks, people have a need to determine the essence of a phenomenon by its external manifestations.
The scientific and technological revolution of the 21st century has dramatically complicated the nature of labor, it has become predominantly intellectual, which requires adjustments to the system of mass education: from the highest priority of the development of informatics and technology, society must move to the highest priority of human development and education.
This was the basis for the search for new forms and methods of training and education.
The answer to this problem was developmental education.
II. The concept of developmental learning
V.A. Sukhomlinsky said:“ Every child has silver bells hidden in the depths of his soul. It is necessary to find them, to touch them, so that they ring with a kind and cheerful ringing, so that the world of the child becomes joyful and bright. It is developmental education that helps to find creativity in a child. Starting with the works of Ya.A. Comenius, a search was made for the scientific foundations of education, which recognized the individual capabilities of each child and their changes in the process of age development. K.D. addressed the same questions. Ushinsky. In his most famous fundamental work, "Man as an Object of Education", the features of the child's mental development in various age periods are described in detail. He considered education and upbringing to be powerful factors in the development of the child. A.G. Rubinstein wrote about the close connection between development and learning. He rejected the idea that the child first develops and then is brought up and trained. He believed that the child develops by learning and learns by developing. Human development is influenced by two main factors: biological (heredity, constitution, inclinations) and the social environment. The basis of mental development is a qualitative change in the social situation or the activity of the subject. Each stage of human development has its own logic of development. The change of logic is carried out during the transition from stage to stage, training leads to development. The issue of the relationship between development and training was not removed from the agenda even at a later time. One of the most famous domestic psychologists, L.S. Vygotsky, turned to its consideration. He singled out and summarized the following most widely held points of view on the question of the relationship between learning and development:
training and development are two independent processes; learning is "built on top" of maturation; learning purely externally uses the opportunities that arise in the process of development;
training and development are two identical processes;
learning can go both after development and ahead of development, moving it further
With the enrichment of psychological and pedagogical theories, ideas about each of these concepts were refined. Gradually, the concepts of learning and development acquired the status of interdisciplinary and basic categories. The following interpretations of these concepts have become commonly used:
development is a process of quantitative and qualitative changes in the body, nervous system, psyche, personality;
learning is a process of targeted transfer of socio-historical experience, organization of the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities.
Over time, scientists and practitioners came to understand that pedagogy is interested not only mental development (mental development), but personal development . The starting point for the development of pedagogical strategies for training and education was the psychological concept of personality. The change in the concept of personality development in psychology immediately affected the change in the concepts of training and education accepted by pedagogical theory and practice. A.I. Subetto writes that developmental education is based on the “culture of joy and happiness”, “culture of beauty” as cultures of creativity, “pedagogy of happiness” arises as the “basic structure” of the pedagogy of “developmental education”, because the emotive system of joy is launched as a structure that reinforces creativity; developmental education comes from understanding a person not only as an individual (a separate "I" - "EGO"), but also as a collective being (where "I" is "We", where one is aware of one's responsibility to society, nature.); Therefore, developmental education is education combined with upbringing through the team. One of the directions for the development of the student's personality is the formation of educational activities as a way of actively obtaining knowledge. The specificity of this method lies in the consistent and purposeful development of the activity of the students themselves (understanding the learning task, mastering the methods of active transformations of the object of assimilation, mastering the methods of self-control). On this basis, the task arises of forming an increasing independence of the transition of students from the implementation of one component of educational activity to others, that is, the formation of ways of self-organization of activity. Based on the concept of learning activities, define the main characteristics of developmental learning. It must be emphasized that developmental education is an integral system that cannot be reduced to the sum of methodological techniques. It is impossible to talk about the difference between developmental education and other types of education in terms of some individual components.
III. The essence of developmental learning technology.
In the domestic psychological and pedagogical literature, questions are often discussedwhat is the main thing - the content, teaching methods or the personality of the teacher. There are a variety of points of view. So, a number of researchers A.K. Dusavitsky, A.M. Matyushkin, M.I. Makhmutov, A.N. Potashkina and others. believe that everything is determinedteacher's personality . Only a teacher can provide full-fledged training and education, everything else is derivative and not so significant. But there is another point of view, according to which the decisive role is played byteaching methods . In this regard, the profession of a teacher is mass and, therefore, all teachers can reach the level of a creative person. Finally, there is a position that proceeds from the fact that the decisive role in the learning process is played byits content. Teaching methods are derived from the content, and the teacher's realization of himself as a person, the manifestation of his personal properties, is also largely limited by the content. So, when it comes to developmental learning or the developmental effect of learning, the authors usually consider one or another of its parameters.However, the implementation of developmental learning is impossible in part, by separate elements. Particular techniques torn out of the system will give a partial result that does not characterize the capabilities of the system as a whole. In this regard, it must be emphasized thatdevelopmental education is an integral system where all three of these parameters: content, methodological and personal are interconnected and interdependent and inseparable from each other. The content of developmental education,as opposed to functionalaimed at developing not private ways of action, skills and abilities, butprinciples of action. The principles of action essentially constitute the content of theoretical knowledge. In this regard, there is a need for a clear distinction between concepts and the form of knowledge that prevails in our traditional school. In the traditional school representation, the concept is abstract knowledge, clothed in verbal form, regardless of its content.The general ideas that children receive in a traditional school and scientific concepts have different origins. General ideas are based on empirical experience, subordinating it to formal logical rational rules. Each skill mastered by the child, as in beads, is strung one on top of the other and crumbles at the first collision with the educational task. Ultimately, all spelling, for example, turns out to be a colossal number of rules and exceptions for a child. This discourages not only the student, but also the teacher. Therefore, no development takes place. The child remains in the same framework in which he was before. The actions of a child included in the system of developmental education are completely different. At the first encounter with a spelling problem, the principle of constructing a spelling action is clarified, which allows you to check both an unstressed vowel and a doubtful consonant in the root, vowels in a prefix, suffix, etc. It turns out that this is the same skill, acting differently in each individual case. And the so-called exceptions can and should be correlated with this general principle. All spelling is presented as a complete system. This makes it much easier to understand.Working in this system, the child has the need and opportunity not just memorize certain material, butexplore the problem, which develops thinking, understanding. As a result, the child learns not just writing, reading or counting, but the ability to think the way scientists think.Changes in content lead to a significant change in teaching methods. The basis of the traditional teaching method is demonstration of the method, explanation, training, assessment. This is an illustrative and explanatory method. In developmental education, the subject of which is not a method of action, but a principle, this method is not suitable for the reason that the principle, unlike the method, cannot be demonstrated. Elucidation of the principle is possible only as a result of an independent analysis of the action, situation, conditions and generalization of those objective connections on which this method relies. The principle is revealed only as a result of the children's own activity. It cannot be detected in any other way, much less assimilated. Therefore, the method of developmental education is not in showing, not in explaining, but in organizing the students' own actions. The methodology regulates the activities of the teacher. Ultimately, alltraditional technique is more or lessa systematic description of what a teacher should do, and what the students do at the same time is not included in the task of this technique.In developmental education, the central figure, on which success dependsis not a teacher, but a student. And the function of the teacher is not to transfer knowledge, but to organize the educational activities of children.Every activity is a problem solving. That's whymain tool, which the teacher has issetting tasks and organizing their solution. This, perhaps, is the main specific complexity of the methodological apparatus of developmental education.The ability to set a task, to organize its solution is an extremely complex thing that requires a lot of serious work from the teacher.The goal set must be achieved by the child, only then it acquires meaning for him, but it is achieved in the process of solving the problem.This means that it is necessary to organize the actions of children: to break this task into a number of particular simple tasks, each of which leads the child to a gradual solution of the main one.This is the main method of developmental learning (setting educational tasks and organizing their solution). Concerninga completely different nature of the relationship between the teacher and the children and between the children is needed. In traditional teaching, which is based on demonstration and explanation, no matter how the teacher builds his relationship with children, they are always based on some kind of authoritarianism. This is a leadership relationship: I teach you, I control you, and so on.The pedagogical process in the conditions of developmental education always has the character of a paired dialogue. - teacher with student; It is in this joint activity (and not only the teacher and student, but also students among themselves) that a comparison of points of view, analysis is born, a common position is developed. Instead of individual activity, which, due to necessity, exists in traditional education, here activity can only be collective, jointly distributed. The teacher is included in it as a participant in the idea. At the same time, all authoritarian forms are completely excluded, first of all, forms of evaluation.The destruction of the teacher's authoritarianism is one of the most important early stages of developmental learning. This must be done consciously, i.e. teach children to thinkthe teacher may be wrong. Of course, the teacher makes mistakes intentionally, but he accompanies them with a serious justification. This is not a game of mistakes, but painstaking analytical work. Similarit is necessary to remove the authoritarianism of the analogue of the teacher-textbook. Textbook, like the teacher may be wrong. You need to trust not the word of the teacher, the author of the textbook, but experience, analysis, fact. Thus, the style of relations here is completely different.Dialogue presupposes equality of partners, participating in it.So , developmental education is an integral system where everything is interconnected and interdependent: content, method and type of communication. This is a learning process in which the student develops together with the teacher.
IV. Basic concepts of developmental learning
The problem of regularities and principles of education is reflected in the concepts of developmental education developed by domestic psychologists and teachers. The concept of L.V. Zankov. At the end of the 50s. XX century by a scientific team led by L.V. Zankov, a large-scale experimental study was undertaken to study the objective patterns and principles of learning. The efforts of the researchers were aimed at developing a didactic system for teaching younger students, with the goal of their overall mental development. They set the task of building such a system of primary education, which would achieve a much higher development of younger students than when teaching according to the canons of traditional methods. The basis of the training system, according to L.V. Zankov, are the following interrelated principles:
training at a high level of difficulty,
fast pace in the study of program material, the leading role of theoretical knowledge,
students' awareness of the learning process,
purposeful and systematic work on the development of all students, including the weakest ones.
The principle of high-level education difficulties are characterized, according to L.V. Zankov, not so much because it exceeds the "average norm" of difficulty, but above all because it reveals the child's spiritual powers, gives them scope and direction. Another principle is organically connected with the principle of learning at a high level of difficulty: when studying program material, you need to move forward at a fast pace. This implies the rejection of the monotonous repetition of the past. At the same time, the most important thing is the continuous enrichment of schoolchildren with more and more new knowledge. The next principle of L.V. Zankova -the leading role of theoretical knowledge already in primary school, which are the main means of development and the basis for mastering skills and abilities. This principle was put forward as a counterweight to the traditional ideas about the concreteness of the thinking of younger students, since modern psychology does not provide a basis for such a conclusion.The principle of awareness schoolchildren learning process follows from the generally accepted didactic principle of consciousness. L.V. Zankov, analyzing its various interpretations, emphasized the importance of understanding the educational material, the ability to apply theoretical knowledge in practice, recognized the need to master mental operations (comparison, analysis, synthesis, generalization), the importance of a positive attitude of schoolchildren to educational work. A special place in his system is occupied bythe principle of purposeful and systematic work on the development of all students, including the weakest. L.V. Zankov explained this by the fact that an avalanche of training exercises falls upon weak students. According to the traditional methodology, this measure is necessary to overcome the failure of schoolchildren. Experience L.V. Zankova showed the opposite: overloading the unsuccessful with training tasks does not contribute to the development of children, it increases their backlog. The underachievers, no less, but more than other students, need systematic work to develop them. Experiments have shown that such work leads to shifts in the development of weak students and to better results in the assimilation of knowledge and skills. However, despite the productivity of this concept in the development of the student, it remains an unrealized concept to date. In the 60-70s. attempts to introduce it into mass school practice did not give the expected results, since teachers were unable to provide new programs with appropriate teaching technologies. The orientation of the school in the late 80's - early 90's. on personal development training has led to a revival of this concept. But, as practice shows, proposed by L.V. Zankov didactic principles are not yet fully used.
The concept of V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin. In the 60s. 20th century a research team led by psychologists V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin tried to establish the role and significance of primary school age in the mental development of a person. In their opinion, the developmental education of schoolchildren is based on the theory of the formation of educational activity and its subject in the process of assimilation of theoretical knowledge through analysis, planning and reflection. Starting to master any educational subject, with the help of a teacher, schoolchildren analyze the content of the educational material, single out some initial general relation in it, discovering at the same time that it manifests itself in many other particular cases. By fixing the selected initial general relationship in a sign form, they create a meaningful abstraction of the subject under study. Continuing the analysis of the educational material, the students, with the help of the teacher, reveal the natural connection of this initial relationship with its various manifestations and thereby obtain a meaningful generalization of the subject being studied. Students then use meaningful abstractions and generalizations to sequentially create other, more specific abstractions with the help of the teacher and combine them into a coherent academic subject. This way of assimilation of knowledge has two characteristic features. First, the students' thoughts purposefully move from the general to the particular. Secondly, assimilation is aimed at identifying by students the conditions for the origin of the content of the concepts they assimilate. Familiarization with the leading theoretical provisions should be closer to the beginning of the study of the subject. Facts are easier to assimilate if they are studied in relation to theoretical ideas, grouped and systematized with their help. The carrier of educational activity is its subject. The younger student in this role performs educational activities initially together with others and with the help of a teacher. The development of the subject occurs in the very process of its formation, when the student gradually turns into a student, i.e. into a child who changes and improves himself. To do this, he must be aware of his limited abilities in something, strive and be able to overcome his limitations. This means that the child must consider the basis of his own actions and knowledge, i.e. reflect. Initially, younger students perform learning activities together, support each other in accepting and solving the problem, discussing the choice of the best search path. It is in these situations that zones of proximal development arise. In other words, at the first stages, learning activity is carried out by a collective subject. Gradually, everyone begins to independently implement it, becoming its individual subject. The concept of developing education V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonina is aimed primarily at the development of creativity as the basis of personality. It is this type of developmental learning that they oppose to the traditional one. Many provisions of this concept have been confirmed in the course of long-term experiments. Its development and approbation continues at the present time. However, this concept is still insufficiently implemented in mass educational practice. Many teachers take only parts of the system for implementation in practice, thus violating the whole process aimed at the overall development of students, where each subject fulfills its role and is interconnected with the other, there is a one-sided orientation towards theoretical thinking.
The concept of the phased formation of mental actions developed on the basis of the theory of P.Ya. Galperin and N.F. Talyzina and can be represented as a series of stages. First stage involves the actualization of the corresponding motivation of the student, a preliminary acquaintance with the purpose of the action, since only in the case when the purpose of the task coincides with the motive, actions can be considered an activity. Second phase associated with the awareness of the scheme of the orienting basis of activity (action). Students first get acquainted with the nature of the activity, the conditions for its flow, the sequence of orientation, executive and control functions. The level of generalization of actions, and hence the possibility of transferring them to other conditions, depends on the completeness of the orienting basis of these actions. Third stage- performance of an action in an external form, material or materialized, i.e. using any models, diagrams, drawings, etc. These actions include not only orientation, but also executive and control functions. At this stage, students are required to provide verbal accompaniment (speaking out loud) of the operations performed and their features. Fourth stage implies external speech, when the action is subjected to further generalization due to speech (oral or written) design and separation from materialized means. Fifth stage - the stage of inner speech, at which the action takes on a mental form. Finally, sixth stage associated with the performance of the action in the mental plane (the internalization of the action). The advantage of the concept of the phased formation of mental actions is the creation of conditions for the student to work at an individual pace and for motivated self-management of educational and cognitive activity. The disadvantages of this concept are excessive theorizing, inaccessible style of presenting texts and tasks. , lack of cooperation with other schools, research centers.
Problem-Based Learning Concept associated with the intensification of traditional education, which involves the search for reserves of mental development of students, and above all creative thinking, the ability to independent cognitive activity. The development of this concept is due to the fact that in recent years the total amount of scientific knowledge has been rapidly increasing (according to scientists, it doubles every eight years). The rapidly growing flow of scientific information leads to the fact that every year the gap between the total amount of scientific knowledge and that part of it that is assimilated at school or university increases. Not a single educational institution is able to give a person all the knowledge that he will need for work. You will have to study all your life, to replenish your knowledge, in order to keep up with the rapid pace of life, the rapid progress of science and technology. Fundamental works on the theory and practice of problem-based learning appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s. (T.V. Kudryavtsev, A.M. Matyushkin, M.I. Makhmutov, etc.) The essence of problem-based learning lies in creating problem situations, understanding, accepting and solving these situations in the process of joint activities of students and teachers (with maximum independence of the former and under the general direction of the latter). Problem-based learning in general terms is as follows: students are given a problem, and they, with the direct participation of the teacher or on their own, explore ways and means of solving it, i.e. they build a hypothesis, outline and discuss ways to test its truth, argue, conduct experiments, observations, analyze their results, argue, prove. These are, for example, tasks for independent "discovery" (derivation of the law of physics, spelling rules, mathematical formula, proof of a theorem).
The concept of Z.I. Kalmykova. According to this concept, developmental is such training that forms productive, or creative, thinking. The main indicators of such thinking are:
originality of thought, the possibility of obtaining answers that differ from the usual;
the speed and smoothness of the emergence of unusual associative connections;
"susceptibility" to the problem, its unusual solution;
fluency of thought as the number of associations, ideas that arise per unit of time in accordance with some requirement;
the ability to find new, unusual functions of an object or part of it 1 .
Productive thinking is characterized by the novelty of its product, the originality of the process of obtaining it and a significant impact on mental development. Productive thinking involves not only the widespread use of acquired knowledge, but also overcoming the barrier of past experience, moving away from thinking stereotypes, resolving contradictions between updated knowledge and the requirements of a problem situation. This side of thinking is most often referred to as the flexibility of the mind. An externally expressed feature of productive thinking is its independence in acquiring new knowledge and operating with it. Productive thinking is a multi-link dynamic system, a number of components of which are in a dialectically contradictory unity (productive and reproductive, verbal-logical and not adequately reflected in the word intuitive-practical). The process of searching for new knowledge proceeds spasmodically. It uses both algorithmic and heuristic techniques. It cannot be carried out without relying on previously existing knowledge and involves going beyond them. The study of school practice shows that the proposed Z.I. Kalmykova, the principles of teaching take place in the activities of many teachers, but they are used in isolation, and in some cases, priority is given to only one of them, which does not allow the ideas of the concept to be fully implemented. This happens because the teacher should start working on it only after a thorough study of it, when all its advantages become visible to him. Then you need to set a goal: teaching, do no harm.
The concept of L.M. Fridman. From the point of view of this scientist, the most significant thing in the development of children is the nature of their activities in the educational process. Most of the mistakes and misconceptions of teachers come from the fact that they do not realize, do not understand the main goal of teaching, and replace it with another, secondary one. The main goal of the educational process L.M. Friedman considers the upbringing of a comprehensively developed and socially mature person. To achieve this goal, the educational process must be built in accordance with a number of principles.The principle of independence in the educational process involves its organization in such a way that students are directly involved in the goal-setting of their activities, and the learning goals set from the outside would become their own, personal goals. In this case, students feel like full-fledged subjects of this process, free in the creative achievement of the goals they have adopted, which at the same time acquires the character of amateur performance, becomes a need.The principle of self-organization characterizes the operational side of the educational process. Based on this principle, the teacher does not teach, but helps to learn. It creates the necessary conditions for the formation of skills and abilities of rational learning, independent performance of not only educational and training activities, but also creative independent learning activities.Development principle defines a number of requirements for the organization of the educational process: rely on the age and individual typological characteristics of students, take them into account; to develop the need to overcome feasible difficulties, to master new methods of action, new skills and abilities; focus on the zone of proximal development, taking into account the achieved level of actual development; direct the educational process to the formation of the social maturity of each student.The principle of collectivism establishes that the central, leading form of organization of the educational process is the collective (group, pair) form.The principle of role participation assumes a uniform and voluntary distribution of roles among the students of the class. The same student must act as both responsible and subordinate.The principle of responsibility participants in the educational process is important from the point of view of the development of a socially mature personality.The principle of psychological support involves the emotional satisfaction of each student and thereby the creation of motivation for learning. An important place in the concept of L.M. Friedman is relegatedcontrol and evaluation activities both teachers and students. Without it, the formation of a socially mature personality is impossible. All control and evaluation activities of students and teachers should be carried out in such a way that each student develops a sense of personal responsibility for the results of teaching, behavior, the work of the entire group and the entire class, and ensures everyone's emotional well-being in the classroom. The current practice of monitoring and evaluating students' knowledge does not yet meet the stated requirements.
The concept of N.N. Pospelova is focused on the formation of mental operations, which act as a condition and means of organizing developmental learning. The formation of any mental operation goes through several stages:
spontaneous, during which the student performs the operation, but does not realize how he does it;
semi-spontaneous, when a student, performing an operation, realizes how he does it, but does not understand the essence of this operation, thinking that its application occurs by itself, without any rules;
conscious, during which the student consciously uses the rules for performing a mental operation and understands that these rules are specially formulated.
Based on the position recognized in psychology that the two sides of the thought process are the operations of analysis and synthesis (D.N. Bogoyavlensky, N.A. Menchinskaya), N.N. Pospelov notes that the correct analysis of any whole is an analysis of not only parts, elements, properties, but also their connections and relationships. Therefore, analysis does not lead to the disintegration of the whole, but to its transformation, which is synthesis. The task of analysis is not only to decompose an object or phenomenon into its component parts, as is traditionally considered, but also to penetrate into the essence of these parts. The task of synthesis is not only to unite the parts of an object or phenomenon, but also to establish the nature of their change depending on insignificant factors not taken into account in the analysis. Teaching students analysis and synthesis involves the formation of their ability to think practically: decompose an object into its component parts, highlight the essential aspects of an object, study each part (side) as an element of a single whole, combine parts of an object into a whole.
V. Conclusion
A good school is good, a smart school is great, but the child must also be prepared for life. This is facilitated by developmental education.
Developing education has significantly changed the view of the psychological and pedagogical community on the age-related possibilities and patterns of children's mental development. The central position of the theory of developmental education, which can be regarded as a psychological and pedagogical discovery, is that a modern junior student can break away from the fetters of a narrow worldly (so-called empirical) attitude to things and phenomena and rise to the heights of theoretical generalizations, while relying on available to him the experience of understanding the surrounding reality. The system of developmental education is distinguished by faith in each child, in his strength. At the same time, it is taken into account that the development of each child is uneven - sometimes slowly, sometimes abruptly - depending on his individual characteristics, higher nervous system, his experience, etc. The system accepts the child as he is, seeing in each adult with his own characteristics, mindset and character.
The main goal of developmental education is to prepare students for independent creative development of knowledge, the search for truth, as well as for independence in everyday life (the ability to "live with your own mind").
The pedagogy of developing education in the context of developing pedagogical systems of education is the most important link in national education, in its movement from the past to the future, an important manifestation of the educational revolution of the 21st century.
Literature:
1.Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology: Sat. scientific works. - M., 1991.
2. Makhmutov M.I. Problem-Based Learning: Basic Issues of Theory. - M.: Pedagogy, 1975. - 368 p.
3. Babansky Yu.K. Problems of improving the effectiveness of pedagogical research. - M.: Pedagogy, 1982. - 191s.
4. Dusavitsky A.K. Personal development in educational activities - M., 2003
5. Intellectual development and universal environment / Materials of the All-Russian Scientific and Methodological Conference / RSUH. - M.: 2007.
6. Davydov V.V. Problems of developing education. - M., 1986
7. Subetto A.I. Systemological foundations of educational systems. 1994
8. Potashkina A. Developmental education. Digest of articles. - M.: 2007.
9. Fridman L.N. The problem of learning and development in modern conditions of the psychology of education // Phoenix, 2002, No. 3
10. Elkonin D.B. Selected psychological works. M., 1989.
The monograph also considers the psychological and pedagogical foundations of problem-developing education, which can influence the creation of methodological tools for the implementation of developmental education in school practice. Some issues of the theory of mental development of modern children are highlighted, a psychological and pedagogical description of the main types of their activities is given with the involvement of experimental materials, the content and structure of educational activities are considered, through which the theoretical consciousness and thinking are formed in schoolchildren. For specialists in the field of psychology and pedagogy.
Chapter I. Basic Concepts of Modern Psychology
1. Dialectical-materialistic origins of the psychological concept of activity
2. Activity, psyche and consciousness
Chapter II. Problems of mental development of children
1. Education and training as a general form of development of the child's psyche
2. The main periods of the mental development of the child
3. Personal development in childhood
Chapter III. The theory of empirical thinking in educational psychology
1. The theory of empirical generalization and rational-empirical thinking
2. Using the theory of empirical thinking in the construction of educational subjects
Chapter IV. The main provisions of the dialectical-materialist theory of thinking
1.Practical activity as the basis of human thinking
2.Ideal as a reflection of the subject. The peculiarity of human sensibility
3.Features of empirical thinking
4. About the specific content of theoretical thinking
5. Modeling as a means of scientific thinking
6. Sensual and rational in thinking
7. Way of ascending from the abstract to the concrete
8. Features of meaningful generalization and theoretical thinking
Chapter V. Educational activities at primary school age
1. Some questions of the history of educational activity
Chapter VI. Mental development of younger students in the process of educational activities
1. Connection of the theory of educational activity with the construction of educational subjects
2.Features of experimental subjects in elementary school
3. Development of the psyche of younger students in the process of experimental learning
Conclusion
Appendix: From the history of general and child psychology
1. Views of L. S. Vygotsky on the determination of individual human consciousness
2. The concepts of activity and the psyche in the works of A. N. Leontiev
3. Theoretical and methodological ideas in the psychological teaching of A. R. Luria
Subject index
name index
Foreword
INTRODUCTION
Based on the results of many years of experimental and theoretical research, it is impossible not to conclude that the significant problems of modern psychology, especially in such areas as developmental and educational psychology, are the problems of developmental education and upbringing. The general orientation of pedagogical thought and practice will largely depend on their successful development. The essence of these problems can be briefly expressed as follows: do the processes of his mental development determine the training and upbringing of a person, and if they do, is it possible to establish what is the nature of the connection between training and upbringing and mental development? In other words, is it possible to assert that there is a developmental education and upbringing, and if so, what are its patterns? In everyday life, these problems sometimes take the form of a question: is it possible, through training and education, to form in a person certain mental abilities or qualities that he did not have before?
In the history of psychology, several theories have been created on the problems under consideration, each of which was based on the data of the corresponding pedagogical practice, on the materials obtained in the experiment. Conventionally, these theories can be divided into two groups. Supporters of one of them deny any significant influence exerted by training and education on the mental development of a person, that is, they deny the very existence of developing training and education. Supporters of the views of another group of theories recognize the decisive role of training and education in the mental development of a person and strive to study the patterns of developmental training and education. Each of these two main groups of theories has different variants. It should be noted that the teaching and upbringing methods adopted in various educational institutions are somehow connected with these theories, and therefore, practicing teachers who are guided by such methods, consciously or unconsciously, fully or incompletely implement certain provisions of any of specified groups of theories.
Soviet public education is now going through a significant period associated with the desire and necessity to raise all teaching and educational work to a qualitatively new level, determined by the requirements of the reform of general education and vocational schools. In the course of school reform it will be necessary to carry out a number of significant economic, social and pedagogical measures. One of these activities involves the development of "scientific and psychological recommendations on the problems of the comprehensive development of the individual at all levels of education and upbringing of children from preschool age." The implementation of school reform is one way or another connected with problems, the successful solution of which will depend on the conscious application by psychologists, didacticists, methodologists, teachers and educators of theories that affect the relationship between teaching and upbringing and the mental development of children.
In our opinion, only a theory that takes into account the developmental role of education and upbringing in the formation of a child's personality and is focused on finding those psychological and pedagogical means that can have a significant impact both on the overall mental development of children and on development of their special abilities.
It is this theory that corresponds to the general direction of school reform, determined by a long-term scientific program. The program provides for a decisive improvement in the labor education of children on a polytechnical basis, taking into account the principle of combining schoolchildren's education with their productive work, which will make it possible to form and develop in them a vital need for socially useful work. The program also provides for such an improvement in the entire educational process, which will be aimed at more effective comprehensive and harmonious development of the personality of children, for which it is necessary to coordinate efforts for their ideological and political, labor, moral and physical education.
In the process of improving developed socialism, such socio-pedagogical conditions for the upbringing and education of the rising generations are created that are directly aimed at the all-round and harmonious development of the child's personality. In the real social practice of socialism, the development of problems in the upbringing and education of children is inextricably linked with the solution of problems for their development, and theoretical studies designed to solve the problems of developmental education and upbringing must reflect this social practice in a scientific form. This is the vital importance and relevance of studying a number of problems in psychological science, which are discussed in this book.
Soviet psychological science has a single methodological basis—dialectical and historical materialism. The interpretation of the content of its concepts is based on Marxist-Leninist philosophy, taking into account the specifics of the subject of psychology.
It should, however, be recognized that within the framework of this single philosophical and methodological basis, several scientific schools have developed in the history of Soviet psychology, which interpret a number of specific psychological problems in different ways and offer their own ways of solving them. At the same time, on many specific issues, representatives of these schools hold scientific positions common to all of them.
Among these schools, a special place is occupied by the scientific school of L. S. Vygotsky, one of the outstanding Soviet psychologists and creators of Marxist psychology. The author of this book was lucky for many years to be in scientific communication with the students and followers of L. S. Vygotsky - A. R. Luria, A. N. Leontiev, A. V. Zaporozhets, A. I. Meshcheryakov, D. B. Elkonin, P. Ya. Galperin and others. One of the followers of L. S. Vygotsky considered himself the Soviet philosopher E. V. Ilyenkov, with whom I was connected by a joint scientific work. The views of the above scientists unite - for all the scientific originality of each of them - the principles of psychological theory, which were laid down in the 20-30s. L. S. Vygotsky and which they followed in developing the problems of Soviet psychology. Based on these principles, the scientific school of L. S. Vygotsky was created, formalized and continues to develop. The approach presented to the reader's attention to many psychological problems, including the problems of developmental education, is connected, in our opinion, with the principles and starting points of this school. Some of these provisions are set out in this book (see Appendix)
The fundamental concept of Soviet psychology is the concept of activity, the origins of which are connected with materialist dialectics. In our opinion, L. S. Vygotsky was one of the first Soviet scientists who introduced this concept into psychological theory. Many Soviet psychologists subsequently analyzed and developed its content in their research on general psychology. A particularly large contribution to the development of the content of this concept was made by S. L. Rubinshtein and A. N. Leontiev.
The essence of the dialectical-materialistic philosophical and psychological concept of activity is that it reflects the attitude of the human subject as a social being to external reality, mediated by the process of its transformation and change. The initial and general form of such an attitude is purposeful instrumental transformations and changes by the social subject of sensory-objective reality or the material and production practice of people. This is their creative labor activity, on the basis of which various forms of people's spiritual activity (cognitive, artistic, religious, etc.) arise and develop in the history of society. However, any of these derivative forms of activity is invariably associated with one or another transformation by the subject of one or another object that has an ideal form.
The individual subject, through appropriation, reproduces within himself socio-historical forms of activity. The genetically initial type of appropriation is the participation of an individual in a collective, socially significant performance of an activity with its subject-external organization. Thanks to the process of internalization, the performance of this activity becomes individual, and the means of organizing it become internal. An important feature of both external and internal human activity is its objective nature, since the collective and individual subject of activity in the process of satisfying needs transforms the objective sphere of his life. Human activity has a complex structure - it includes such components as needs, motives, goals, tasks, actions and operations that are in constant interconnections and transformations.
The concept of activity is internally connected with the concept of the ideal. The ideal is the formation of an object in the activity of the subject in the form of needs, goals, and images that arise in him. The plan of the ideal, which exists in a person as a social being due to the presence of linguistic meanings and other sign-symbolic formations, allows him to foresee, foresee and test possible actions to actually achieve an objective result that satisfies the need. The manner and nature of these actions is determined by their conscious purpose.
The social or collective life of a person allows him, using the means of an ideal plan, to separate his activity from himself and present it as a special object that can be changed even before its real implementation is carried out. Then a person can see, evaluate and discuss his own activity from the positions of other members of the team. An individual person forms in his own activity an ideal representation of the positions of other people. The reproduction by a person of the ideal image of his activity and the ideal representation of the positions of other people in it can be called consciousness. Consciousness cannot be considered in isolation from the ideal and activity; they are in an inseparable unity with the dominant importance of activity in it. However, each of these formations and all of them together can be understood only by revealing the totality of social relations as the essence of man.
The mental development of a person is, first of all, the formation of his activity, consciousness and, of course, all the mental processes “serving” them (cognitive processes, emotions, etc.). The development of the psyche occurs throughout a person's life - from birth to death. One of the main tasks of developmental and educational psychology is to uncover and formulate a scientifically based periodization of mental development, to single out individual age periods of a person's mental life. Since the “core” of mental development is the process of formation of activity, it is probably necessary to put a change in activity as the basis for its periodization - it is thanks to its dynamics that a person’s consciousness is formed. For each age period, as is known, the main or leading type of activity is characteristic. Therefore, on the one hand, by identifying these types of activity, it is possible to single out the corresponding age periods of mental development, on the other hand, by determining the sequence of leading types of activity, it is possible to trace and describe the genetic continuity of all age periods and, as a result, be able to consider the main features of the development of the human psyche .
Before psychology, which adheres to the approach we have outlined to the problem of human development, a difficult task arises - to demonstrate and explain how, on the basis of any leading type of activity correlated with a certain age period, the corresponding levels of human mental development are formed.
It should be recognized that the problems mentioned above are still very poorly developed (especially if they are considered experimentally). At the same time, some of them have serious theoretical grounds for intensive research. This applies, in particular, to the study of the problem of the general driving forces of human mental development. There is evidence that allows us to assert that this development is a reproduction by the individual of historically established types of activity and the abilities corresponding to them, which is realized in the process of their appropriation. Thus, appropriation (it can be interpreted as a process of education and training in a broad sense) is a universal form of human mental development. This position provides general guidelines for the experimental and theoretical study of the problem of developmental education and upbringing (the practical significance of its development was discussed above). We note that at present, factual data have already accumulated that allow us to think about its solvability in principle.
In accordance with the above understanding of the essence of the problems of developmental education, this book is constructed, in which certain issues of general, child (age-related) and pedagogical psychology are considered with a single methodological coverage. We note that our understanding of the above problems and the proposed ways of studying them are sometimes debatable. A number of issues discussed in the book are still really far from a solution acceptable to all. We posed and considered these questions, relying on many years of experience in studying them, on some results of their experimental development.
Chapter I is devoted to the analysis of general psychological concepts of activity, ideal, consciousness. Consideration of the problems of developmental education shows that the correct approach to them involves the involvement and adequate use of these basic psychological concepts.
Chapter II deals with the problems of the general mental development of children, without proper disclosure of which it is difficult to formulate the real essence of issues related to developmental education and training.
The materials of Chapter III concretize the general understanding of how real difficulties arise in the history of education, didactics and educational psychology when trying to correctly solve the problem of the connection between the mental development of children and their learning. We traced this on the example of an analysis of the reasons for the one-sided consideration of the features of the rational-empirical thinking of children, which took place in the history of primary education.
Chapter IV sets out the main provisions of dialectical logic, revealing the nature of human thinking. Two main types of it were singled out - rational-empirical and theoretical thinking and the corresponding types of abstractions, generalizations and concepts, as well as the specific content of theoretical thinking and its inherent way of solving cognitive problems and forming new knowledge, which is usually called the way of ascent from the abstract to specific. We note that it is this type of human thinking that most corresponds, as it seems to us, to the essence of the dialectical-materialistic worldview.
Chapter V describes the history of educational activity, which determines the development of consciousness, thinking and personality of the child in primary school age. The content of educational activity is theoretical knowledge, the assimilation of which is carried out by children in solving educational (or problematic) tasks through special actions (transforming the conditions of the task, modeling, control, evaluation, etc.).
Chapter VI is devoted to one of the main problems of the book - demonstrating that in the process of assimilation by younger schoolchildren of educational subjects built in accordance with the requirements of extensive educational activity, many children form important components of theoretical consciousness and thinking earlier than with "ordinary" education. This circumstance, which testifies to the developmental nature of the educational activity of younger schoolchildren, should, in our opinion, be taken into account in the process of further improvement of primary education.
In the materials on the school reform, attention is drawn to the need to raise the ideological and theoretical level of the teaching and upbringing process, develop independent thinking among schoolchildren, and form persistent materialistic views. The formulated tasks also apply to elementary school, which, at the same time, is designed to form the skills of fluent, conscious, expressive reading, counting, literate writing, and developed speech in younger students. The listed general and specific tasks of the elementary school can be solved, in our opinion, more successfully in the conditions of the implementation by younger students of an expanded and full-fledged educational activity that is of a developmental nature.
The solution of the problem of intensifying the educational process at school, a significant increase in its level, can be largely facilitated by the use of computers for educational purposes. Of great importance is the psychological and pedagogical support of the computerization of school education. At present, there is already some experience in developing such software aimed at including computers in the integral structure of schoolchildren's educational activities.
At the end of the monograph, the reader is offered short essays that examine the main positions of the psychological theory of L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria and A. N. Leontiev, their contribution to the development of Soviet psychological science. The materials of these essays reveal the theoretical and methodological meaning of the provisions developed by them, which will allow the reader to create a more holistic view of the new that was introduced by them in the development of the foundations of general, child and educational psychology. A number of problems that have arisen within the framework of the views of representatives of this school affect the essential issues of the relationship of training and education with the mental development of a person (the state of development of some of these issues requires further research)
The book offered to the reader is written taking into account the results of our new theoretical and experimental studies. At the same time, it includes, in an abbreviated and revised form, the materials of our earlier published works, in particular, some sections of the monograph Types of Generalization in Teaching (1972). The author hopes that the reader, having familiarized himself with the contents of this book, will get a fairly complete picture of the ways of developing the problems of developmental education and some related issues.
I am very grateful to Professor D. B. Elkonin, Corresponding Member of the APS of the USSR, for the help and assistance that he provided me with the creation of this book. D. B. Elkonin was, as you know, the initiator and inspirer of many studies on child and educational psychology, in particular those , some of the results of which are presented in this book. I express my sincere gratitude to the staff of the laboratory of psychology of children of primary school age of the Research Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology of the APN 'USSR for the help they provided to the author in preparing for the publication of experimental materials, as well as to the administration and teachers of the experimental Moscow school No. 91 of the USSR APS and Kharkov school No. 4 , on the basis of which a long-term study of the problems of developmental education was carried out under our leadership.
"On the Reform of the General Education and Vocational School: Collection of Documents and Materials". M., 1984, p. 73.
See: ibid., p. 4445, 50-51, etc.
They are discussed in expanded form in the introductory article and afterwords to each volume of the Collected Works of L. S. Vygotsky (see: Vygotsky L. S. Sobr. soch. T. 1-6. M., 1982-1984), as well as in numerous publications devoted to his scientific work.
See: On the reform of general education and vocational schools, p. 40, 47, 65, etc.
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The problem of developmental education is of interest to teachers of many generations: Ya.A. Comenius and Zh.Zh. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi and I.F. Herbart, K.D. Ushinsky and others. In Soviet times, it was intensively developed by psychologists and educators L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankov, V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, N.A. Menchinskaya, as well as A.K. Dusavitsky, N.F. Talyzina, V.V. Repkin, S.D. Maksimenko and others. Naturally, at different historical times, researchers unequally represent and interpret the very concept of developmental education. The complexity and, at the same time, the positive side of the development of this topic lies in the organic, natural combination of the problems of pedagogy and psychology: learning is a component of didactics, while development is a psychological process. In recent decades, and later in the post-Soviet period, in Russia and Belarus, there have been two main directions in the theoretical study and practical implementation of developmental education: a) according to L.V. Zankov and b) according to V.V. Davydov - D.B. Elkonin. In this sequence, we will briefly describe them.
Starting experimental work (1957), L.V. Zankov and his laboratory analyzed and critically evaluated the content and traditional methods of teaching in the primary grades. It was found that the educational material is facilitated, its study proceeds at a slow pace, the theoretical knowledge of children is scarce, repeated repetitions are subject] to the instillation of skills and do not contribute to the intensive development of schoolchildren. Verbalism prevails in teaching, the development of memory occurs to the detriment of the development of thinking, internal motivations for learning are poorly used, unified teaching suppresses the manifestation of individuality.
To create an experimental didactic system, it was necessary to define the meaning of development as a scientific and pedagogical, and not just a psychological concept. Then it was necessary to study the patterns of correlation between development and training. And the main, guiding idea was the idea of the greatest effectiveness of training for the overall development of schoolchildren. There are also two points to be emphasized in this idea. Firstly, it contains the concept of L.S. Vygotsky about the leading role of teaching in the development of the psyche (training leads development), about the zones of actual and immediate development. Secondly, the concept of general development itself had not been precisely defined until then. The fact is that the general development involves the formation of intellectual abilities, and spiritual growth, and moral development, and the improvement of physical (bodily) strength. But all this theoretically rigorously and precisely has not been determined. And therefore, most likely, we are talking about the ratio of education and the overall development of the psyche of children.
In developing education, it is important to determine the ratio of the whole and the parts, in which L.V. Zankov puts forward the primacy of the whole, emphasizes “the special role of the integrity of pedagogical influence for the development of children.” Another point is the complexity of the pedagogical impact on schoolchildren of all academic subjects, methods, techniques, more precisely, the entire didactic system of education, in particular primary.
During the experiment, L.V. Zankov developed original didactic principles, there are 5 of them.
1. Training at a high level of difficulty. It involves overcoming obstacles, straining the forces of students, the complexity of the educational material. This principle reveals "the spiritual powers of the child, gives them space and direction."
It is essential that the assimilation of knowledge leads to their rethinking, systematization, which has a complex structure. At the same time, the degree of difficulty is regulated so that the proposed educational material can be comprehended by the student. Resorting to everyday comparison, we can say that not a single athlete will physically develop and achieve high results only on easy exercises. And in mental and general development, only mental work that requires effort will ensure success.
2. The leading role of theoretical knowledge (in primary education). This principle involves the assimilation of applied knowledge on the basis of meaningful theoretical concepts, in the knowledge of the interdependence of phenomena, their essential internal connection.
3. Learning at a fast pace. This follows from the principle of a high level of difficulty and it is directed against “marking time”, against constant unproductive, in the sense of moving forward, repetitions. This does not mean that it is necessary to give more new information in the lesson and completely abandon the formation of skills. This principle has mainly a qualitative rather than a quantitative characteristic and involves the disclosure of various aspects of the acquired knowledge, their deepening.
4. Students' awareness of the learning process. Although this principle is close to the principle of consciousness known in traditional education (according to S.V. Ivanov, M.N. Skatkin, D.O. Lordkipanidze, Sh.I. Ganelin, M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov and etc.), but differs from the traditional interpretation. This difference is the following. The principle of consciousness is turned outward and has in mind the meaningful acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. The principle of awareness, according to L.V. Zankov, turned inward, i.e. on the course of educational activities. The student is aware of the location of the educational material, the need to memorize its specific elements, to find out the causes of errors, if any. So the very process of mastering knowledge and skills to some extent “becomes an object of awareness”.
5. Purposeful and systematic work on the overall development of all students, including the weak. Such work leads to great shifts in academic success and development of weak students.
The study of the problems of developmental education was carried out for 12 years. Its practical result was the reduction of the period of primary education by one year. Since 1969, schools throughout the country have switched to a three-year education instead of a four-year one. Education was conducted according to programs and textbooks prepared on the basis of a new didactic system according to L.Z. Zankov. Now in the schools of Belarus and Russia, at the new stage of the reform of school education, this didactic system is being developed and improved.
L.V. Zankov does not consider the didactic system developed by him to be the only one. Other didactic systems are also possible, which will be the same or even more effective than L.V. Zankov and, moreover, than traditional methods.
One of these areas is the theory (concept) of V.V. Davydova - D.B. Elkonin about developmental education. Its features and advantages will become apparent in comparison with the traditional methodology and information-illustrative type of teaching.
With the traditional type of learning, three components determine its essence: display -> explanation - ^- control. The student has a goal: to master the methods of solving problems provided for by the program; learn the rules, with great accuracy reproduce what you have learned. This is, in fact, a reproducing (reproductive) type of learning. With such a system of education, there is no interaction between students: you can’t talk or suggest in the lesson. The efforts of the teacher and students are aimed at the development of memory, but their general development is not focused on. This may be a somewhat exaggerated scheme of an explanatory (information)-illustrated type, but in principle it is correct.
In developing education, according to V.V. Davydov, these shortcomings of the educational process cannot take place. This training is characterized by such features that are fundamentally different from the traditional one.
The basis of developmental education is (should be!) a system of scientific concepts. Here are the arguments.
The content of education is made up of elements of the historical experience of mankind. Students master them in the learning process. And then there is such a chain: this experience reflects methods of action that have common principles for their construction. In turn, these principles are fixed in scientific concepts. To know and understand them and master them means to be able to “find effective ways to solve ... new problems, go beyond the limits of existing experience” (N. Repkina). Therefore, the basis of the content of training should be a system of scientific concepts.
The assimilation of knowledge, skills and the development of skills are not the ultimate goal, but only a means of developing students. Based on the psychological theory of activity (A.N. Leontiev, P.Ya. Galperin, A.V. Zaporozhets, etc.), the processes of mastering knowledge and skills are included in the context of educational activity. In this case, the overall development of the child is not limited to the development of his cognitive functions (perception, memory, thinking, etc.). To the fore, according to B.D. Elkonin, his formation “as a subject of various types and forms of human activity” (V. Repkin) is put forward. The essence of learning activity is the child's self-change of himself as a subject. In other words, a student involved in the process of learning activity as a subject changes himself completely, not limited to the development of only cognitive abilities. developmental learning didactic
The traditional class-lesson form is not suitable for solving the problems of developmental education, because the latter is aimed not at the assimilation of ready-made knowledge, but at the assimilation of educational material through research. In it, the student acts as a subject of search activity. To do this, the student needs an opponent. He will have it in a collective dialogue. Then cooperation is manifested both between students and between the teacher and students as equal subjects of educational activity. In the process of developing education, the type of thinking changes qualitatively from concrete-figurative to abstract-logical, and later to theoretical.
So, the specific result of developmental education is the free development of each student as a subject of learning and as a person. Free development is one that is not subject to a predetermined norm, it has no standard. The results of developmental education are judged by shifts in the development of each individual student.
Developing education complements, rather than rejects, traditional and other types of education, for example, pedagogical technology, explanatory (informational) - illustrative education, since each of them solves specific problems.
The similarity of the ideas of developmental education, according to L.V. Zankov and V.V. Davydov - D.B. Elkonin, boils down to the following: their goals are the overall development of the student, not only cognitive processes; the student is an active subject of educational activity; the teacher is the organizer of the collective search activity; knowledge, skills and abilities are not the ultimate goal of learning, but a means of general development.
The difference between these areas of developmental education lies in the fact that, according to L.V. Zankov, goes from the particular to the general, while according to Davydov V.V. -- from abstract concepts to the concrete.
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