Pestalozzi biography briefly. Pedagogical ideas of Johann Pestalozzi
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi(1746-1827) - an outstanding Swiss democratic teacher, humanist. He devoted more than 50 years of his life to the upbringing and education of children. He is called "the creator of the children's kingdom." On the niche with his bust above the grave is inscribed: "Deliverer of the poor. People's Preacher. Father of orphans. Founder of the public school. Educator of humanity. Human. Citizen. Everything for others. Nothing for myself" .
I.G. Pestalozzi made a significant contribution to the development of the theory and practice of education and training, the development of humane pedagogy.
A significant difference between I.G. Pestalozzi from most of his predecessors was that he derived his pedagogical ideas from practice and tried to test their effectiveness in the activities of educational institutions that he himself opened. The first of these was a school for the children of the poor, which he opened on his small estate Neuhof (1774-1780), then for one year he headed an orphanage in the town of Stanz (1798-1799), finally, he led educational institutions at Burgdoff (1800–1804) and Yverdon (1805–1825). The last two were boarding schools, where teachers of public schools were also trained at the same time. Children from various European countries studied at the Yverdon "Institute" - so great was the fame of I.G. Pestalozzi, primarily due to his literary works of a pedagogical nature.
In the work of I.G. Pestalozzi How Gertrude teaches her children. Letters from Heinrich Pestalozzi an attempt was made to instruct mothers how to teach their own children. This work brought fame to Pestalozzi as the creator of a new teaching method, includes 14 letters addressed to the book publisher G. Gessner. The book, in which the author seeks to show how he came to those basic pedagogical ideas on which the "method" is based and to give its corresponding theoretical justification, was published in 1801. The specific disclosure of the "method" itself should have been, according to the plan of the Swiss teacher , to follow in the training books themselves.
In Russian, the letters "How Gertrude Teaches Her Children" were first published in 1895.
The main work of Pestalozzi, dedicated to the method of mental education of preschool children - "The Book of Mothers, or a Guide for Mothers, How to Teach Their Children to Observe and Speak" was published in 1803.
Pestalozzi co-wrote it with his collaborator Cruzi. Initially, Pestalozzi wanted to publish a series of captioned pictures under this title. Many engravings were commissioned, but, as Cruzy writes about this in his memoirs, observations of children convinced Pestalozzi that they were more interested in real objects. In an effort to satisfy this need of children, Pestalozzi is looking for a center around which subject teaching could be united, and comes to the conclusion that at first such a center should be the body of the child himself, as the closest. The Book of Mothers represents the implementation of this idea by Pestalozzi. In it, step by step, the mother introduces the child to the parts of his own body, their number, the connection between them and their purpose.
The book was published in Russian in 1806.
Pestalozzi attached great importance to the "Book of Mothers", establishing a successive connection between the "World in Pictures" by Ya.A. Comenius and "Emile" J.-J. Rousseau.
Pestalozzi's teaching institutions in Burgdorf and especially in Yverdon gained international fame. A number of prominent figures, as well as teachers from many European countries, came to study the work of I.G. Pestalozzi and his "method". Among them we can mention the English utopian socialist R. Owen, the German philosopher I.G. Fichte, the famous German philosopher and theorist of pedagogy I.F. Herbart, Russian teachers F.I. Buslaeva, A.G. Obodovsky, M.M. Timaeva and others. And although some of them, such as I.F. Herbart, criticized certain aspects of the "method", but everyone was in solidarity with the aspiration of I.G. Pestalozzi humanizes upbringing and promotes the development of the child.
Pestalozzi raised the question of the role of education in the development of the child as one of the most important pedagogical problems: "The hour of a child's birth is the first hour of his education."
Education can be successful only if it is natural in nature, that is, it is carried out in accordance with the characteristics of human nature itself and the laws of its development. Education is natural only if it contributes to the development of the potential internal forces inherent in the nature of the child.
According to Pestalozzi's deep conviction, school education should have a developmental character and "work out the whole person", promote the development of "mind, heart and hand." “The eye wants to look, the ear wants to hear, the leg wants to walk, and the hand wants to grab. But the heart also wants to believe and love. The mind wants to think. In any inclination of human nature lies a natural desire to get out of the state of lifelessness and ineptness and become a developed force, which in an undeveloped state is embedded in us only in the form of its embryo, and not the force itself. This aspect of Pestalozzi's pedagogical theory is connected with the idea of developmental education developed by him, which K.D. Ushinsky called "Pestalozzi's great discovery."
Pestalozzi seeks and finds a method that would enable the educator to develop the natural forces of the child. Pestalozzi's method is designed by him in a slender theory of elementary education . It is called elementary, since it requires that the educator, in carrying out the natural development of the child's mental, physical and moral powers, always proceed from the initial foundations of education, from its simplest elements to the complex ones.
elementary education implies such an organization of learning, in which the simplest elements are distinguished in the objects of cognition and activity, which allows you to constantly move from simple to more and more complex, bringing children's knowledge to possible perfection. The teacher identifies the following simple elements of cognitive activity: number (the simplest element of a number is one), shape (the simplest element of a form is a line), names of objects indicated using words (the simplest element of a word is sound).
The purpose of training I.G. Pestalozzi defines it as the excitation of the mind of children to vigorous activity, the development of their cognitive abilities, the development of their ability to think logically and briefly express in words the essence of the concepts they have learned. In this way, "method of elementary education"- this is a certain system of exercises for the development of a child's abilities based on the principles of natural conformity, visibility, consistency and gradualness, as well as taking into account the psychological characteristics of children of different ages. Pestalozzi developed this technique, guided by the following ideas:
1) a child from birth has inclinations, internal potential forces, which are characterized by a desire for development;
2) the many-sided and diverse activity of children in the learning process is the basis for the development and improvement of internal forces, their mental development;
3) the activity of the child in cognitive activity is a necessary condition for the assimilation of knowledge, a more perfect knowledge of the world.
Pestalozzi closely connected mental education with moral education and puts forward the requirements of educative education. It is progressive to raise the issue of two-sided learning: it: 1) contributes to the accumulation of knowledge; 2) develops mental abilities.
Developing the idea of developmental education and elementary education, the teacher became one of the founders of formal education: he considered the subjects studied more as a means of developing abilities than as a means of acquiring knowledge.
Cognition begins with sensory observation and ascends through the processing of representations to ideas that are in the mind of a person as forming forces, although they are in an obscure state. Without arousal amateur performances, without the manifestation of activity, both mentally and physically and morally, Pestalozzi did not consider it possible to carry out the natural development of the child. This position of an outstanding teacher, as well as the idea of developmental education, became innovative for his time, enriched pedagogical science. The state of complete self-activity, to which a child who has left the care of his mother aspires, manifests itself, Pestalozzi believed, in three directions: “In the moral sense, this is self-activity in love; in the mental, self-activity of thinking; in the physical, self-activity of the body.”
Education program
The purpose of education- the development of a moral personality, the formation of humanity.
Labor education - arming the child with the skills of agricultural and handicraft work.
Mental education - the formation of the ability to count, measure and master the word. The simplest elements of knowledge are number, shape, word.
Physical education is the development of the physical forces inherent in nature and the corresponding skills. The simplest element is the movement of the joints.
Moral education is the formation of humanity, nationality, wisdom, diligence, humility, humility. Means - exercises in actions, a method of influencing the living impressions of children. The simplest element is the love of the child for the mother.
The purpose and essence of education is to develop all the natural forces and abilities of a person.
Pestalozzi defended the universal goals and objectives of education, believing that it is designed to promote the development of all natural forces and abilities in every child. In his pedagogical writings, Pestalozzi repeatedly emphasized that the nature of a child crawling in the dust "is no different from the nature of the" prince's son ".
Pestalozzi entered the history of pedagogy and as one of the successors and followers of the ideas of Ya.A. Comenius, the founders of the methodology of primary education. The methodology of primary education he created contributed to the development of a mass public school.
Key dates of life and activity
1746 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich.
1769-1774 - an experiment in Neuhof on the conduct of a model economy.
1775-1780 - creation and operation of the "Institution for the Poor" in Neuhof.
1789 - work in an orphanage in Stanz.
1800-1826 - leadership of the Burgdorf and Yverdon educational institutions.
1827 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi dies.
Main works
1781-1787 - "Lingard and Gertrude".
1801 - "How Gertrude teaches her children."
1826 - "Swan Song".
Friedrich Froebel - the creator of the kindergarten
The increased attention to the education of all segments of the population, the contradictions and problems of pedagogical practice were reflected in pedagogical thought. On the one hand, pedagogical thinking was based on the widespread use of pedagogy by Ya.A. Komensky, D. Locke, I.G. Pestalozzi. On the other hand, it was often combined with the extreme schematicity of theoretical constructions, with the justification of authoritarian principles and teaching methods. Despite these contradictions, the Western European pedagogical thought of the 19th century left a significant mark on the history of pedagogy. This is connected, first of all, with the names of outstanding German teachers - Friedrich Froebel and Friedrich Adolf Diesterweg.
Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) a German teacher, a follower of I.G. Pestalozzi, who went down in history as the creator of the original system of public preschool education, the organizer of a new type of preschool institutions - kindergartens that are widely used all over the world.
Froebel outlined the main provisions of his theory in the pedagogical essay The Education of Man (1826). In this work, Froebel reveals his own views on the essence of personality development, the ways of education, its originality at different stages of childhood. The book, which included sections: 1. Introduction, 2. Infant, 3. Child, 4. Youth, 5. School, 6. Family and school, had a great influence on the development of the pedagogy of public preschool education.
Froebel also emphasized that man is inherently a creator. Education is designed to identify and develop in a person the corresponding creative inclinations. Froebel formulated several laws of education: the self-disclosure of the divine principle in the human soul, the progressive development of man and the law of natural conformity. In his development, the teacher believed, the child creatively repeats the historical stages of the genesis of human consciousness.
In 1943, Froebel published "Mother's and caressing songs", in 1844 his "One Hundred Songs for Ball Games" was published. After Froebel's death, the book "Kindergarten" published by him was compiled from periodicals published by him. The book, consisting of 20 chapters, includes "Gifts of games", "Construction songs" and other works previously published by him
F. Froebel set as his goal the philosophical substantiation of the phenomena of the pedagogical process. He conducted extensive educational, social and pedagogical activities, was a wonderful teacher of children in the school and preschool institutions he organized. A student and follower of Pestalozzi, he went his own way, developing his ideas about visibility, elementary education.
Froebel's pedagogical system took shape under the influence of German classical philosophy of the early 19th century (Fichte, Hegel, Schelling). Being inspired by their ideas, the teacher wrote: “Education should lead in practice and lead a person to clear self-consciousness, to peaceful self-consciousness, to peaceful communion with nature and to unity with God, thus, it should lead a person to self-knowledge.”
The center of the Froebel pedagogical system is game theory. According to Froebel, child's play - mirror of life and free expression of the inner world, bridge from the inner world to nature. Nature was presented as a single and diverse sphere. A ball, a cube, a cylinder and other objects that personify the sphericity of nature are the means by which a connection is established between the baby's inner world and the outer world - the environment. For the development of a child at an early age, game didactic material was offered - the so-called Froebel gifts.
With children of preschool age, Froebel worked in his "Universal German Educational Institute", where there were classes for young children. He opened the first preschool institution "for the development of creative stimulation of activity in children and adolescents" in 1837 in Thuringia in the city of Blankenburg. In 1840 it was renamed "Kindergarten".
Froebel based his pedagogical theory on the understanding of development as a continuous process of revealing the divine essence of a person, his drives, instincts and creative amateur activity - in speech, in games, in construction, visual, labor activity; understanding of cognition as a process of awakening dormant internal forces through sensory experience, movements.
The purpose of education- development of the natural abilities of the child.
Attaching great importance to children's activities, Froebel developed the theory of play, collected and methodically commented on outdoor games, developed various visual, labor activities in a certain, strictly regulated system, created the famous "The gifts"- a manual for the development of building skills in unity with the knowledge of shape, size, size, spatial relationships, numbers; closely connected the development of speech with all the activities of the child, gave her theory and methodology.
Froebel acted not only as a theorist and organizer of the first preschool institutions, but also as an organizer of pedagogical education for the teachers of the first preschool institutions, the so-called "Föbel girls". The training of educators also gained European distribution, and "Froebel societies" were created, which were engaged in the dissemination of Froebel's ideas and the training of teachers for preschool institutions.
Thus, Froebel presented for the first time in the history of preschool pedagogy an integral system of public preschool education of children and contributed to the separation of preschool pedagogy into an independent field of knowledge.
Main dates of life and activity:
April 21, 1782 - Friedrich Froebel was born into a pastor's family in Oberweisbach, a small village in the Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.
1792 - his uncle, pastor Hoffman in Ilm, took him to him. Sent to a city school, he studied poorly and was considered of little ability.
In 1797, he entered the apprenticeship with a forester in Neuhaus.
Since 1799 - listened to lectures in Jena on natural sciences and mathematics, but left the university.
November 13, 1816 - opened the first educational institution in Grisheim, organized according to his system.
In 1852 - Friedrich Froebelumer.
Main works:
1826 - "The Education of Man";
1843 - "Maternal and caressing songs";
after 1852 - "Kindergarten" (this book was compiled from periodicals published by him).
F. Diesterweg is an outstanding German pedagogue-democrat,
Essay on social work in Germany
"The Social and Pedagogical Activities of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi".
Introduction.
Brief biography of I.G. Pestalozzi.
The main provisions of the pedagogical theory of I.G. Pestalozzi.
The basis of Pestalozzi's didactics. Theory of elementary education.
Physical and labor education.
Moral education.
Mental education.
Creation of private methods of primary education.
The value of pedagogical theory J.G. Pestalozzi.
The relevance of the socio-pedagogical creativity of I.G. Pestalozzi in our days.
Literature.
Introduction.
Purpose of the study:
To reveal the significance of the socio-pedagogical activity of I.G. Pestalozzi in our days.
Get acquainted with the socio-pedagogical activities of I.G. Pestalozzi.
Get to know his works.
Based on the above, to summarize the significance of the socio-pedagogical creativity of I.G. Pestalozzi in our days.
I.G. Pestalozzi is a teacher-practitioner. He developed the general foundations and particular methods of primary education. The not always successful experience of Pestalozzi's pedagogical activity cannot belittle the significance of his ideas, their influence on the development of pedagogical thought. Pestalozzi's activities during his lifetime gained wide international fame. His legacy was highly appreciated by K.D. Ushinsky.
He was a populist in the best sense of the word. Pestalozzi ardently advocated the need for education for all classes, especially peasants. The dream of improving the situation of the people was embodied in specific economic and socio-pedagogical projects that did not stand the test of real socio-economic conditions. Insolvent economically, the projects of I.G. Pestalozzi was given invaluable pedagogical material.
Brief biography of I.G. Pestalozzi.
Switzerland is the birthplace of Pestalozzi. Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich in 1746. His father, a doctor, died early. The boy was raised by his mother and a devoted maid. The financial situation of the family was difficult. As a child, observing the life of the Swiss peasants, Pestalozzi saw how cruelly they were oppressed by the nobles - landowners, and the owners of manufactories, who distributed work to the peasants at home. The boy was imbued with the conviction that "all the evil comes from the city," and declared: "I will become a great help to the peasants."
Pestalozzi knew the works of the French Enlightenment well and read Rousseau's Emile for seventeen years. This book, like The Social Contract, made a great impression on the young man and strengthened his intention to selflessly serve the people.
The advanced youth of Zurich organized a circle called the Helvetian (i.e., Swiss) Furriers' Society (its meetings were held in the house of the tannery shop). The members of the circle, who called themselves "patriots", discussed the problems of morality, education, politics, and were engaged in exposing officials who robbed the peasants. In 1767, the circle was closed by the city authorities, and the young Pestalozzi, among its other members, was arrested. Without finishing the collegium, he decided to pursue his cherished dream of improving the situation of the people. In 1769 he began his social experiment. With the money he borrowed, he bought a small estate, which he called "Neigof" ("New Yard"), in which he wanted to organize a demonstration farm in order to teach the surrounding peasants how to rationally manage their household. Pestalozzi was an impractical and inexperienced owner, he soon went bankrupt.
In 1774, he opened the "Institution for the Poor" in Neuhof, in which he gathered up to fifty orphans and street children. According to Pestalozzi, his orphanage was supposed to be supported by funds earned by the children themselves. Pupils worked in the field, as well as on weaving and spinning looms. Pestalozzi himself taught children to read, write and count, was engaged in their education, and artisans taught them to spin and weave. Thus, Pestalozzi made attempts in his institution to combine the education of children with productive labor.
Pestalozzi wrote that he “wanted to use a significant part of the income received by the factory industry from human labor to create real educational institutions that would fully meet the needs of mankind ...” However, the work started by Pestalozzi, but not supported by those in whose hands it was political power and material means quickly perished. Children could recoup the orphanage in which they lived and worked with their labor only by excessive exertion of their physical strength, but, a humanist and democrat, Pestalozzi could not and did not want to exploit his pupils. He saw in child labor, first of all, a means of developing the physical strength, mental and moral abilities of children, he sought to give children not narrow craft skills, but versatile labor training.
This is the most important pedagogical significance of Pestalozzi's Neuhof experience. Lacking financial resources to continue his experiment, Pestalozzi was soon forced to close the orphanage. However, the failures that befell him did not dissuade him from his chosen path of helping the people.
For the next eighteen years, Pestalozzi was engaged in literary activity, trying to draw attention to the solution of the same topical issue: how to revive the economy of the peasants, make their life secure, how to raise the moral and mental state of the working people? He publishes the socio-pedagogical novel "Lingard and Gertrude" (1781-1787), in which he develops his ideas about improving peasant life through reasonable housekeeping methods and the proper upbringing of children.
The name Pestalozzi is gaining great fame. In 1792, the Legislative Assembly of revolutionary France awarded Pestalozzi among eighteen foreigners who glorified themselves as champions of freedom with the high rank of French citizen.
In 1798, a bourgeois revolution took place in Switzerland and the Helvetic (Swiss) Republic was created. When a counter-revolutionary uprising of peasants broke out in the city of Stanza, provoked by the nobility and the Catholic clergy, and after the suppression of the uprising many homeless children remained, the new government instructed Pestalozzi to organize an educational institution for them. In the building of the former monastery, Pestalozzi opened a shelter for the homeless, in which 80 children aged 5 to 10 were admitted. The condition of the children was both physically and morally the most terrible.
Pestalozzi strove to make the orphanage a big family, he became a caring father and best friend for the children.
In a letter to one of his friends about his stay in the Stanza, he subsequently wrote: “From morning to evening I was alone among them ... My hand lay in their hand, my eyes looked into their eyes. My tears flowed along with theirs, and my smile accompanied theirs. I had nothing: no home, no friends, no servants, there were only them. The pupils of the orphanage responded to the paternal care of Pestalozzi with sincere affection and love, which favored the successful implementation of their moral education.
Due to hostilities, the premises of the shelter were required for the infirmary, and the shelter was closed. Pestalozzi from 1799 began to carry out experimental work in the schools of Burgdorf. He proved that his method of teaching children literacy and numeracy had many advantages over traditional teaching methods, and the authorities gave him the opportunity to apply this method on a wider scale.
In Burgdorf, a secondary school was opened with a boarding school and with it a department for teacher training, headed by Pestalozzi. At the very beginning of the 19th century, his works were published: “How Gertrude Teaches Her Children”, “The Book of Mothers, or a Guide for Mothers on How to Teach Their Children to Observe and Speak”, “The ABC of Visualization, or the Visual Teaching about Measurement”, “Visual the doctrine of number”, which outlined new methods of elementary education.
In 1805, Pestalozzi moved his institute to the French part of Switzerland - to Yverdon (German name - Iferten) and in the castle provided to him created a large institute (high school and teacher training institution), which soon gained world fame. Scientists, writers, politicians visited this institute. Many children of aristocrats, wealthy bourgeois, who were preparing for universities or for a bureaucratic career, studied there.
Pestalozzi felt great dissatisfaction with the fact that his teachings and activities were used not for the masses, but in the interests of the noble and rich. In 1825, a disappointed Pestalozzi returned to Neuhof, where he began his social and educational activities half a century ago. Here, already an eighty-year old man, he wrote his last work - "Swan Song" (1826). Pestalozzi died in 1827, never understanding why, having selflessly given all his talent and strength to the working people, he could not achieve an improvement in their difficult social and material situation.
The main provisions of the pedagogical theory of I.G. Pestalozzi.
The most important goal of education, according to Pestalozzi, is the development of a person’s natural abilities, his constant improvement. Pestalozzi preached the harmonious development of man's strengths and abilities; all the good inclinations of a person should be developed to the maximum. Man's powers are given by nature, one must only be able to develop, strengthen, direct them and eliminate harmful external influences and obstacles that can disrupt the natural course of development, and for this one must master the laws of development of the "physical and spiritual nature of the child." The center of all education is the formation of a person, his moral character. “Active love for people” is what should lead a person forward in moral terms. The religious beginning at Pestalozzi is dissolved in morality. Pestalozzi has a negative attitude towards the official religion and its ministers.
Pestalozzi attaches great importance to family education. In the matter of public education, he emphasizes in one of his works, one should imitate the advantages that lie in family education. Pestalozzi points out that the feeling of love for children, trust in them, discipline, a sense of gratitude, patience, duty, moral feelings, etc. arise from the relationship of the child to the mother.
How, then, should one develop the forces and abilities inherent in human nature? Through exercise. Each ability inherent in a person itself requires and forces a person to exercise it.
Pestalozzi was not a revolutionary, but sought to improve the situation of the poorest part of the peasantry. He believed that work in the upbringing of children of low-income parents should play a crucial role, since the life purpose of these children is to work. In his opinion, the labor education of the children of peasants and artisans should be the main means of improving the condition of the people.
The combination of education with production work (handicraft and agricultural) was one of the main provisions in Pestalozzi's pedagogical practice and theory.
At school, according to Pestalozzi ("Lingard and Gertrude"), children spend the whole day at spinning and weaving looms; the school has a plot of land, and each child works out three beds, takes care of the animals. Children learn how to process flax and wool, get acquainted with the organization of the economy in the best farms of the village, as well as with the work of a handicraft watch workshop. Children were engaged in tree planting, repairing wooden bridges, teaching peasants how to keep account books, etc. During work, as well as during rest hours, the teacher conducts classes with children in literacy, the account informs them of elementary knowledge. Pestalozzi emphasized the educational value of labor education for the formation of a person. During his work, he strove to "warm up and develop the minds of children" because the goal he set himself was the education of a person, and "not agriculture, household, which are means." The harmonious development of the personality presupposes the development of the mind, heart and hand. Only on the basis of labor is it possible to develop the spiritual forces and abilities of a person. Labor education, according to Pestalozzi, is impossible in isolation from mental and moral education.
However, such "practical" labor education actually lowered the level of general education. It is clear that such a combination of general educational knowledge with labor is purely mechanical in nature and is not an organic combination of education and productive labor.
For today's generation, Switzerland is a "wonderland of dairy", a wealthy state with an economy, with a brilliant system of higher education. But, who created it, where did all the blessings come from, did they fall from the sky?
Marxist textbooks explained any prosperity of a bourgeois country as "appropriated surplus value." So we see today in Russia a system where the bourgeois system according to Marx is implemented: it is all based on the appropriation by the top of the national treasure for nothing. Has Russia become a respected capitalist power in Europe from this? ..
"We are just like you!" - representatives of the Russian authorities, who professed three principles in the "reforms": "legitimate" robbery, division and revelry, declare to European politicians and businessmen in earnest, and not in mockery.
Foreign politicians are speechless from such comparisons, because their countries were created on completely different bases...
A little touch on the forgotten history of Switzerland. In the 18th century, a spiritual renaissance arose on Swiss soil, created by young ascetics, one of which is known throughout the planet.
Great teacher Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in 1746 in Zurich, in the family of a doctor. Having lost his father early, he was brought up by his mother and a servant, a simple peasant woman. He was educated at the Charlemagne High School, founded in 1523.
One admires the moral purity of the aspirations of the Swiss ascetic in his search for a goal in the great joint work of state building. Pestalozzi writes: “Circumstances and conditions of life have already led me from a young age to the environment of the suffering and humiliated - widows, orphans, burdened with the cares of various poor people. I began to search for the sources of evils, which in our country have reduced the people to a position much lower than they should have occupied.
And he realized that the problem was in the imperfect education system, not only in Switzerland, but throughout Europe.
This seemingly detached from worldly life, walking, having no villas, lands, decided to "radically cure the ills of schooling, which deprive most of the peoples of Europe"!
What, in fact, did Pestalozzi do all his life? He gave lessons to lower-class children who had no one to hire tutors and watched what they learned from the lesson. If they did not understand the subject, then Pestalocius did not consider the children to be stupid and boobies, but blamed himself for the fact that he himself had poorly explained the lesson and was looking for new forms of teaching. Such work led him from one pedagogical discovery to another. Later, people of all classes blessed Pestalozzi for the fact that their children became easier to learn the material of the school.
In his work “Method”, Pestalozzi constantly correlates the shortcomings of schooling with the development of all of Europe: “I ... ask the question: what did Europe do in order to bring the elementary means of human knowledge, which we have acquired as a result of thousands of years of effort, into line with the essence of the human mind, to use the essence of these laws in the organization of their educational institutions, in the teaching of language, drawing, writing, reading, counting and measurement? I don’t see anything of the sort… The obvious result… of a system of education in which the poor are given shredded, unpsychologically based, unsystematic knowledge in schools is the coarsening of feelings, one-sidedness, superficiality and presumptuous emptiness, which are characteristic of the popular masses of our time.
Pestalozzi did not idealize the masses, but also emphasized that such a social position deprives states and entire continents of strength.
This wise look resonated with the statesmen of that time. With funds donated Alexander I, Pestalozzi's works were translated and published in the Russian Empire. The great teacher died in 1827, having outlived the emperor by two years.
Already in the XVIII century. the thinkers of Europe discovered that the strength of the state and even of the continent can be undermined or, on the contrary, increased, depending on the organization of the secondary school.
Pestalozzi revealed laws of agreement assimilation of new knowledge with the psychology of the student. They helped Switzerland build a new school, whose graduates glorified and developed the country.
These laws of Pestalozzi were taken into account in the education system of Russia, the USSR, which made it possible to train good specialists, but now they came to power, spitting on everything except "surplus value", primarily on secondary school, and undermined the forces of Russia.
"LADDER" OF KNOWLEDGE
The BASIC LAW Pestalozzi, deduced by him for teachers, was unusually simple. All concepts that are used in a course of study must be explained BEFORE they are used. Pestalozzi, for example, introduced children to the names of cities, at the same time always showing them on a map of Europe, giving the number of the German district to which they belong. Therefore, for children, both the cities themselves and their mentions in newspapers and orders became interconnected concepts. With the help of color pictures, he showed all the objects, and also described their properties and forms. Pestalozzi created a syllabic alphabet, which many generations of children easily learned to read.The FIRST RULE of Pestalozzi's method, set out in letters to friends collected in the article "How Gertrude Teaches Her Children", was: "Learn first to order your observations and complete the simple before moving on to the complex."
SECOND RULE: “Bring all objects related in their content in your mind into exactly the same connection in which they are found in nature.” This rule also emphasized even then the need to SEPARATE THE OBSERVED PHENOMENON FROM THE THEORIES ABOUT IT.
The THIRD RULE called for, before writing about the subject and mentioning it, to study it comprehensively with various senses. “Why should not my knowledge also come from myself?” Pestalozzi exclaimed in letters, denying mere memorization of other people's definitions.
FOURTH RULE: To use a variety of means for teaching, just as nature "to achieve its goal, combines seemingly heterogeneous objects."
FINALLY, THE FIFTH RULE called for action so that the results of training in their application "bear the stamp of freedom and independence."
Get a grasp of this system, each rule of which is confirmed not only by many decades of ascetic labor, but also by the economic rise of Switzerland, Germany and all of Europe, which Pestalozzi thought about. As well as Russia of the 19th century, where the syllabic alphabet opened the way for literacy for millions.
I had to experience for myself what happens when the student does not understand the initial concepts. As a child, I went to the physics circle at the Palace of Pioneers. Our teacher focused on solving problems, although much more I and everyone else remember seeing laser holograms and LEDs for the first time. Schoolchildren enthusiastically perceived them with "all kinds of feelings."
In tasks, it was necessary to use the concepts of trigonometry: “sine”, “cosine”, etc., which we had not yet passed at school. Only one guy out of about 10 circle members knew them. Classes turned into painful incubation for us, and this only one seemed to be the luminary of science ... What was then my surprise that ONE LESSON at school, where the basics of trigonometry were simply explained by the teacher, was enough to easily solve much more complex problems.
The same obstacles were encountered when attending a biology circle in another class, where its participants were assigned the task of observing proteins. We, city schoolchildren, did not know anything about the habits of squirrels, and we did not know how to observe animals and why? Today, as a university teacher, I take this problem into account when I assign even good students to research something. To this day, no one teaches them the skills of naturalists.
Note of the Expert of the portal site Vikentiev I.L. : in fairness, it should be noted that in modern pedagogy the reverse is often used - the teacher, taking into account, only “leads” them to the desired thought, but they must discover, invent the rule themselves:
WHY ARE PARENTS DISABLED?
A university teacher usually encounters today a situation where junior students have just ragged, fragmentary knowledge. Moreover, each of them can bring a 20-page abstract downloaded from the Internet and read it for almost half an hour. A simple comprehension question puts the student into a "groggy" state...If this picture is observed in the mass, then it is not the students who are to blame, but school education. They teach a lot of facts, not principles; in addition, there is no reference from the everyday experience of the schoolchildren themselves.
I will give an example of how difficult it is for a schoolchild and a student to understand the danger of harmful radiation: ultraviolet, x-ray, gamma radiation, if all their parameters are given in different units that are well-established in their field of physics. At first I myself was lost in this flickering of indicators. Most importantly, I saw from the example of my students that they cannot quantify the harmfulness. And once he was convinced in practice of the value of Pestalozzi's ideas.
The key to understanding was the comparison of the energy of harmless visible light with dangerous radiation. The energy of an ultraviolet quantum will be MORE harmless by 1.2-40 times, X-ray radiation by 40-40 million times, and radioactive gamma radiation - more than 4000-40000 billion times! After such a comparison, I felt that the students literally cringed at the scale of danger they imagined. Many people then understand the harmfulness of even small doses of a radioactive substance. They will easily explain to themselves what "soft" and "hard" X-ray and UV, gamma radiation are and which one is more dangerous.
It is extremely difficult to write textbooks following Pestalozzi's rules, so in old Russia and the USSR they were worked out for a long time, and then published for decades. The “wild market” of the 1990s turned out to be objectively not interested in textbooks understandable to children, since any intricacy increased the number of private lessons and tutors.
If the government, not in words, but in deeds, cares about the quality of education, then it should revise the existing textbooks and involve successful teachers with great experience and university professors in their correction.
When the so-called "" began to be paid especially in schools. Instead of evaluating the RESULT of teaching schoolchildren, that is, which of the teachers explains more intelligibly and faster, they began to extol the new FORM of presenting material without connection with the result! I know that not only schoolchildren, but also parents literally howl from some "author's programs" and the same textbooks.
Parents sometimes find old Soviet publications, secretly teach on them, and the child says: now I understand everything! On the contrary, sometimes a professor of physics, chemistry, or mathematics, trying to explain a topic to his grandchildren or nephews from their textbooks, suddenly grabs this methodological "innovation" and throws it against the wall with an exclamation: with such "courses" I would not know anything!
It is a pity that Pestalozzi's rules are not studied in the course of pedagogy taught to graduate students of universities. After all, they are future methodologists and, perhaps, authors of new textbooks. Fact: defending a dissertation sometimes does not know even approximately how to start, how to methodically teach material to students.
I would like to draw attention to the complete lack of rights of parents when choosing an educational policy across Russia. It's time to create a political party "Parents and Teachers for the Quality of Education" in order to act as a united front against the laws pushed through by the "Party of Approvals" for the sake of political conjuncture.
And millions of parents will then pay for it with their children, their future, hard-earned money. You never know what the puppet authorities want to accept as a "obligation" for schools, in order to please the EU, the World Bank or the IMF, write off some dirty debt. We need a counterbalance against bad decisions and laws in the person of the party or other social force in the person of parents and teachers.
In the meantime, university teachers are forced to do the work of school teachers, reminding students what sine, acid, base are, restoring connections between concepts, for example, explaining that alkali metals are associated with alkali formulas, and acid precipitation with acid-forming gases.
The position of a university teacher today sometimes resembles the work of naval officers with recruits from the outback, who are asked what the ammeter measures, and only then move on to more complex subjects. But at the university, this leads to a loss of time for “patching holes” in the system that remained as a result of the collapse of secondary education.
I gave the rules of Pestalozzi's pedagogy so that parents know that it is useful to direct efforts in the education of children, first of all, to ensure that the child himself ascertains the properties and forms of objects, and his curiosity is directed to clarifying their connections in nature. Manuals for school teachers should contain facts, evidence, understandable to schoolchildren using examples from their personal experience.
Why did such ascetics as Pestalozzi appear in Switzerland? Here is what the great teacher wrote about the conditions that shaped his personality: “I lived in such a time and in such a country where educated youth were seized by a general desire for a free analysis of the causes of the misfortunes experienced by the country, no matter how they manifested themselves, and filled with an ardent desire eliminate them."
From this begins the true greatness of the state.
The place of the first publication is the newspaper "New Petersburg" dated 01.11.2007.
The worldview was democratic in nature, but it was historically limited nothing. He dreamed of the revival of the people through their education and upbringing.
Biography
Upbringing, education
Techniques
Born in Switzerland in Zurich. Education: elementary, Latin high school, collegium (philosophic-philological faculty). 1769-organized the "Institution for the Poor" in Neuhof.
G.- Created a shelter for homeless children in the Swiss Republic.
G.- experimental work in Burgorf schools. 1805- opened an institution here in Yverdon. 1825- return to Neuhof. Works:HowGertrude teachestheir children;Mothers book how to teach them detei watchand talk;ABC visualfeatures (visualnew teaching aboutmeasurement);Visualthe doctrine of number;swansong; Lingardand Gertrude.
The purpose of education- to develop all the natural forces and abilities of a person. The task of education- the creation of a harmoniously developed person.
The basic principle education - harmony with nature.
Means of education- work, play, learning. Theory elementary (elemental) education: education begins with simple elements and goes up to more complex ones. The simplest elements of knowledge: number - count: unit\ shape - dimension: line; word - speech: sound.Mental education.Means - special system ex. (for each level of education), which develop intellectual powers and abilities. The foundation- observation and experience. Foundation of learning- visibility. Basic principles- strict followtenacity, concentricity, feasibility.Physical education- the first type of reasonable influence of an adult on the development of children, the development and strengthening of all physical abilities, is based on the natural desire for movement (military exercises, games, drills, hiking trips). Labor education- connection of training with productive work. Labor develops strength, mind, forms morality. Teaches to despise words divorced from deeds, develops the following qualities: accuracy, truthfulness, the creation of the right relationship between adults and children and children with each other. moral education- constant exercise in matters that benefit others. It is the center of all education. Religious upbringing- against the official religion and its rituals; for a natural religion that develops moral feelings and moral inclinations. Developing educational training - "bootlearning must be subordinated to education.“Schools where teachers and books play the main roleha,- they don't fit anywhere."
“The teacher must develop in the student the actionbody...notpour into it, as into a vessel, readyknowledge".
Native language:
development of speech and enrichment of vocabulary, a sound method of teaching literacy. Letter: the image of straight and curved lines - elements of letters, a sketch of the measurement results; straight line, angle, square (its parts). Arithmetic: the study of numbers, starting with the element of each whole number - 1, fractions - an example of the ratio of parts in a square ("arithmetic box").
Geography: from close to far, from observing the surrounding area to more complex, clay terrains - then a map.
Developed general fundamentals original learning and private methods elementary education.
CLAUDE HENRI SAINT-SIMOND DE ROUVROY (1760-1825),French utopian socialist
Biography
Pedagogical views
Mainwork
Born in Paris into an aristocratic family.
Educated under the guidance of d "Alembert.
Participated in the battles for the independence of the North American colonies against England.
During the French revolution was a supporter of the Jacobins, but moved away from them.
Participated in
activities
Society
elementary
education in
Paris and in
introduced
report on
tasks and
directions
society.
He dreamed of such a social system (association) in which the best conditions for the majority are provided:
all people work;
production is carried out on the basis of a single social plan, using all the achievements of science and technology;
the association retains private property and returns on capital.
He conceived the transition to a new society solely by means of persuasion.
The moral basis of society wanted to make a new Christianity, the basic principle of which was: "... all people should treat each other as brothers."
Op. O industrial system expressed his views on education in the form of an appeal to industrialists, scientists and artists, as well as in the form of draft decrees.
Education is a great social phenomenon, it should be the subject of special concerns of society:
ideologically influence the younger generation, give a certain direction to the minds;
dedicate individuals to desirable relations. to societies, life;
inspire everyone with a feeling of love.
The results of education received in childhood and adolescence should be maintained throughout life.
The need for knowledge related to industry, elements of knowledge about the basic laws of nature.
The inseparable connection of personal interest with the public - a person must work.
The need for mutual learning.
Special education - according to the abilities of people.
LettersGenevainhabitant tocontemporarykam(1803);
Introduction to scientificlaborsXIXin.(1807-1808);
Notes aboutuniversalgravity(1813);
Essay on the science of
man
Articles incollection"Industry"(1817-1818);
Organizer(1819-1820);
About industrylazysystem(1821 - 1822);
Catechismindustrialnicknames(1823- 1824);
new christiancestry(1825).
ROBERT OWEN (1771-1858), English utopian socialist
He denied the principle of free will. Believed that the beginning of a qualitatively new state of the world - universal harmony - can only be posited by proper education of people. Human - environment product. In all imperfections modern people, the social environment is to blame, i.e. capitalism, which is the source com of all social disasters. We need to replace capitalism with socialism.
Biographical informationand main works
Separate thoughts
Son of an artisan. Parish school. Self-education. Since 1781 served in commercial establishments. End 80 - Start 90s- communicated with English. physicist and chemist John Dalton. Entered the literary-philosophical society.
Since 1791- entrepreneur. In 1794-1795. founded the Chorlton Cotton Spinning Company. 1800-1829- manager of a spinning enterprise in New Lanark (Scotland).
Break with orthodox Christianity. In the 30s. organized the Fair Exchange Bazaars, the Great National Union of Professions. 1848-1849- closes in messianic illusions. Works:
On the formation of human characterra(1813-1814), The Book of the New Moral World(1836- 1844) and others.
To create perfect people, it is necessary to educate everyone from birth with the same care, without showing any predilections and so that no one strives for better conditions.
He argued that the main cause of social evil is the ignorance of people. Social contradictions can be eliminated through the dissemination of knowledge, the introduction of truth. Labor education is a necessary condition for the all-round development of a person. A child at school, along with general education, must receive work skills.
There are periods - five years in a person's life, up to the age of 30 - creating the basis for a good division into occupations, with each group occupied with its own business. This contributes to the better development of a person. He advocated anti-religious secular education.
The most important and basic pedagogical idea of the great Swiss teacher is comprehensive harmonious development of personality in the process of education and upbringing. This is the goal of any educational institution, the achievement of this goal involves ensuring the unity of mental, moral and physical development and preparation for work. I.G. Pestalozzi singles out and characterizes the constituent parts of education:
1. Intellectual elementary education, the purpose of which is the comprehensive development of mental inclinations, independence of judgment and possession of intellectual work skills.
2. Physical elementary education is a comprehensive development of the physical inclinations of a person, which is necessary for “physical independence” and possession of “physical skills”.
3. Moral elementary education, the purpose of which is the comprehensive development of moral inclinations necessary for "ensuring the independence of moral judgments and instilling certain moral skills." It presupposes the ability and desire to do good.
Only the unity of all parts of education ensures the harmonious development of human natural inclinations, one-sided mental or physical development brings only harm. Thus, a person can appear to the world as a beacon of science and at the same time do evil, have an “unbridled power of the intellect” combined with heartlessness, a thirst for wealth and a desire for violence.
Also, all claims of a person to high morality, if its source is not love for people, faith, nobility, do not represent true morality, but turn out to be only hypocrisy. Even more terrible are people who have a “bestial will to violence”, who achieve everything in the world in the name of their own greedy interests, these are “moral predators”. They give rise to a mass of "moral donkeys" incapable of any action, limited by impotent benevolence.
The harmonious development of all the natural forces of a person presupposes education in balance, in harmony with oneself.
The idea of natural conformity in training and education in the understanding of I.G. Pestalozzi is the development of "the powers and inclinations of the human heart, the human mind and human skills". Human nature itself determines the natural course of development. Indeed, what captures a person is natural, acts "in aggregate on the heart, mind and hand."
Each of these natural forces develops through the exercise of the "external senses", the organs of the body, the acts of thought. The need for exercise is inherent in the person himself. “The eye wants to look, the ear wants to hear, the leg wants to walk, and the hand wants to grab. But also the heart - to believe and love. The mind wants to think,” writes Pestalozzi in Swan Song. But if you do not manage these natural needs, leaving them to themselves, then development will go extremely slowly. A skillful direction by the educator of the development of the inclinations and abilities of children is necessary.
At the same time, “it is not the educator who puts new strength and abilities into a person and breathes life into him,” the educator only makes sure that the negative influence does not violate the natural course of development, supports the efforts of the child, which he himself manifests for his own development. The moral, mental, and practical powers of man "should be nurtured within it." So, faith is strengthened thanks to one's own conviction, and not thanks to reflections on it, love relies on actions filled with love, and not on lofty words about it, thought - on one's own thinking, and not on the assimilation of other people's thoughts. The beginning of the development of each of the sides of the personality is the individual's spontaneous desire for activity. The school, the teacher is faced with the task of providing children with the appropriate means and materials for their activities.
Teaching methods I.G. Pestalozzi follows from his understanding of education as the consistent development of the child through appropriate exercises, selected in such a way as to ensure harmony in the manifestation of natural inclinations. Pestalozzi singled out the simplest elements that he considered the basis of learning - this number, form, word , and elementary education should teach the child count, measure, speak. Through increasingly complex exercises, the development of the natural inclinations of the child is carried out. Exercises should be associated with the study of objects, not words, with the observation of objects. Hence the need for a lesson, but not for the sake of developing observation, but for the sake of mental education in general. The child learns, develops thanks to sensory perception and his own experience of activity, "receiving impressions and enriching himself with experience." His experience must find clear expression in words.
While learning, the child masters the concept of form through measurements, through counting - the number, through the development of speech - the word. The content of elementary education is reading, writing, arithmetic with the beginnings of geometry, measurement, drawing, singing, in addition, some knowledge of geography, natural science. This extensive program first began to be implemented in school practice. A feature of learning was the gradual ascent from the simple to the complex, thanks to the decomposition of the subject under study into its simplest elements. Gradually, the old method of teaching, which began with the teaching of rules, principles, and general definitions, was replaced. His place was occupied by observations of objects and exercises. The purpose of teaching was the development of students, and not the dogmatic memorization of material. Pestalozzi was the originator of the idea of developmental education. “The main purpose of the initial education is not to endow the student with knowledge, but to develop and increase his mental powers,” he argued in Swan Song.
I.G. Pestalozzi argued that the relationship that is established between the teacher and students is very important for the school. This relationship must have at its core the teacher's love for the children. Pestalozzi himself was a model of such love, students and followers called him father.
One of the important tasks of pedagogy I.G. Pestalozzi is labor education. Spending the whole day at school, children can engage in spinning and weaving; on a plot of land, everyone can cultivate their garden beds and take care of animals. They learn how to process flax and wool, get acquainted with the best farms in the village and craft workshops. Such work will contribute to physical development and prepare for the upcoming activities.
Pedagogical ideas of I.G. Pestalozzi found support and further development in Western European pedagogy, and the experience of putting them into practice in the institutions led by him contributed to the wide dissemination in the Western European states of the school practice of the famous teacher. Since the institute I.G. Pestalozzi in Burgdorf and Yverdon was visited by teachers, students and many people interested in education, the ideas of the teacher began to be widely disseminated and implemented in the practice of schools in other countries. There was a direction in pedagogy associated with the name of I.G. Pestalozzi.
Main dates of life and activity:
1746 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was born in Zurich.
1769-1774 - an experiment in Neuhof on the conduct of a model economy.
1775-1780 - creation and operation of the "Institution for the Poor" in Neuhof.
1789 - work in an orphanage in Stanz.
1800-1826 - leadership of the Burgdorf and Yverdon educational institutions.
1827 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi dies.
Main works:
1781-1787 - "Lingard and Gertrude".
1801 - "How Gertrude teaches her children."
1826 - "Swan Song".
7.3. Developing and educating education F.A. Distervega. One of the most famous classical teachers of the XIX century is Friedrich Adolf Diesterweg (1790 - 1866). He entered the history of pedagogy as a "teacher of German teachers", as he was the organizer and for a long time the director of teachers' seminaries in Moers and Berlin, which trained teachers for the public mass school.
In 1827 - 1866. published the pedagogical magazine "Rhine Sheets ...", created four teachers' societies, in 1848 he was elected chairman of the General German Teachers' Union, made proposals for the reform of the school that existed at that time, demanding its separation from the church and the universal education of children, the implementation of universal, civic and national education.
The main pedagogical work of A. Diesterweg is “A Guide to the Education of German Teachers” (1835). The book contains instructions. How a teacher can improve his professional level, which path to take in teaching individual subjects and what means to use for this.
The teacher wrote over 20 textbooks (he dealt mainly with education and upbringing in elementary school), study guides in mathematics, German, natural science, geography, and astronomy. The books were widely known in Germany and throughout Europe.
Diesterweg based his education on three principles:
Ø Natural conformity of education and upbringing. He understood this principle as the development in the pedagogical process of those good inclinations that are inherent in the child by nature.
Ø The principle of amateur performance and activity of children in learning and their own personal development. In modern pedagogy, it is interpreted as the creation in the pedagogical process of conditions for the formation and development of the child's subjective life position.
Ø Cultural conformity of education and upbringing, that is, taking into account in the pedagogical process the conditions and level of culture of a given time of the country, homeland, student's family.
The implementation of these principles in pedagogical practice necessitated the development of fundamentally new teaching ideas. Those in the pedagogical heritage of A. Diesterweg are developmental learning ideas. Based on them, he built 33 didactic rules, according to which the teacher should know well the individual manifestations of his students, their characteristics, level of development, range of interests and hobbies. Only knowing and taking into account all this can one learn in a “natural way”, overcoming difficulties gradually and consistently.
The teacher resolutely spoke out against the learning overload of students: “The trouble usually lies in the fact that young teachers strive to teach students everything that they themselves know, but in fact, students only need to be told the essentials ... A bad teacher tells the truth, a good teacher teaches to find it” .
In matters of didactics, Diesterweg paid special attention to the timely repetition of educational material, but he considered repetition not as simple memorization, cramming, but meaningful memorization of the most essential in the material being studied. This not only makes it possible to firmly master the content of the subject, a certain amount of knowledge, but also contributes to the development of memory, and consequently, the mind.
Diesterweg pointed to the need to teach the transition from the simple to the complex, from the near to the far, from the unknown to the known. However, the didactist warned against the mechanical application of these teaching rules. After all, the easy should be interspersed with the difficult: teaching should not be easy, it is rather hard work of the mind and heart, of the entire human body. Often, what is remote from students in time and space turns out to be very close, interesting and accessible, and what is close is difficult and complex. It is necessary to encourage students, emphasized the teacher, to work independently, ensuring that work becomes their second nature. The desire to think through everything carefully, to assimilate the educational material should be the student's need, only in this case we can talk about the developing nature of education.
Bolshov, attention was paid by A. Diesterweg in his pedagogical works to the issues of school discipline. He expressed his negative attitude towards the use of punishment in pedagogical practice as a method of education and upbringing. “We'd better not talk about punishment measures,” he turned to the teachers. They are for the most part useless and unnecessary, that is, according to the nature of the subject itself. It is only necessary that the student work at school willingly. There. Where this is the case, there cannot be, and never will be, cases of student disobedience. Where this is not the case, one has to constantly and unsuccessfully invent punishments.
In all the works of A. Diesterweg, the thought of the importance of the art of teaching and educating a teacher (pedagogical skill) in the successful solution of pedagogical problems runs like a red thread. He organically connected the mastery of professional activity with the personal qualities of the teacher, however, he reasoned “not about the general qualities of the teacher-educator: his honesty, morality, etc., but only about the qualities of the teacher that make learning educational and fruitful” . Among these most important qualities energy and liveliness, strength of character, love for children and their pedagogical work.
One of the first “teacher of German teachers” spoke about the pedagogical significance of the appearance of the teacher, his manner of behavior, pointing out that the teacher should learn “as much liveliness as possible! The latter does not consist in endless waving of arms, not in grimaces and facial expressions. This is a spiritual life, which, of course, is also reflected in the face. On all external appearance and gestures. He advised teachers to take care of their appearance, physical and spiritual health, organization of a healthy and rational lifestyle, since in many respects, according to the German teacher, the effectiveness of the teacher's work is due to his physical health, well-being, internal energy strength.
It is noteworthy that A. Diesterweg was the first to attempt to single out several levels of a teacher's professional activity. He pointed out that there are teachers who work conscientiously, achieving good results in training and education, but there are also "brilliant virtuosos of pedagogical work" who are formed as professionals "under the rarest and happiest circumstances" . Diesterweg did not analyze these circumstances, he pointed out only certain factors in the development of a high level of teacher professionalism. Named the most important among them the ability of the teacher to constant self-education, self-improvement. He urged teachers to “never stop” and emphasized that the teacher “until that time is able to educate others, as long as he continues to work on his own education ... general, as a person and citizen, and special, as a teacher.”
Pedagogical heritage of F.A. Diesterweg is studied in detail by modern teachers, serves as an inexhaustible source of pedagogical ideas in various areas of pedagogical research, pedagogical theory and practice.
7.4. Pedagogical theory I.F. Herbart. Famous German teacher, psychologist, philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) was among the admirers and followers of Pestalozzi. His activities as a professor are associated with the Göttingen and Köningsberg universities.
Having become acquainted with the works of I.G. Pestalozzi, visiting the Burgdorf Institute (1800), he created his first pedagogical work, which he dedicated to the famous Swiss.
Herbart's pedagogical activity began in his youth, when he was a teacher of children in the family of a Swiss aristocrat. Then, after completing his university education, he lectured on psychology and pedagogy, led a seminary for teacher training. Having created an experimental school at the teacher's seminary, he taught mathematics to schoolchildren.
Herbart presented his pedagogical theory in the works: “General pedagogy derived from the goals of education” (1806), “Textbook of psychology” (1816), “Letters on the application of psychology to pedagogy” (1831), “Essay on lectures on pedagogy” (1835) . All of them are rational and quite difficult to understand.
In his pedagogical views, Herbart started from the pedagogical ideas of Pestalozzi, but he decided many things differently. So, he filled in the gap that remained in the reasoning of the Swiss teacher about how the data of sensory perception can be processed into ideas, how knowledge can affect morality. Herbart believed that it was no longer possible to look at the human mind as a dead table, and complements I.G. Pestolozzi, developing his psychological and pedagogical ideas. If Pestalozzi, relying on the idea of sensory perception, seeks to study the physical world, then Herbart did not consider such an approach sufficient and set the goal of creating a moral and aesthetic idea of the world. Therefore, to natural sciences (arithmetic, geography, natural sciences), he preferred pure mathematics, classical languages and literature.
Herbart reduced his pedagogical ideas to a strictly logical system, substantiating them with evidence, including psychological ones.
Consider the key psychological concepts of Herbart's theory. The soul (psyche) of a person, not filled with anything from birth, has one important property - it enters into relationships with the environment through the nervous system. Thanks to this, the first representations received from sensory perceptions appear in the mind, and from the complex interactions of representations, concepts are formed, judgments and reflections develop. Children's ideas come from two sources: from practical (experimental) contact with nature and from communication with people. The teacher should, by expanding the child's life experience, develop knowledge, and by expanding social communication, develop feelings. This led to two important conclusions:
1. The main ability of the soul is the ability to assimilate (merge).
2. The main and determining force that forms the soul and character is education.
Herbart divided the process of education into three sections: management, training and moral education.
The goals and objectives of education were derived by the teacher and philosopher from philosophy and ethics.
He defined the goal of education as follows: “The whole matter of education can be summed up in the concept of “morality”. The term "virtue" expresses the whole purpose of education. Virtue is understood as "the idea of inner freedom" that develops in a person in the process of accumulating experience. Such an experience causes the individual to approve or disapprove of the observed phenomena and judgments at the level of taste. Therefore, Herbart called them aesthetic ideas (he called his philosophical treatise "The aesthetic idea of the Universe as the main goal of education"). Such representations include "fit, beautiful, moral, fair", that is, everything that pleases in the process of contemplation. The main goal of parenting is to develop these preferences through experience, conversation and education.
Herbart reduced virtue to five moral ideas. Chief among them is the idea inner freedom, harmony of will and desire I. The business of education is to form a character that "would remain unshakable in the struggle of life" and was based on a strong moral conviction and will.
The tasks of education were defined by the German classical teacher as follows: enriching the soul with ideas or experience based on ideas, developing ideas and motives for behavior.
Morality depends on good will and knowledge, and these in turn depend on the enlightenment of a person or ideas developed from initial ideas. Will and action (behavior) arise from desire or motivation. Hence the result that Herbart came to: “The work that the student discovers before himself, choosing good and rejecting evil, is, and nothing else, the formation of character.” At the same time, the actions of the teacher are limited, since the choice is made by the student himself and completes it with his own actions, the teacher cannot “pour into the soul of his student” a force that can make him act. But he creates such conditions under which the result will be the virtue of the student, all the efforts of the teacher should be directed towards this main goal.
Uncle Vanya the plot of the play. "Uncle Ivan. Attitude towards the professor of others
Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober
Maikov, Apollon Nikolaevich - short biography